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MEDIAEVAL  AND  MODERN 
HISTORY 


BY 


PHILIP  VAN    NESS   MYERS 

Author  of  "A  History  of  Greece,"  "  Rome:  Its  Rise  and  Fall, 
"Ancient  History,"  and  "A  General  History" 


REVISED  EDITION 


GINN  &  COMPANY 

BOSTON  .  NEW  YORK  .  CHICAGO  •  LONDOJ^ 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 


Copyright,  1885,  1905,  by 
PHILIP  VAN   NESS  MYERS 


all  rights  reserved 


55.3 


GINN  &  COMPANY  •  CAM- 
BRIDGE -MASSACHUSETTS 


:^-J:i 


The  real  history  of  the  human  race  is  the  history  of  tendencies 
which  are  perceived  by  the  mind,  and  not  of  events  which  are  dis- 
covered by  the  senses.  —  Buckle. 

Historical  facts  should  not  be  a  burden  to  the  memory  but  an 
illumination  of  the  soul.  —  Lord  Acton. 

But  history  ought  surely  in  some  degree,  if  it  is  worth  anything, 
to  anticipate  the  lessons  of  time.  We  shall  all  no  doubt  be  wise 
after  the  event;  we  study  history  that  we  may  be  wise  before  the 
event.  —  Seeley. 


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PREFACE 

The  revised  text  of  my  Mediceval  and  Modern  History  has 
already  appeared  in  a  two-volume  edition  under  the  titles  of 
The  Middle  Ages  and  The  Mmiern  Age.  It  is  here  presented, 
somewhat  abridged,  in  a  single  illustrated  book  designed  as  a 
companion  volume  to  my  revised  Ancient  History. 

The  lists  of  books  for  further  reading  and  study  appended  to 
the  different  chapters  are  in  the  main  a  selection  from  the  fuller 
bibliographies  of  the  earlier  revised  edition.  The  series  of  maps 
includes  all  the  more  important  ones  of  that  impression,  besides 
fifteen  new  colored  maps,  eleven  of  which  have  been  engraved 
expressly  for  the  present  work.  The  two  entitled  respectively 
"The  Danelaw"  and  "Angevin  Dominions"  are  taken  by  kind 
permission  from  Professor  Edward  P.  Cheyney's  A  Short  History 
of  England^  while  "Europe  after  1815  "  and  "Europe  at  the 
Present  Time  "  are  through  like  courtesy  drawn  from  Professor 
James  Harvey  Robinson's  An  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Western  Europe. 

Since  this  volume,  as  already  indicated,  is  practically  only  a 
slightly  compressed  edition  of  my  Middle  Ages  and  The  Modern 
Age^  it  is  fitting  that  I  should  here  renew  my  expressions  of  grati- 
tude to  Professor  George  Lincoln  Burr  of  Cornell  University, 
Professor  H.  Morse  Stephens  of  the  University  of  California,  and 
Professor  George  M.  Dutcher  of  Wesleyan  University,  Middle- 
town,  Connecticut,  for  their  scholarly  and  valuable  assistance  in 
the  revision  of  the  proofs  of  those  texts. 


vi  .     PREFACE 

I  would  further  make  grateful  mention  of  my  indebtedness  to 
my  friend,  Mr.  Dudley  Emerson,  for  the  kindly  loan  of  photo- 
graphs from  his  choice  collection,  and  to  my  former  pupil  and 
assistant,  Miss  Mary  Louise  De  Luce,  for  aid  generously  given  me 

in  the  press  of  proof  reading. 

P.  V.  N.  M. 

College  Hill,  Ohio 
February,  1905 


.msiii  5fit  or  yu.  ^.i^iqiui-}  Umti^ul^v. 


CONTENTS 


Pagb 

List  of  Illustrations xii 

List  of  Plates xv 

List  of  Maps xv 

Chapter 

L  General  Introduction  :  the  Chief  Factors  in  European  Civili- 
zation    I 


PART  I  — THE  MIDDLE  AGES 
FIRST  PERIOD  — THE  DARK  AGES 

(From  the  Fall  of  Rome  to  the  Eleventh  Century) 

II.  The  Barbarian  Kingdoms 7 

III.  The  Church  and  its  Institutions 14 

I.  The  Conversion  of  the  Barbarians 14 

II.  The  Rise  of  Monasticism 22 

III.  The  Rise  of  the  Papacy 27 

IV.  The  Fusion  of  Latin  and  Teuton 34 

V.  The  Roman  Empire  in  the  East 42 

VI.  The  Rise  of  Islam 46 

VII.  Charlemagne  and  the  Restoration  of  the  Empire  in  the  West  61 

VIII.  The  Northmen  :  the  Coming  of  the  Vikings 71 

SECOND  PERIOD  — THE  AGE  OF  REVIVAL 

(From  the  Opening  of  the  Eleventh  Century  to  the  Discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus  in  1492} 

cV 

IX.  Feudalism  and  Chivalry 11  ;^ 

I.  Feudalism 77 

II.  Chivalry 93 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Pagb 

X.  The  Nonnans loi 

I.  The  Normans  at  Home  and  in  Italy loi 

II.  The  Norman  Conquest  of  England 103 

XI.  The  Papacy  and  the  Empire in 

XII.  The  Crusades  (1096-1273) 121 

I.  Preparation  of  Europe  for  the  Crusades      .     .     .     .  121 

II.  The  First  Crusade  (1096- 1099) 131 

III.  The  Second  Crusade  (1147-1149) 133 

IV.  The  Third  Crusade  (II 89- II 92) 135 

V.  The  Fourth  Crusade  (i  202-1 204)        136 

VI.  The  Children's  Crusades ;  Minor  Crusades      .     .     .  138 
VII.  Crusades  in  Europe 141 

VIII.  Influence  upon  European  Civilization  of  the  Cru- 
sades      143 

XIII.  Supremacy  of  the  Papacy;  Decline  of  its  Temporal  Power  148 

XIV.  The  Mongols  and  the  Ottoman  Turks 159 

I.  The  Mongols        159 

II.  The  Ottoman  Turks 164 

XV.  The  Growth  of  the  Towns 169 

XVI.  The  Universities  and  the  Schoolmen 187 

XVII.  Growth   of  the  Nations :    Formation  of  National  Govern- 
ments and  Literatures 198 

I.  England 199 

II.  France 220 

III.  Spain 229 

IV.  Germany 233 

V.  Russia 242 

VI.  Italy 244 

VII.  The  Northern  Countries 249 

XVIII.  The  Renaissance 251 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  the  Renaissance 251 

II.  The  Renaissance  in  Italy 255 

III.  General  Effects  of  the  Renaissance 269 


CONTENTS  ix 

PART  II  — THE  MODERN  AGE 
THIRD    PERIOD  — THE    ERA   OF    THE    REFORMATION 

(From  the  Discovery  of  America,  in  1492,  to  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648) 

Chapter  Pack 

XIX.  Geographical  Discoveries  and  the   Beginnings  of   Modem 

Colonization 275 

XX.  The  Beginnings  of  the  Reformation 292 

XXI.  The  Ascendancy  of  Spain;   her  Relation  to  the  Catholic 

Reaction 318 

I.  Reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V  (i 519-1 556)      .     .  318 

II.  Spain  under  Philip  II  (i  556-1 598) 326 

XXII.  The  Tudors  and  the  English  Reformation  (1485-1603)     .     .  334 

I.  Introductory 334 

II.  The  Reign  of  Henry  VII  (1485-1509) 335 

III.  England  severed  from  the  Papacy  by  Henry  VIII 

(1509-1547)        337 

IV.  Changes    in   Creed  and   Ritual  under   Edward  VI 

(1547-1553) 347 

V.  Reaction  under  Mary  (1553-1558) 349 

VI.  Final  Establishment  of  Protestantism  under  Eliza- 
beth (1558-1603) 351 

XXIII.  The  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands  :  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic 

(1572-1609) 363 

XXIV.  The  Huguenot  Wars  in  France  (1562-1629) 376 

XXV.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  (161 8-1 648) 387 


FOURTH  PERIOD  — THE  ERA  OF  THE  POLITICAL 
REVOLUTION 

(From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648,  to  the  Twentieth  Century) 

L  THE  AGE  OF  ABSOLUTE  MONARCHY  :  THE  PRELUDE 
TO  THE  POLITICAL  REVOLUTION  (1648-1789) 

XXVI.  Introductory  :  the  Doctrine  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings 

and  the  Maxims  of  the  Enlightened  Despqts_,__i_   •     •     39^ 
XXVII.  The  Ascendancy  of  France  under  Louis  XIV  (1643-17 15)     403 


X  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

XXVIII.  The  Stuarts  and  the  English  Revolution  (1603-1689)      .  420 

I.  The  First  Two  Stuarts 420 

II.  The  Commonwealth  and  the  Protectorate  (1649- 

1660)        434 

III.  The  Restored  Stuarts 443 

IV.  Reign  of  William  and  Mary  (1689-1702)  .     .     .  450 

XXIX.  The  Rise  of  Russia:  Peter  the  Great  (1682-1725)       .     .  454 

XXX.  The  Rise  of  Prussia:  Frederick  the  Great  (1740-1786)   .  469 

XXXI.  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century        480 

I.  The  Reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1702-17 14)     .     .     .  480 

II.  England  under  the  Earlier  Hanoverians    .     .     .  484 

XXXII.  Austria  under  the  Benevolent  Despot,  Emperor  Joseph  II 

(1780-1790)         497 


II.  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  THE  NAPOLEONIC 
ERA  (1789-1815) 

XXXIII.  The  French  Revolution  (i 789-1 799) 500 

I.  Causes  of    the  Revolution ;    the  States-General 

of  1789 500 

II.  The  National  or  Constituent  Assembly  (June  17, 

1789-Sept.  30,  1791) 513 

III.  The    Legislative   Assembly  (Oct.  i,  1791-Sept. 

I9»  1792) 519 

IV.  The  National  Convention  (Sept.  20,  1792-Oct.  26, 

1795) 523 

V.  The  Directory  (Oct.  27,  1795-Nov.  9,  1799)    .     .     536 

XXXIV.  The  Consulate  and  the  Napoleonic  Empire  (i 799-1 81 5)     543 

I.  The  Consulate  (i  799-1 804) 543 

II.  The  Napoleonic  Empire  (1804-1815) ;  the  War  of 

Liberation 551 


IIL   THE    RESTORATION   OF    181 5    AND    THE    DEMOCRATIC 
REACTION:    THE  SEQUEL  TO  THE  REVOLUTION 

(1815-1904) 

XXXV.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  and  Metternich 580 

XXXVI.  France  since  the  Second  Restoration  (1815-1905)  .     .     .     589 


CONTENTS  xi 

Chapter  Pagb 

XXXVII.  England  since  the  Battle  of  Waterloo  (i8 1 5- 1905)     .     .  599 

I.  Progress  towards  Democracy 600 

II.  Extension  of  the  Principle  of  Religious  Equality  605 

III.  England's  Relations  with  Ireland       609 

XXXVIII.  Spain  and  the  Revolt  of  her  American  Colonies     .     .     .  614 

XXXIX.  The  Liberation  and  Unification  of  Italy 619 

XL.  The  Making  of  the  New  German  Empire       634 

XLI.  Austria-Hungary  after  1866 650 

XLII.  Russia  since  the  French  Revolution 654 

XLIII.  European  Expansion  in  the  Nineteenth  Century     .     .     .  664 
I.  Causes  and  General  Phases  of   the  Expansion 

Movement 664 

II.  The  Expansion  of  England 669 

III.  The  Expansion  of  France 678 

IV.  The  Expansion  of  Germany 680 

V.  The  Expansion  of  Russia 682 

VI.  The  Expansion  of  the  United  States       .     .     .     .  685 
VII.  Situations  and  Problems  created  by  the  European 

Race  Expansion       687 

XLIV.  The  World  State 697 

Conclusion  —  The  New  Age:   Industrial  Democracy     .     .     .  705 

General  Bibliography 709 

Index  and  Pronouncing  Vocabulary 725 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

1 .  Tomb  of  Theodoric  at  Ravenna 8 

2.  St.  Martin's  Church,  Canterbury i6 

3.  The  Ruins  of  lona 17 

4.  The  Ruins  of  Whitby 18 

5.  The  Ruins  of  the  Church  of  St.  Simeon  Stylites,  near  Antioch, 

Syria 24 

6.  The  Simopetra  Monastery  of  Mount  Athos 25 

7.  A  Monk  Copyist 26 

8.  Trial  by  Combat 38 

9.  Wager  of  Battle  between  a  Man  and  Woman 39 

10.  The  Kaaba  at  Mecca 47 

11.  The  Mosque  of  Cordova 58 

12.  A  Viking  Ship 72 

13.  The  Ceremony  of  Homage 82 

14.  Typical  Mediaeval  Castle 88 

15.  Group  in  the  Manor  House 92 

16.  Arming  a  Knight 95 

17.  A  Tilting  Match  between  Two  Knights 96 

18.  Degradation  of  a  Knight 97 

19.  Landing  in  England  of  William  of  Normandy loi 

20.  Battle  of  Hastings 104 

21.  Domesday  Book 107 

22.  The  Spiritual  and  the  Temporal  Power 112 

23.  Investiture  of  a  Bishop  by  a  King 116 

24.  Reception  of  Crusaders  by  the  King  of  Hungary 128 

25.  The  Horses  of  St.  Mark's 137 

26.  A  Mediaeval  Windmill 144 

27.  Hut- Wagon  of  the  Mediaeval  Tartars 160 

28.  The  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra 163 

29.  Ruins  of  the  Great  Mosque  at  Samarkand 168 

30.  The  Amphitheater  at  Aries  in  Mediaeval  Times 170 

31.  A  Count  and  his  Wife  granting  a  Charter  to  a  City 171 

32.  State  Barge  of  Venice  used  in  the  Ceremony  of  "  Wedding  the 

Adriatic " 180 

33.  A  Canal  in  Venice 181 

xii 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

Fig.  Page 

34.  The  Cologne  Cathedral 184 

35.  Town  Hall  of  Louvain 185 

36.  University  Audience  in  the  Fifteenth  Century ,  .  190 

37.  The  Murder  of  Thomas  Becket 201 

38.  Carnarvon  Castle 205 

39.  Coronation  Chair  in  Westminster  Abbey 207 

40.  Charge  of  French  Knights  and  Flight  of  English  Arrows    .     .     .  213 

41.  Joan  of  Arc 214 

42.  Plowing  Scene 218 

43.  In  the  Land  of  the  Troubadours  —  the  Castle  of  Foix  ....  228 

44.  Recumbent  Efifigy  of  Queen  Isabella 232 

45.  The  Electors'  Seat 236 

46.  Savonarola 248 

47.  Dante 253 

48.  Petrarch 257 

49.  A  Block-Printed  Page  from  the'"  Biblia  Pauperum  " 263 

50.  The  Printing  of  Books 264 

51.  Case  of  Chained  Books 265 

52.  Tomb  at  Tours  of  the  Children  of  Charles  VIII 267 

53.  A  Chinese  Magnet  Figure 277 

54.  Christopher  Columbus 279 

55.  "  The  Antipodes  in  Derision" 284 

56.  Erasmus 296 

57.  Martin  Luther 302 

58.  John  Calvin 309 

59.  Ignatius  of"  Loyola 312 

60.  Emperor  Charles  V 318 

61.  Philip  II 326 

62.  Henry  VIII 339 

63.  Sir  Thomas  More 346 

64.  Queen  Elizabeth 352 

65.  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 355 

66.  Mary  Stuart  as  Queen  of  France 355 

67.  Spanish  and  English  War  Vessels  of  the  Sixteenth  Century    .     .  358 

68.  Melrose  Abbey  .     .     .  , 362 

69.  Typical  Dutch  Scene 363 

70.  William  of  Orange  (The  Silent) 367 

71.  Coat  of  Arms  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange 375 

72.  Henry  IV,  King  of  France 381 

73.  Cardinal  Richelieu 384 

74.  Gustavus  Adolphus 389 

75.  Louis  XIV 405 

76.  Duke  of  Marlborough 412 


XIV  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

77.  View  of  Versailles 416 

78.  Charles  I 426 

79.  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford 429 

80.  Westminster  Hall 433 

81.  Oliver  Cromwell 438 

82.  Charles  II 445 

83.  Peter  the  Great 456 

84.  Catherine  II  of  Russia  . 466 

85.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia 475 

86.  John  Wesley 488 

87.  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham 489 

88.  Voltaire 506 

89.  Mirabeau 513 

90.  The  Lion  of  Lucerne 521 

91.  The  Guillotine 528 

92.  Robespierre 532 

93.  Napoleon  Bonaparte 543 

94.  William  Pitt,  Son  of  Wilham  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham      •     •     •     •  555 

95.  Baron  vom  Stein 572 

96.  The  Kremlin  of  Moscow 574 

97.  Prince  Metternich 585 

98.  Napoleon  III 593 

99.  Queen  Victoria  as  a  Young  Woman 599 

100.  Lord  Beaconsfield  (Disraeli) 608 

loi.  William  Ewart  Gladstone 611 

102.  Victor  Emmanuel  II 624 

103.  Count  Cavour 625 

104.  Garibaldi 628 

105.  Pope  Pius  X 631 

106.  Proclamation    of    King   William   as    Emperor   of   Germany   at 

Versailles,  January,  1871 645 

107.  Emperor  William  II 648 

108.  The  Parliament  Building  at  Budapest 651 

109.  The  Congress  of  Berlin 659 

no.  Henry  M.  Stanley 667 

111.  The  Japanese  Imperial  Regalia 688 

112.  Field  Marshal  Oyama 694 

113.  The  Proposed  Temple  of  Peace  at  The  Hague 702 


LIST  OF   PLATES 

Facing 
P^-'^^"  Page 

I.     The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.     (From  the  painting  in  the 
Royal  Collection  at  Hampton  Court  Palace)      Frontispiece 

II.     St.  Mark's  Square,  Venice.     (From  a  photograph)    ....     148 

III.  View  of  Florence,  Italy,  about  the  Year  1490.     (From  a  con- 

temporary woodcut) 182 

IV.  Milan  Cathedral.     (From  a  photograph) 186 

V.     Canterbury  Cathedral.     (From  a  photograph) 200 

VI.     Ruins  of  Fountains  Abbey,  Yorkshire,  England.     (From  a 

photograph) 344 

VII.     Section    of   Old   London    Bridge.      (From    a   contemporary 

drawing) 444 

VIII.     Prince  Bismarck.    (After  a  painting  by  Franz  von  Lenbach)  .     640 


LIST  OF  MAPS 


COLORED  MAPS 

Based  in  the  main  on  Kiepert,  Schrader,  Droysen,  Spruner-Sieglin,  Poole,  and 
Freeman.  Many  of  the  maps  have  been  so  modified  by  additions  and  omissions  that 
as  they  here  appear  they  are  practically  new  charts.  P 

Pagb 

1.  Europe  in  the  Reign  of  Theodoric,  about  a.d.  500 8 

2.  Greatest  Extent  of  the  Saracen  Dominions,  about  a.d.  750     .     .  52 

3.  Europe  in  the  time  of  Charles  the  Great,  a.d.  814 64 

4.  The  Western  Empire  as  divided  at  Verdun,  A.D.  843       ....  68 

5.  The  Danelaw 74 

6.  Hitchin  Manor,  England,  about  18 16 84 

XV 


xvi  LIST  OF   MAPS 

Facing 
Page 

7.  Europe  and  the  Orient  in  1096 132 

8.  Lands    of    the    Holy    Roman    Empire    under   the    Franconian 

Emperors,  1024-1125 152 

9.  Angevin  Dominions 202 

10.  France  about  1180 220 

11.  Spanish  Kingdoms  in  1360 , 230 

12.  Globe  de  Martin  Behaim,  1492,  and  Globe  Dore  vers  1528      .     .  280 

13.  Explorations  and  Colonies  of  the  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Sev- 

enteenth Centuries 286 

14.  Europe  at  the  Accession  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  151 9       .     .  320 

15.  Europe  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  1648 392 

16.  Central  Europe  in  1660 406 

17.  The  Baltic  Lands,  about  1701       458 

18.  The  Partition  of  Poland        466 

19.  Prussia  under  Frederick  the  Great,  1 740-1 786 472 

20.  Central  Europe  in  1780 498 

21.  Central  Europe  in  1801 546 

22.  Central  Europe  in  1810 568 

23.  Europe  about  181 5 582 

24.  Italy  in  1859        626 

25.  Europe  at  the  Present  Time 646 

26.  Distribution  of  Races  in  Austria-Hungary 652 

27.  Southeastern  Europe  in  1903 658 

28.  The  Partition  of  Africa 668 

29.  European  Expansion        . 678 

30.  The  Far  East '..... 688 


SKETCH  MAPS 

Page 

1.  Italy  under  the  Lombards 11 

2.  The  Roman  Empire  under  Justinian 43 

3.  Discoveries  of  the  Northmen 73 

4.  The   Mongol   Empire   under  Jenghis  Khan  and  his  Immediate 

Successors  (thirteenth  century) 161 

5.  The  Empire  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  about  1464 167 

6.  The  Hansa  Towns  and  their  Chief  Foreign  Settlements      .     .     .  174 

7.  Russia  and  the  Scandinavian  Countries  at  the  Close  of  the  Middle 

Ages 'i     ....  243 

8.  Italy  about  the  Middle  of  the  Fifteenth  Century 246 

9.  The  Netherlands  at  the  Truce  of  1609 373 


MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN 
HISTORY 

CHAPTER   I 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION:   THE  CHIEF  FACTORS   IN 
EUROPEAN  CIVILIZATION 

1.  Preliminary  Survey. — In  an  earlier  volume  we  sketched 
briefly  the  affairs  of  men  from  the  time  that  they  first  emerged 
from  the  obscurity  of  the  past  to  the  break-up  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  West.-^  In  the  present  work  we  propose  to  con- 
tinue the  narrative  there  begun,  and  bring  the  story  down  to  our 
own  day. 

The  fourteen  centuries  of  history  embraced  in  our  survey  are 
usually  conceived  as  forming  two  periods,  —  the  Middle  Ages^  or 
the  period  lying  between  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus  in  1492,  and  the  Modern  Age,  which 
extends  from  the  latter  event  to  the  present  time.  The  fiddle 
Ages  again  naturally  subdivide  into  two  periods,  -^  the  Dark  Ages 
and  the  Age  of  Revival ;  while  the  Modern  Age,  as  we  shall  view 
it,  also  falls  into  two  divisions,  —  the  Era  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation  and  the  Era  of  the  Political  Revolution. 

2.  Chief  Characteristics  of  the  Four  Periods.  — The  Dark  Ages, 
which  embrace  the  years  between  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the 
opening  of  the  eleventh  century,  are  so  called  for  the  reason  that 
the  inrush  of  the  barbarians  and  the  almost  total  eclipse  of  the 

1  Our  Ancient  History  practically  ends  with  this  great  revolution  of  the  fifth 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  although  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of  some 
schools  there  is  given  in  concluding  chapters  a  brief  r6sum^  of  events  down  to  the 
Restoration  of  the  Empire  by  Charlemagne,  a.d.  800. 

I 


2  .  , .     q]&;>fJ£RAL   INTRODUCTION 

light  of  classical  culture  caused  them  to  contrast  unfavorably,  in 
enlightenment  and  social  order,  as  well  with  the  age  which  pre- 
ceded as  with  that  which  followed  them.  The  period  was  one  of 
origins,  —  of  the  beginnings  of  peoples,  and  languages,  and  insti- 
tutions. During  this  time  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the 
Papacy,  institutions  embodying  two  of  the  great  ideals  of  the 
mediaeval  ages,  grew  into  shape  and  form. 

The  Age  of  Revival  begins  with  the  opening  of  the  eleventh 
century  and  ends  with  the  discovery  of  the  New  World.  During 
all  this  time  civilization  was  making  slow  but  sure  advances; 
social  order  was  gradually  triumphing  over  feudal  anarchy,  and 
governments  were  becoming  more  regular.  The  last  part  of 
the  period  especially  was  marked  by  a  great  intellectual  revival, 
—  a  movement  known  as  the  Renaissance^  or  ''New  Birth," 
— ^by  improvements,  inventions,  and  discoveries  which  greatly 
stirred  men's  minds  and  awakened  them  as  from  a  sleep.  The 
Crusades,  or  Holy  Wars,  were  the  most  remarkable  undertakings 
of  the  age. 

The  Era  of  the  Reformation  embraces  the  sixteenth  century 
and  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth.  The  period  is  characterized 
by  the  great  religious  movement  known  as  the  Reformation,  and 
the  tremendous  struggle  between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism. 
Almost  all  the  wars  of  the  period  were  rehgious  wars.  The  last 
great  combat  was  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  Germany,  which  was 
closed  by  the  celebrated  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648.  After 
this  date  the  disputes  and  wars  between  parties  and  nations  were 
dynastic  or  political  rather  than  religious-  in  character. 

The  Era  of  the  Political  Revolution  extends  from  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  to  the  present  time.  The  age  is  especially  character- 
ized by  the  great  conflict  between  despotic  and  liberal  principles 
of  government,  resulting  in  the  triumph  of  democratic  ideas. 
During  this  period,  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe  save  Turkey  and 
Russia,  government  by  the  people  has  taken  the  place  of  govern- 
ment by  one  or  the  few.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  revo- 
lutions that  history  records.  The  central  event  of  the  epoch  was 
the  terrible  upheaval  of  the  French  Revolution. 


SIGNIFICANCE   OF   THE   FALL  OF   ROME  3 

Having  now  made  a  general  survey  of  the  region  we  are  to 
traverse,  and  having  marked  the  three  successive  stages  of  the 
progressive  course  of  European  civilization,  the  intellectual,  the 
religious,  and  the  political  revolution,  we  must  turn  back  to  our 
starting  point,  the  fall  of  Rome. 

3.  Relation  to  World  History  of  the  Fall  of  Rome.  —  The  calam- 
ity which  in  the  fifth  century  befell  the  Roman  Empire  in  the 
West  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  an  event  marking  the  extinction 
of  ancient  civilization.  The  treasures  of  the  Old  World  are 
represented  as  having  been  destroyed,  and  mankind  as  obliged 
to  take  a  fresh  start,  —  to  lay  the  foundations  of  civilization  anew. 
It  was  not  so.  All  or  almost  all  that  was  really  valuable  in  the 
accumulations  of  antiquity  escaped  harm,  and  became  sooner  or 
later  the  possession  of  the  succeeding  ages.  The  catastrophe 
simply  prepared  the  way  for  the  shifting  in  the  West  of  the  scene 
of  civilization  from  the  south  to  the  north  of  Europe,  simply 
transferred  at  once  political  power,  and  gradually  social  and 
intellectual  preeminence,  from  one  race  to  another,  —  from  the 
Roman  to  the  Teuton. 

The  event  was  not  an  unrelieved  calamity,  because  fortunately 
the  floods  that  seemed  to  be  sweeping  so  much  away  were  not  the 
mountain  torrent,  which  covers  fruitful  fields  with  worthless  drift, 
but  the  overflowing  Nile  with  its  rich  deposits.  Over  all  the  regions 
covered  by  the  barbarian  inundation  a  new  stratum  of  population 
was  thrown  down,  a  new  soil  formed  that  was  capable  of  nourish- 
ing a  better  civilization  than  any  the  world  had  yet  seen.  Or,  to 
use  the  figure  of  Draper,  we  may  liken  the  precipitation  of  the 
northern  barbarians  upon  the  expiring  Roman  Empire  to  the  heap- 
ing of  fresh  fuel  upon  a  dying  fire  ;  for  a  time  it  burns  lower,  and 
seems  almost  extinguished,  but  soon  it  bursts  through  the  added 
fuel,  and  flames  up  with  redoubled  energy  and  ardor. 

4.  The  Three  Chief  Elements  of  European  Civilization.  —  We 
must  now  notice  what  survived  the  catastrophe  of  the  fifth 
century,  what  it  was  that  Rome  transmitted  to  the  new  Teu- 
tonic race.  This  renders  necessary  an  analysis  of  the  elements  of 
civilization. 


4  GENERAL   INTRODUCTION 

.  European  civilization  is  mainly  the  result  of  the  blending  of 
three  historic  elements,  —  the  Classical,  the  Hebrew,  and  the 
Teutonic. 

By  the  classical  element  in  civilization  is  meant  that  whole 
body  of  arts,  sciences,  literatures,  laws,  manners,  ideas,  social 
arrangements,  and  models  of  imperial  and  municipal  government, 
—  everything,  in  a  word,  save  Christianity,  —  that  Greece  and 
Rome  gave  to  mediaeval  and  modern  Europe.  Taken  together, 
these  things  constituted  a  valuable  gift  to  the  new  northern  race 
that  was  henceforth  to  represent  civilization.  It  is  true  that  the 
barbarian  invaders  of  the  Empire  seemed  at  first  utterly  indifferent 
to  these  things ;  that  the  masterpieces  of  antique  art  were  buried 
beneath  the  rubbish  of  sacked  villas  and  cities,  and  that  the  precious 
manuscripts  of  the  old  sages  and  poets,  because  they  were  pagan 
productions  and  hence  regarded  as  dangerous  to  Christian  faith, 
were  often  suffered  to  lie  neglected  in  the  libraries  of  cathedrals 
and  convents.  Nevertheless,  classical  antiquity,  as  we  shall  learn, 
was  the  instructor  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

By  the  Hebrew  element  in  history  is  meant  Christianity.  This 
has  been  a  most  potent  factor  in  modern  civihzation.  It  has  so 
colored  the  life  and  so  molded  the  institutions  of  the  European 
peoples  that  their  history  is  very  largely  a  story  of  this  religion, 
which,  first  going  forth  from  Judea,  was  given  to  the  younger  world 
by  the  missionaries  of  Rome.  Among  the  doctrines  taught  by  the 
new  rehgion  were  the  unity  of  God,  the  brotherhood  of  man,  and 
immortality,  —  doctrines  which  have  greatly  helped  to  make  the 
modern  so  different  from  the  ancient  world. 

By  the  Teutonic  element  in  history  is  meant  the  Germanic 
race.  The  Teutons,  though  of  course  they  had  the  social  insti- 
tutions and  customs  of  a  primitive  people,  were  poor  in  those 
things  in  which  the  Romans  were  rich.  They  had  neither  arts, 
nor  sciences,  nor  philosophies,  nor  literatures.  But  they  had 
something  better  than  all  these  things ;  they  had  personal  worth. 
It  was  because  of  this,  because  of  their  free  independent  spirit, 
of  their  capacity  for.  growth,  for  culture,  for  accomplishment, 
that  the  future  time  became  theirs. 


CELTS,  SLAVS,  AND  OTHER  PEOPLES       5 

5.  The  Relative  Importance  in  European  History  of  the  Clas- 
sical, the  Christian,  and  the  Teutonic  Element.  —  The  question  as 
to  the  influence  which  each  of  these  great  historical  factors  has 
exercised  upon  the  development  of  European  civihzation  is  a 
very  important  one  for  the  histo'rical  student,  for  the  reason  that 
his  whole  conception  of  history  will  be  colored  by  the  answer  he 
gives  to  it.  Gibbon,  for  instance,  exalted  the  classical  element 
and  depreciated  Christianity,  representing  this  religion  rather  as  a 
retarding  than  as  a  helpful  force  in  the  life  of  the  European  peo- 
ples. This  misconception  of  the  real  place  in  history  that  Chris- 
tianity actually  holds  is  a  chief  fault  of  Gibbon's  great  work.  The 
Decline  arid  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  Church  historians  so  represent  his- 
tory as  to  give  Christianity  credit  for  almost  all  the  progress 
made  by  the  European  peoples  since  the  advent  of  Christ.  This 
is  to  undervalue  the  other  historical  factors. 

Still  others,  again,  represent  the  Teutonic  race  element  as  the 
chief  force  in  modern  civilization,  and  rest  their  hopes  for  the 
future  of  the  world  largely  upon  the  German  and  Anglo-Saxon 
spirit  of  enterprise,  freedom,  and  progress. 

It  is  certain  that  we  should  allow  the  exclusive  claims  of  none 
of  these  schools  of  interpreters  of  history.  Modern  civilization, 
as  we  have  already  intimated,  is  a  very  composite  product.  It 
has  resulted  from  the  mixing  and  mutual  action  and  reaction 
upon  one  another  of  all  the  historical  elements  and  agencies  that 
we  have  mentioned  —  and  many  minor  ones  besides.  Civihza- 
tion cannot  spare  the  treasures  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquity ; 
it  cannot  spare  the  religious  doctrines  and  moral  precepts  of  the 
great  Hebrew  teachers ;  it  cannot  spare  the  earnest  and  master- 
ful spirit  of  the  Teutonic  race.  If  any  one  of  these  elements 
were  taken  from  modern  civilization,  it  would  be  something 
wholly  different  from  what  it  is. 

6.  Celts,  Slavs,  and  Other  Peoples.  —  Having  noticed  the 
Romans  and  the  Teutons,  the  two  most  important  of  the  peoples 
that  present  themselves  to  us  at  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Rome,  if 
we  now  name  the  Celts,  the  Slavs,  the  Persians,  the  Arabians,  and 


6  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

the  Mongols  and  Turks,  we  shall  have  under  view  the  chief  actors 
in  the  drama  of  mediaeval  and  of  a  large  part  of  modern  history. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  mediaeval  era  the  Celts  were  in 
front  of  the  Teutons,  clinging  to  the  western  edge  of  the  Euro- 
pean continent,  and  engaged  in  a  bitter  contest  with  these"  latter 
peoples,  which,  in  the  antagonism  of  England  and  Ireland,  was 
destined  to  extend  itself  to  our  own  day. 

The  Slavs  were  in  the  rear  of  the  Teutonic  tribes,  pressing 
them  on  even  as  the  Celts  in  front  were  struggling  to  resist  their 
advance.  These  peoples,  backward  in  civilization,  will  play  only 
an  obscure  part  in  the  transactions  of  the  mediaeval  era,  but  in 
the  course  of  the  modern  period  will  assume  a  most  commanding 
position  among  the  European  nations. 

The  Persians  were  in  their  old  seats  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
maintaining  there  what  is  called  the  New  Persian  Empire,  the  kings 
of  which,  until  the  rise  of  the  Saracens  in  the  seventh  century,  were 
the  most  formidable  rivals  of  the  emperors  of  Constantinople. 

The  Arabians  were  hidden  in  their  deserts ;  but  in  the  seventh 
century  we  shall  see  them,  animated  by  a  wonderful  religious 
enthusiasm,  issue  from  their  peninsula  and  begin  a  contest  with 
the  Christian  nations  which,  in  its  varying  phases,  was  destined 
to  fill  a  large  part  of  the  mediaeval  period. 

The  Mongols  and  Turks  were  buried  in  Central  Asia.  They 
will  appear  late  in  the  eleventh  century,  proselytes  for  the  most 
part  of  Mohammedanism ;  and,  as  the  religious  ardor  of  the 
Semitic  Arabians  grows  cool,  we  shall  see  the  Islam  standard  car- 
ried forward  by  these  zealous  converts  of  another  race,  and  finally, 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  we  shall  see  the  Crescent,  the  adopted 
emblem  of  the  new  religion,  placed  by  the  Ottoman  Turks  upon 
the  dome  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople. 

As  the  Middle  Ages  draw  to  a  close,  the  remote  nations  of 
Eastern  Asia  will  gradually  come  within  our  circle  of  vision; 
and,  as  the  Modern  Age  dawns,  we  shall  catch  a  glimpse  of  new 
continents  and  strange  races  of  men  beyond  the  Atlantic. 


Part  I— The  Middle  Ages 

FIRST  PERIOD  — THE  DARK  AGES 

(From  the  Fall  of  Rome  to  the  Eleventh  Century) 

CHAPTER   n 
THE  BARBARIAN  KINGDOMS 

7.  Introductory.  —  In  one  of  the  concluding  chapters  of  our 
Ancient  History',  as  a  part  of  the  story  of  the  break-up  of  the 
Roman  Empire  in  the  West,  we  gave  some  account  of  the  migra- 
tions and  settlements  of  the  German  tribes.  In  the  present 
chapter  we  shall  indicate  briefly  the  political  fortunes,  for  the 
two  centuries  and  more  following  the  fall  of  Rome,  of  the  prin- 
cipal kingdoms  set  up  by  the  German  chieftains  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  old  Empire. 

8.  Kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths  (a.d.  493-553). —  Odoacer  will 
be  recalled  as  the  barbarian  chief  who  dethroned  the  last  of  the 
Western  Roman  emperors.^  His  feeble  government  in  Italy 
lasted  only  seventeen  years,  when  it  was  brought  to  an  end  by 
the  invasion  of  the  Ostrogoths  (Eastern  Goths)  under  Theodoric, 
the  greatest  of  their  chiefs,  who  set  up  in  Italy  a  new  dominion 
known  as  the  Kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths. 

The  reign  of  Theodoric  covered  thirty-three  years  (a.d.  493- 
526),  —  years  of  such  quiet  and  prosperity  as  Italy  had  not  known 
since  the  happy  era  of  the  Antonines.  The  king  made  good 
his  promise  that  his  reign  should  be  such  that  "  the  only  regret 

1  See  Ancient  History,  sec.  560. 
7 


8 


THE   BARBARIAN    KINGDOMS 


of  the  people  should  be  that  the  Goths  had  not  come  at  an 
earlier  period."  ^ 

Notwithstanding  his  generally  humane  and  tolerant  disposition, 
Theodoric  stained  the  last  years  of  his  reign  by  various  acts  of 
cruelty  and  persecution.  Among  the  victims  of  his  injustice  was 
the  renowned  Boethius,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of 
that  time,  who  was  put  to  death  on  what  seems  to  have  been  an 
unfounded  charge  of  disloyalty.  During  the  months  of  imprison- 
ment which  preceded  his  execution,  Boethius  wrote  his  Philoso- 
phice.  Consolatio,  or  "  Consolation  of  Philosophy,"  a  work  that 

possessed  a  most 
remarkable  attrac- 
tion for  a  certain 
class  of  minds 
throughout  the 
Middle  Ages. 

The  kingdom 
established  by  the 
rare  abilities  of 
Theodoric  lasted 
only  twenty-seven 
years  after  his 
death.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  generals  of  Justinian,  Emperor  of  the  East  (sec.  50); 
and  Italy,  freed  from  the  barbarians,  was  for  a  time  reunited  to 
the  Empire  (a.d.  553). 

9.  Kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  (a.d.  415-71  i).  —  The  Visigoths 
(Western  Goths)  were  already  in  possession  of  Southern  Gaul 
and  the  greater  part  of  Spain  when  the  line  of  Western  Roman 
emperors  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  act  of  Odoacer  and  his 
companions.  Driven  south  of  the  Pyrenees  by  the  kings  of  the 
Franks,  they  held  their  possessions  in  Spain  until  the  beginning 
of  the  eighth  century,  when  their  rule  was  brought  to  an  end  by 

2  Theodoric's  chief  minister  and  adviser  was  Cassiodorus,  a  statesman  and  writer 
of  Roman  birth,  whose  constant  but  unfortunately  vain  effort  was  to  effect  a  union  of 
the  conquerors  and  the  conquered,  and  thus  to  establish  in  Italy  a  strong  and  perma- 
nent Romano-Gothic  state  under  the  rule  of  the  royal  house  of  the  Ostrogoths. 


Fig. 


Tomb  of  Theodoric  at  Ravenna 
(From  a  photograph) 


E  U  K  O  P  E 

IN  THE  REIGN  OF 

THEODORIC 

About  A.  D.  500 

I  I  Roman  Empire       |  [  Celts       [  |  Teutonic  Settlements 


•     •  •     •  -     -■ 

.••  •  •  '»  •T  ••••••  •  . • 


KINGDOM   OF   THE   BURGUNDIANS  9 

the  Saracens  (sec.  65).  The  Visigothic  kingdom  when  thus  over- 
turned had  lasted  nearly  three  hundred  years.  During  this  time  the 
conquerors  had  mingled  with  the  old  Romanized  inhabitants  of 
Spain,  so  that  in  the  veins  of  the  Spaniard  of  to-day  is  blended 
the  blood  of  Iberian,  Celt,  Roman,  and  Teuton,  together  with 
that  of  the  last  intruder,  the  African  Moor. 

10.  Kingdom  of  the  Burgundians  (a.d.  443-534).  —  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  Burgundians  acquired  a  per- 
manent settlement  in  Southeastern  Gaul.  A  portion  of  their 
ancient  dominion  still  retains  from  them  the  name  of  "  Bur- 
gimdy."  The  Burgimdians  had  barely  secured  a  foothold  in 
Gaul  before  they  came  in  collision  with  the  Franks  on  the  north, 
and  were  reduced  by  them  to  a  state  of  dependence. 

11.  Kingdom  of  the  Vandals  (a.d.  439-533).  —  About  half 
a  century  before  the  fall  of  Rome  the  Vandals  set  up  a  kingdom 
in  North  Africa.  These  barbarians  were  animated  by  a  more 
destructive  energy  than  any  other  of  the  Germanic  tribes  that 
took  part  in  the  subversion  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Their  very 
name  has  passed  into  all  languages  as  the  synonym  of  wanton 
destruction  and  violence. 

Being  Arian  *  Christians,  the  Vandals  persecuted  with  furious 
zeal  the  orthodox  party,  the  followers  of  Athanasius.  Moved  by 
the  entreaties  of  the  African  Catholics,  the  Eastern  Emperor 
Justinian  sent  his  general  Belisarius  to  drive  the  barbarians  from 
Africa.  The  expedition  was  successful,  and  Carthage  and  the 
fruitful  fields  of  Africa  were  restored  to  the  Empire  after  having 
suffered  the  insolence  of  the  barbarian  conquerors  for  the  space 
of  above  a  hundred  years.  The  Vandals  remaining  in  the  coun- 
try were  gradually  absorbed  by  the  old  Roman  population,  and 
after  a  few  generations  no  certain  trace  of  the  barbarian  invaders 
could  be  detected  in  the  physical  appearance,  the  language,  or 
the  customs  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  African  coast.  The  Vandal 
nation  had  disappeared  ;  the  name  alone  remained. 

12.  The  Franks  under  the  Merovingians  (a.d.  486-752). — 
The   Franks,  who  were  destined  to  give  a  new  name  to  Gaul 

8  See  Ancient  History^  sec.  537. 


lO  THE   BARBARIAN    KINGDOMS 

and  form  the  nucleus  of  the  French  nation,  made  their  first  set- 
tlements west  of  the  Rhine  about  two  hundred  years  before  the 
fall  of  Rome.  Among  their  several  chieftains  at  the  time  of 
this  event  was  Clovis.  Upon  the  break-up  of  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  West,  Clovis  conceived  the  ambition  of  erecting  a  king- 
dom upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  power.  He  attacked  Syagrius, 
the  Roman  governor  of  Gaul,  and  at  Soissons  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  his  forces  (a.d.  486).  Thus  was  destroyed  forever 
in  Gaul  that  Roman  authority  established  among  its  tribes  more 
than  five  centuries  before  by  the  conquests  of  JuHus  Caesar. 

Clovis  in  a  short  time  extended  his  authority  over  the  greater 
part  of  Gaul,  reducing  to  the  condition  of  tributaries  the  various 
Teutonic  tribes  that  had  taken  possession  of  different  portions 
of  the  country.  Upon  his  death  (a.d.  511)  his  extensive  domin- 
ions, in  accordance  with  the  ancient  Teutonic  law  of  inheritance, 
were  divided  among  his  four  sons.  About  a  century  and  a  half 
of  discord  followed,  by  the  end  of  which  time  the  Merovingians* 
had  become  so  feeble  and  inefficient  that  they  were  contemp- 
tuously called  rots  faineants,  or  "  do-nothing  kings,"  and  an 
ambitious  officer  of  the  crown  kiiown  as  Mayor  of  the  Palace, 
in  a  way  that  will  be  explained  a  little  later  (sec.  72),  pushed 
aside  the  weak  Merovingian  king  and  gave  to  the  Frankish  mon- 
archy a  new  royal  hne,  —  the  Carolingian. 

13.  Kingdom  of  the  Lombards  (a.d.  568-774). — Barely  a 
decade  had  passed  after  the  recovery  of  Italy  from  the  Ostro- 
goths by  the  Eastern  Emperor  Justinian  (sec.  8),  before  a  large 
part  of  the  peninsula  was  again  lost  to  the  Empire  through  its 
conquest  by  another  barbarian  tribe  known  as  the  Lombards.^ 
When  they  entered  Italy  the  Lombards  were  Christians  of  the 

4  So  called  from  Merowig,  an  early  chieftain  of  the  race. 

5  The  Lombards  were,  after  the  Vandals,  the  most  untamed  of  all  the  tribes  that 
fell  upon  the  Roman  provinces,  and  their  conquests  were  attended  with  the  most 
appalling  slaughters  and  cruelties.  The  story  of  Alboin  and  Rosamund  is  a  typical 
one.  Alboin  had  slain  in  battle  a  rival  chieftain,  the  king  of  the  Gepidse,  whose 
beautiful  daughter,  Rosamund,  he  had  just  taken  as  a  bride.  At  a  banquet  in  cele- 
bration of  his  victories  he  forced  his  young  queen  to  drink  wine  from  her  father's 
skull,  which  he  had  had  made  into  a  drinking  cup.  In  revenge  for  the  insult, 
Rosamund  plotted  the  death  of  her  husband  and  then  married  the  murderer. 


THE  LOMBARDS   IN   ITALY 


II 


Arian  sect ;  but  in  time  they  became  converts  to  the  orthodox 
faith,  and  Pope  Gregory  I  bestowed  upon  their  king  a  diadem 
which  came  to  be  known  as  the  "  Iron  Crown,"  for  the  reason 
that  there  was  wrought  into  it  what  was  beheved  to  be  one  of 
the  nails  of  the  cross  upon  which  Christ  had  suffered. 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Lombards  was  destroyed  by  Charlemagne, 
the  most  noted  of  the  Prankish  rulers,  in  the  year  774 ;  but  the 
blood  of  the  invaders  had  by  this  time  become  intermingled 
with  that  of  the 
former  subjects  of 
the  Empire,  so  that 
throughout  all  that 
part  of  the  penin- 
sula which  is  still 
called  Lombardy 
after  them,  one  will 
to-day  occasionally 
see  the  fair  hair  and 
light  complexion 
which  reveal  the 
strain  of  German 
blood  in  the  veins 
of  the  present  in- 
habitants. 

One  important 
result  of  the  Lom- 
bard conquest  of 
Italy  was  the  de- 
struction of  the  po- 
Htical  unity  estab- 
lished by  the  Romans  and  the  breaking  up  of  the  country  into 
a  multitude  of  petty  states.  This  resulted  from  the  incomplete 
nature  of  the  conquest  and  from  the  loose  feudal  constitution  of 
the  Lombard  monarchy,  which  was  rather  a  group  of  practically 
independent  duchies  than  a  real  kingdom.  Not  until  our  own 
day  did  there  emerge  from  this  political  chaos  a  united  Italy. 


Map  of  Italy  under  the  Lombards 

Showing  how  the  political  unity  of  the  peninsula  was 
shattered  by  the  Lombard  conquest.  The  unshaded 
portions  represent  the  regions  taken  pKJSsession  of  by 
the  barbarians;  the  shaded  areas  indicate  the  lands 
Dvhich  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Eastern  Emperor 


12  THE   BARBARIAN    KINGDOMS 

14.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Conquest  of  Britain.  —  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  being  then  engaged  in  her  death  struggle  with 
the  barbarians,  Rome  withdrew  her  legions  from  Britain  in  order 
to  protect  Italy.  Thus  that  province  was  left  exposed  to  the 
depredations  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  corsairs  from  the  Continent. 
No  other  province  of  the  Roman  Empire  made  such  determined 
and  heroic  resistance  against  the  barbarians.  It  is  to  this  period 
of  desperate  struggle  that  the  famous  King  Arthur  belongs.  The 
legends  that  have  gathered  about  the  name  of  this  national  hero 
are  mostly  mythical ;  yet  it  is  possible  that  he  had  a  real  exist- 
ence and  that  the  name  represents  one  or  more  of  the  most 
valiant  of  the  Celtic  chiefs  who  battled  so  long  and  heroically 
against  the  pagan  invaders.^ 

The  conquerors  of  Britain  belonged  to  three  Teutonic  tribes, 
—  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes,  —  but  among  the  Celts  they  all 
passed  under  the  name  of  Saxons,  and  among  themselves,  after 
they  began  to  draw  together  into  a  single  nation,  under  that  of 
Angles,  whence  the  name  England  (Angle-land). 

By  the  close  of  the  sixth  century  the  invading  bands  had  set 
up  in  the  conquered  parts  of  the  island  eight  or  nine,  or  perhaps 
more,  kingdoms,  —  frequently  designated,  though  somewhat  inac- 
curately, as  the  Heptarchy.  For  the  space  of  two  hundred  years 
there  was  an  almost  perpetual  strife  for  supremacy  among  the 
leading  states.  Finally,  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex  (a.d.  802-839), 
brought  all  the  other  kingdoms  to  a  subject  or  tributary  condi- 
tion, and  became  in  reality,  though  he  seems  never,  save  on  one 
occasion,  to  have  actually  assumed  the  title,  the  first  king  of 
England. 

15.  Teutonic  Tribes  outside  the  Empire.  —  We  have  now  spoken 
of  the  most  important  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  which  forced  them- 
selves within  the  limits  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West,  and  that 
there,  upon  the  ruins  of  the  civilization  they  had  overthrown,  laid 
or  helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of  the  modern  nations  of  Italy, 
Spain,  France,  and  England.    Beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  old 

6  Many  of  the  hard-pressed  Britons  fled  across  the  English  Channel  to  the  adja- 
cent shores  of  France,  and  gave  name  to  the  French  province  of  Brittany. 


TEUTONIC  TRIBES  OUTSIDE  THE  EMPIRE        13 

Empire  were  still  other  tribes  and  clans  of  this  same  mighty  family 
of  nations,  —  tribes  and  clans  that  were  destined  to  play  great 
parts  in  European  history. 

On  the  east,  beyond  the  Rhine,  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
modern  Germans.  Notwithstanding  the  immense  hosts  that  the 
forests  and  morasses  of  Germany  had  poured  into  the  Roman 
provinces,  the  fatherland,  in  the  sixth  century  of  our  era,  seemed 
still  as  crowded  as  before  the  great  migration  began.  These  tribes 
were  yet  barbarians  in  manners,  and,  for  the  most  part,  pagans  in 
religion.  In  the  northwest  of  Europe  were  the  Scandinavians, 
the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Danes,  Swedes,  and  Norwegians. 
They  were  'as  yet  untouched  either  by  the  civilization  or  the 
religion  of  Rome. 


Selections  from  the  Sources."^ —  The  Letters  of  Cassiodorus  (trans,  by 
Thomas  Hodgkin).  Read  bk.  i,  letters  24  and  35 ;  bk.  ii,  letters  32  and 
34;  bk.  iii,  letters  17,  19,  29,  31,  and  43;  bk.  xi,  letters  12  and  13;  bk.  xii, 
letter  20.  These  letters  are  invaluable  in  showing  what  was  the  general 
condition  of  things  in  the  transition  period  between  ancient  and  mediaeval 
times.  BoETHius,  Consolatioft  of  Philosophy  (Bohn).  "Whoso  would 
understand,"  says  Hodgkin,  "the  thoughts  that  were  working  in  the 
noblest  minds  of  the  mediaeval  Europe  would  do  well  to  give  a  few  hours' 
study  to  the  once  world-renowned  '  Consolation  of  Philosophy.' "  Colby, 
Selections,  Extract  5,  "  The  Coming  of  the  English  to  Britain." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  Invaders  and  Theodoric 
the  Goth.  Hodgkin  is  recognized  as  the  best  authority  on  the  period  of  the 
migration.  Villari,  The  Barbarian  Invasions  of  Italy.  Gummere,  Ger- 
manic Origins ;  an  authoritative  and  interesting  work  on  the  early  culture 
of  the  Germans.  Gibbon,  The  Decline  and  Fall,  chaps,  xxxviii  and  xxxix. 
Emerton,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages,  chaps,  vi  and 
vii.  B^MONT  and  Monod,  Mediceval  Europe,  chaps,  iv-vii.  Munro  and 
Sellery,  Mediceval  Civilization,  pp.  44-59.  This  book  consists  of  selec- 
tions from  modem  authors,  translated  and  adapted  to  school  use  by  the 
editors. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Boethius  and  his  Consolation  of  Phi- 
losophy. 2.  Manners  and  customs  of  the  early  Germans.  3.  Cassiodorus. 
4.  The  character  of  Clovis.     5.  "  The  groans  of  the  Britons." 

7  For  full  names  of  authors  and  for  further  information  concerning  works  cited, 
see  General  Bibliography  at  end  of  book. 


CHAPTER    III 
THE   CHURCH  AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS 

I.    The  Conversion  of  the  Barbarians 

i6.  Introductory.  — The  most  important  event  in  the  history  of 
the  tribes  that  took  possession  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West 
was  their  conversion  to  Christianity.  Many  of  the  barbarians  were 
converted  before  or  soon  after  their  entrance  into  the  Empire ; 
to  this  circumstance  the  Roman  provinces  owed  their  immunity 
from  the  excessive  cruelties  which  pagan  barbarians  seldom  fail 
to  inflict  upon  a  subjected  enemy.  Alaric  left  untouched  the 
treasures  of  the  churches  of  the  Roman  Christians  because  his 
own  faith  was  also  Christian.  For  like  reason  the  Vandal  king 
Geiseric  yielded  to  the  prayers  of  Pope  Leo  the  Great  and  prom- 
ised to  leave  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  imperial  city  their  lives.^ 
The  more  tolerable  fate  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Gaul,  as  compared 
with  the  hard  fate  of  Britain,  is  owing,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  fact 
that  the  tribes  which  overran  those  countries  had  become  in  the 
main  converts  to  Christianity  before  they  crossed  the  boundaries 
of  the  Empire,  while  the  Saxons  when  they  entered  Britain  were 
still  untamed  pagans. 

17.  Conversion  of  the  Goths,  Vandals,  and  Other  Tribes. — The 
first  converts  to  Christianity  among  the  barbarians  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Empire  were  won  from  among  the  Goths.  Foremost 
of  the  apostles  that  arose  among  them  was  Ulfilas,  who  translated 
the  Scriptures  into  the  Gothic  language,  omitting  from  his  version, 
however,  the  Books  of  the  Kings,  as  he  feared  that  the  stirring 
recital  of  wars  and  battles  in  that  portion  of  the  Word  might  kindle 
into  too  fierce  a  flame  the  martial  ardor  of  his  new  converts. 
1  See  Ancient  History^  sees.  553  and  559. 

H 


CONVERSION    OF   THE    FRANKS  1 5 

What  happened  in  the  case  of  the  Goths  happened  also  in  the 
case  of  most  of  the  barbarian  tribes  that  participated  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West.  By  the  time  of  the  fall 
of  Rome  the  Goths,  the  Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Burgundians 
had  become  proselytes  to  Christianity.  They,  however,  professed 
the  Arian  creed,  which  had  been  condemned  by  the  great  council 
of  the  Church  held  at  Nicaea  during  the  reign  of  Constantine  the 
Great.  Hence  they  were  regarded  as  heretics  by  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  all  had  to  be  reconverted  to  the  orthodox  creed, 
which  good  work  was  gradually  accomplished. 

The  remaining  Teutonic  tribes  of  whose  conversion  we  shall 
speak  —  the  Franks,  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  the  chief  tribes  of 
Germany  —  embraced  at  the  outset  the  Catholic  faith. 

18.  Conversion  of  the  Franks;  Importance  of  this  Event.  —  The 
Franks  when  they  entered  the  Empire,  like  the  Angles  and  Saxons 
when  they  landed  in  Britain,  were  still  pagans.  Christianity  gained 
way  very  slowly  among  them  until  a  supposed  interposition  by  the 
Christian  God  in  their  behalf  led  the  king  and  nation  to  adopt 
the  new  religion  in  place  of  their  old  faith.  The  circumstances, 
as  reported  by  tradition,  were  these.  In  a  terrible  battle  between 
the  Alemanni  and  the  Franks  under  their  king  Clovis,  the  situation 
of  the  Franks  had  become  desperate.  Then  Clovis,  falling  upon 
his  knees,  called  upon  the  God  of  the  Christians,  and  vowed  that 
if  he  would  give  him  the  victory  he  would  become  his  follower. 
The  battle  turned  in  favor  of  the  Franks,  and  Clovis,  faithful  to 
his  vow,  was  baptized,  and  with  him  three  thousand  of  his  warriors. 

This  story  of  the  conversion  of  Clovis  and  his  Franks  illustrates 
how  the  belief  of  the  barbarians  in  omens  and  divine  interpositions, 
and  particularly  their  feeling  that  if  their  gods  did  not  do  for  them 
all  they  wanted  done  they  had  a  right  to  set  them  aside  and 
choose  others  in  their  stead,  contributed  to  their  conversion,  and 
how  the  reception  of  the  new  faith  was  often  a  tribal  or  national 
affair  rather  than  a  matter  of  personal  conviction. 

"The  conversion  of  the  Franks,"  says  the  historian  Milman, 
"was  the  most  important  event  in  its  remote  as  well  as  its 
immediate  consequences  in  European  history."    It  was  of  such 


i6 


THE  CHURCH  AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS 


moment  for  the  reason  that  the  Franks  embraced  the  orthodox 
Catholic  faith,  while  almost  all  the  other  German  invaders  of  the 
Empire  had  embraced  the  heretical  Arian  creed.  This  secured 
them  the  loyalty  of  their  Roman  subjects  and  also  gained  for  them 
the  official  favor  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Thus  was  laid  the  basis 
of  the  ascendancy  in  the  West  of  the  Prankish  kings. 

19.  Augustine's  Mission  to  England.  —  In  the  year  a.d.  596 
Pope  Gregory  I  sent  the  monk  Augustine  with  a  band  of  forty 

companions  to  teach 
the  Christian  faith  in 
Britain,  in  whose  peo- 
ple he  had  become 
interested  through  see- 
ing in  the  slave  market 
at  Rome  some  fair- 
faced  captives  from 
that  remote  region. 

The  monks  were 
favorably  received  by 
the  English,  who 
listened  attentively  to 
the  story  the  strangers 
had  come  to  tell  them; 
and  being  persuaded  that  the  tidings  were  true,  they  burned  the 
temples  of  Woden  and  Thor,  and  were  in  large  numbers  baptized 
in  the  Christian  faith. 

One  of  the  most  important  consequences  of  the  conversion  of 
Britain  was  the  reestablishment  of  that  connection  of  the  island 
with  Roman  civilization  which  had  been  severed  by  the  calamities 
of  the  fifth  century.  As  Green  says,  —  he  is  speaking  of  the 
embassy  of  St.  Augustine,  —  "The  march  of  the  monks  as  they 
chanted  their  solemn  Htany  was  in  one  sense  a  return  of  the 
Roman  legions  who  withdrew  at  the  trumpet  call  of  Alaric.  .  .  . 
Practically  Augustine's  landing  renewed  that  union  with  the  west- 
ern world  which  the  landing  of  Hengist  had  destroyed.  The  new 
England  was  admitted  into  the  older  commonwealth  of  nations. 


155^ 


Fig.  2.  —  St.  Martin's  Church,  Canterbury 
(From  a  photograph) 

This  church  occupies  the  site  of  a  chapel  built  in 
the  Roman  period  and  standing  at  the  time  of  the 
landing  of  the  monk  Augustine,  in  the  year  597. 
Its  walls  show  some  of  the  Roman  bricks  of  the 
original  church 


THE  CONVERSION   OF  IRELAND 


17 


The  civilization,  art,  letters,  which  had  fled  before  the  sword  of 
the  English  conquerors,  returned  with  the  Christian  faith." 

20.  The  Conversion  of  Ireland ;  lona.  —  Christianity,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  held  its  place  among  the  British  Celts  whom  the 
pagan  Saxons  crowded  slowly  westward.  The  struggle  with  the 
invaders  was  at  its  height  when  a  zealous  priest,  Patricias  by 
name,  better  known  as  St.  Patrick,  the  patron  saint  of  Ireland, 
crossed  over  to  the  island  as  a  missionary  of  the  Cross. 

Never  did  any  race  receive  the  Gospel  with  more  ardent 
enthusiasm.  The  Irish  or  Celtic  Church  sent  out  its  devoted 
missionaries  into  the  Pictish  highlands,  into  the  forests  of  Ger- 
many, and  among 
the  wilds  of  Alps  ~~^ji 
and  Apennines.^ 
Among  the  numer- 
ous religious  houses 
founded  by  the 
Celtic  missionaries 
was  the  famous 
monastery  estab- 
lished A.D.  563  by 
the  Irish  monk  St. 
Columba,  on  the 
little  isle  of  lona, 
just  off  the  Pictish  coast.  lona  became  a  most  renowned  center 
of  Christian  learning  and  missionary  zeal,  and  for  almost  two 
centuries  was  the  point  from  which  radiated  light  through  the 
darkness  of  the  surrounding  heathenism.  Fitly  has  it  been  called 
the  Nursery  of  Saints  and  the  Oracle  of  the  West.* 

2  These  Irish  missionaries  were  not  merely  the  representatives  of  Christianity. 
"  They  were  instructors  in  every  known  branch  of  science  and  learning  of  the  time, 
possessors  and  bearers  of  a  higher  culture  than  was  at  that  period  to  be  found  any- 
where on  the  Continent,  and  can  surely  claim  to  have  been  the  pioneers,  —  to  have 
laid  the  corner  stone  of  western  culture  on  tlie  Continent,  the  rich  results  of  which 
Germany  shares  and  enjoys  to-day,  in  common  with  all  other  civilized  nations."  — 
ZiMMER,  T/ie  Irish  Element  in  Medicn'al  Culture,  p.  130. 

8  In  Southern  Germany  (now  Switzerland)  the  Irish  monk  Gallus  established 
(A.D.  613)  the  celebrated  monastery  of  St.  Gall,  which  at  a  later  time  became  one 
of  the  chief  seats  of  learning  in  Central  Europe. 


3.  —  The  Ruins  of  Iona. 
old  drawing) 

That  man  is  little  to  be  envied  whose  patriotism  would 
not  gain  force  upon  the  plain  of  Marathon,  or  whose 
piety  would  not  grow  warmer  among  the  ruins  of 
lona." — Dr.  Johnson,  A  Journey  to  the  Western 
Isles  of  Scotland 


i8 


THE  CHURCH  AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS 


21.  Rivalry  between  the  Roman  and  the  Celtic  Church;  The 
Council  of  Whitby  (a.d.  664).  —  From  the  very  moment  that 
Augustine  touched  the  shores  of  Britain  and  summoned  the 
Welsh  clergy  to  acknowledge  the  discipline  of  the  Roman  Church, 
there  had  been  a  growing  jealousy  between  the  Latin  and  Celtic 
churches,  which  had  now  risen  into  the  bitterest  rivalry  and 
strife.  So  long  had  the  Celtic  Church  been  cut  off  from  all  rela- 
tions with  Rome,  that  it  had  come  to  differ  somewhat  from  it  in 
the  matter  of  certain  ceremonies  and  observances,  such  as  the 
time  of  keeping  Easter  and  the  form  of  the  tonsure.* 

With  a  view  to  settling  the  quarrel,  Oswy,  king  of  Northumbria, 
who  thought  that  "  as  they  all  expected  the  same  kingdom  of 


Fig.  4.  —  The  Ruins  of  Whitby.     (From  a  photograph  by  the  author) 

heaven,  so  they  ought  not  to  differ  in  the  celebration  of  the 
divine  mysteries,"  called  a  synod  composed  of  representatives  of 
both  parties,  at  the  monastery  of  Whitby.  The  chief  question 
of  debate,  which  was  argued  before  the  king  by  the  ablest  advo- 
cates of  both  churches,  was  the  proper  time  for  the  observance 
of  Easter.  The  debate  was  warm,  and  hot  words  were  exchanged. 
Finally,  Wilfrid,  the  speaker  for  the  Roman  party,  happening 
to  quote  the  words  of  Christ  to  Peter,  "  To  thee  will  I  give  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  the  king  asked  the  Celtic  monks 
if  these  words  were  really  spoken  by  Christ  to  that  apostle,  and 
upon  their  admitting  that  they  were,  Oswy  said  :   "  He  being  the 

4  In  the  Roman  tonsure  the  top  of  the  head  was  shaven,  in  the  Celtic  the  front 
part  only. 


LITERATURE  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  19 

doorkeeper,  ...  I  will  in  all  things  obey  his  decrees,  lest  when 
I  come  to  the  gates  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  there  should  be 
none  to  open  them." 

The  decision  of  the  prudent  Oswy  gave  the  British  Isles  to 
Rome ;  for  not  only  was  all  England  soon  won  to  the  Roman 
side,  but  the  churches  and  monasteries  of  Wales  and  Ireland  and 
Scotland  came  in  time  to  conform  to  the  Roman  standard  and 
custom.  "  By  the  assistance  of  our  Lord,"  says  the  pious  Latin 
chronicler,  "  the  monks  were  brought  to  the  canonical  observa- 
tion of  Easter  and  the  right  mode  of  the  tonsure." 

One  important  result  of  the  Roman  victory  was  the  hastening 
of  the  political  unity  of  England  through  its  ecclesiastical  unity. 
The  Celtic  Church,  in  marked  contrast  with  the  Latin,  was  utterly 
devoid  of  capacity  for  organization.  It  could  have  done  nothing 
in  the  way  of  developing  among  the  several  Anglo-Saxon  states 
the  sentiment  of  nationality.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Roman 
Church,  through  the  exercise  of  a  central  authority,  through 
national  synods  and  general  legislation,  overcame  the  isolation 
of  the  different  kingdoms  and  helped  powerfully  to  draw  them 
together  into  a  common  political  life. 

22.  Pagan  and  Christian  Literature  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. — A 
strong  side  light  is  cast  upon  our  ancestors'  change  of  religion  by 
two  famous  poems  which  date  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  of 
our  literature.  One  of  these,  called  Beowulf^  was  composed 
while  our  forefathers  were  yet  pagans,  and  probably  before  they 
left  the  Continent ;  the  other,  known  as  the  Paraphrase  of  the 
Scriptures,  was  written  soon  after  their  conversion  to  Christianity. 

Beowulf  is  an  epic  poem  which  tells  of  the  exploits  of  an 
heroic  Viking,  Beowulf  by  name,  who  delivers  the  people  from  a 
terrible  monster  that  feasted  upon  sleeping  men.  It  is  alive 
with  the  instincts  of  paganism,  and  is  a  faithful  reflection  of  the 
rough  heathen  times  in  which  it  had  birth.  Every  passage  dis- 
plays the  love  of  the  savage  for  coarse  horrors  and  brutal  slaugh- 
ters. Thus  it  runs :  "  The  wretched  wight  seized  quickly  a 
sleeping  warrior,  slit  him  unawares,  bit  his  bone-locker,  drank  his 
blood,  in  morsels  swallowed  him;  soon  had  he  all  eaten,  feet 


20  THE   CHURCH   AND    ITS   INSTITUTIONS 

and  fingers."  Before  another  can  be  made  a  victim  Beowulf 
closes  with  the  monster.  "  The  hall  thundered,  the  ale  of  all  the 
Danes  and  earls  was  spilt.  Angry,  fierce  were  the  strong  fighters, 
the  hall  was  full  of  din.  It  was  great  wonder  that  the  wine-hall 
stood  above  the  warlike  beasts,  that  the  fair  earth-house  fell  not 
to  the  ground."  Such  was  the  gleeman's  song  which  dehghted 
our  Saxon  forefathers  as  they  drank  and  caroused  in  their  great 
mead  halls. 

In  striking  contrast  with  the  pagan  hero  poem  stands  the 
Fharaphrase,  the  first  fruits  in  English  literature  of  the  mission 
of  Augustine.  This  consists  of  Bible  stories  retold  in  verse. 
These  metrical  paraphrases,  it  is  now  believed,  were  composed,  in 
the  main,  between  the  seventh  and  the  tenth  century  by  different 
poets,  who  seem  to  have  been  disciples  or  imitators  of  a  certain 
monk  of  Whitby,  named  Csedmon,  upon  whom,  according  to  a 
beautiful  legend  transmitted  to  us  by  the  Venerable  Bede,^  the 
gift  of  song  had  been  miraculously  bestowed,  and  who,  though  he 
could  neither  read  nor  write,  turned  into  sweet  verses,  as  they 
were  recited  to  him,  many  of  the  graphic  tales  of  Holy  Writ.  In 
these  compositions  is  reflected  in  a  wonderful  manner  the  revolu- 
tion in  thought  and  feeling  and  in  aim  and  purpose  of  life  which 
the  reception  of  Christian  teachings  and  doctrines,  in  place  of 
their  earlier  beliefs  and  ideas,  wrought  in  the  pagan  conquerors 
of  Britain. 

23.  The  Conversion  of  Germany.  — The  conversion  of  the  tribes 
of  Germany  was  effected  by  Celtic,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Frankish 
missionaries,  and  the  sword  of  Charlemagne  (sec.  74).  The  great 
apostle  of  Germany  was  the  Saxon  Winfrid,  better  known  as  St. 
Boniface.  During  a  long  and  intensely  active  life  he  founded 
schools  and  monasteries,  organized  churches,  preached  and  bap- 
tized, and   at  last  died   a  martyr's  death  (a.d.  753).    Through 

5  Bede  the  Venerable  (about  a.d.  673-735)  was  a  pious  and  learned  Northum- 
brian monk,  who  wrote,  among  other  works,  an  invaluable  one  entitled  Htstoria 
Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum,^^  The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English  Nation." 
The  work  recites,  as  its  central  theme,  the  story  of  how  our  forefathers  were  won 
to  the  Christian  faith.  We  are  indebted  to  Bede  for  a  large  part  of  our  knowledge 
of  early  England. 


THE  CONVERSION   OF  RUSSIA  21 

him,  as  says  Milman,  the  Saxon  invasion  of  England  flowed  back 
upon  the  Continent. 

The  Christianizing  of  the  tribes  of  Germany  relieved  the  Teu- 
tonic folk  of  Western  Europe  from  the  constant  peril  of  massacre 
by  their  heathen  kinsmen,  and  erected  a  strong  barrier  in  Central 
Europe  against  the  advance  of  the  waves  of  Turanian  paganism 
and  Mohammedanism  which  for  centuries  beat  so  threateningly 
against  the  eastern  frontiers  of  Germany. 

24.  The  Conversion  of  Russia.  —  Vladimir  the  Great  (d.  1015) 
was  the  Clovis  of  Russia.  This  ruler,  according  to  the  account 
of  the  matter  that  has  come  down  to  us,  having  had  urged  upon 
his  attention  the  claims  of  different  religions,  sent  out  envoys  to 
make  investigation  respecting  the  relative  merits  of  Mohamme- 
danism, the  Jewish  religion,  and  Latin  and  Greek  Christianity. 
The  commissioners  reported  in  favor  of  the  religion  of  Constan- 
tinople, having  been  brought  to  this  mind  by  what  seemed  to 
them  the  supernatural  splendors  of  the  ceremonials  that  they 
had  witnessed  in  the  great  Church  of  St.  Sophia. 

Vladimir  caused  the  great  wooden  idol  of  the  chief  god  of  his 
people  to  be  hurled  into  the  Dnieper,  and  his  subjects  to  be  bap- 
tized in  its  waters  by  the  Christian  priests.  This  act  of  Vladimir 
marks  the  real  beginning  of  the  evangelization  of  Russia  (988). 

That  the  Slavic  tribes  should  have  come  under  the  religious 
influence  of  Constantinople  instead  of  under  that  of  Rome  had 
far-reaching  consequences  for  Russian  history.  This  circum- 
stance cut  off  Russia  from  sympathy  with  the  Catholic  West  and 
shut  her  out  from  all  the  civilizing  influences  that  accompanied 
Latin  Christianity. 

25.  Christianity  in  the  North. — The  progress  of  Christianity 
in  the  North  was  slow;  but  gradually,  during  the  ninth,  tenth, 
and  eleventh  centuries,  the  missionaries  of  the  Church  won  over 
all  the  Scandinavian  peoples.  One  important  effect  of  their  con- 
version was  the  checking  of  those  piratical  expeditions  which 
during  all  the  centuries  of  their  pagan  history  had  been  constantly 
putting  out  from  the  fiords  of  the  Northern  peninsulas  and 
vexing  every  shore  to  the  south. 


22  THE   CHURCH  AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS 

By  about  the  year  looo  all  Europe  was  claimed  by  Christianity, 
save  the  regions  of  the  Northwest  about  the  Baltic,  which  were 
inhabited  chiefly  by  the  still  pagan  Finns  and  Lapps,  parts  of 
what  is  now  Russia,  and  the  larger  portion  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula,  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedan  Moors. 

26.  Reaction  of  Paganism  on  Christianity. — Thus  were  the 
conquerors  of  the  Empire  met  and  conquered  by  Christianity. 
The  victory,  it  must  be  confessed,  was  in  a  great  degree  a  victory 
rather  in  name  than  in  fact.  The  Church  could  not  all  at  once 
leaven  the  great  mass  of  heathenism  which  had  so  suddenly  been 
brought  within  its  pale.  For  a  long  time  after  they  were  called 
Christians,  the  barbarians,  coarse  and  cruel  and  self-willed  and 
superstitious  as  they  were,  understood  very  little  of  the  doctrines 
and  exhibited  still  less  of  the  true  spirit  of  the  religion  they  pro- 
fessed. To  this  depressing  reaction  of  Teutonic  barbarism  upon 
the  Church  is  without  doubt  to  be  attributed  in  large  measure  the 
deplorable  moral  state  of  Europe  during  so  large  a  part  of  the 
mediaeval  ages. 


II.    The  Rise  of  Monasticism 

27.  Monasticism  defined;  the  System  fostered  by  Scripture 
Teachings.  —  It  was  during  the  period  between  the  third  and  the 
sixth  century  that  there  grew  up  in  the  Church  the  institution 
known  as  Monasticism.  This  was  so  remarkable  a  system,  and 
one  that  exerted  so  profound  an  influence  upon  mediaeval  and 
even  later  history,  that  we  must  here  acquaint  ourselves  with 
at  least  its  spirit  and  aims. 

The  term  Monasticism,  in  its  widest  application,  denotes  a 
life  of  austere  self-denial  and  of  seclusion  from  the  world,  with 
the  object  of  promoting  the  interests  of  the  soul.  As  thus  defined, 
the  system  embraced  two  prominent  classes  of  ascetics  :  (i)  her- 
mits, or  anchorites,  —  persons  who,  retiring  from  the  world,  lived 
sohtary  lives  in  desolate  places;  (2)  cenobites,  or  monks,  who 
formed  communities  and  lived  usually  under  a  common  roof. 


CHRISTIAN   ASCETICISM  23 

Christian  asceticism*  was  fostered  by  teachings  drawn  from 
various  texts  of  the  Bible.  Thus  the  apostle  St.  Paul  had  said, 
"  He  that  is  unmarried  careth  for  the  things  that  belong  to  the 
Lord ;  .  .  .  but  he  that  is  married  careth  for  the  things  that  are 
of  the  world."  '  And  Christ  himself  had  declared,  **  If  any  man 
come  to  me,  and  hate  not  his  father,  and  mother,  and  wife,  and 
children,  and  brethren,  and  sisters,  yea,  and  his  own  life  also,  he 
cannot  be  my  disciple";^  and,  again,  he  had  said  to  the  rich 
young  man,  "  If  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  and  sell  that  thou  hast, 
and  give  to  the  poor."  ®  These  passages,  and  others  like  them, 
taken  literally,  tended  greatly  to  confirm  the  belief  of  the  ascetic 
that  his  life  of  isolation  and  poverty  and  abstinence  was  the  most 
perfect  life  and  the  surest  way  to  win  salvation. 

28.  St.  Antony,  "the  Father  of  the  Hermits." —St.  Antony, 
an  Egyptian  ascetic  (b.  about  a.d.  251),  who  by  his  example  and 
influence  gave  a  tremendous  impulse  to  the  movement,  is  called 
the  "  Father  of  the  Hermits."  The  romance  of  his  life,  written 
by  the  celebrated  Athanasius,  stirred  the  whole  Christian  world 
and  led  thousands  to  renounce  society  and  in  imitation  of  the 
saint  to  flee  to  the  desert.  It  is  estimated  that  before  the  close 
of  the  fourth  century  the  population  of  the  desert  in  many  dis- 
tricts in  Egypt  was  equal  to  that  of  the  cities. 

Most  renowned  of  all  the  anchorites  of  the  East  was  St.  Simeon 
StyHtes,  the  Saint  of  the  Pillar  (d.A.D.  459),  who  spent  thirty-six 
years  on  a  column  only  three  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top,  which  he 
had  gradually  raised  to  a  height  of  over  fifty  feet.^° 

29.  Monasticism  in  the  West.  —  During  the  fourth  century 
the  anchorite  type  of  asceticism,  which  was  favored  by  the  mild 
climate  of  the  Eastern  lands  and  especially  by  that  of  Egypt, 
assumed  in  some  degree  the  monastic  form;  that  is  to  say,  the 
fame  of  this  or  that  anchorite  or  hermit  drew  about  him  a  number 

«  The  ascetic  idea  of  life  was  by  no  means  original  with  Christianity.  Brahman- 
ism  has  always  had  its  ascetics  and  liermits.  All  Buddhistic  lands  are  to-day  filled 
with  monasteries  and  monks.  About  the  time  of  Christ  there  were  to  be  found  in 
Syria  among  the  Jews  the  Essenes,  a  sect  of  religious  enthusiasts  whose  members 
led  a  solitary  and  ascetic  life.  ^  i  Cor.  vii.  32,  33.  8  Luke  xiv.  26. 

0  Matt.  xix.  21.  W  Read  Tennyson's  poem,  "  St.  Simeon  Stylites." 


24 


THE  CHURCH  AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS 


of  disciples,  whose  rude  huts  or  cells  formed  what  was  known  as 
a  laura,  the  nucleus  of  a  monastery. 

Soon  after  the  cenobite  system  had  been  established  in  the  East 
it  was  introduced  into  Europe,  and  in  an  astonishingly  short  space 
of  time  spread  throughout  all  the  Western  countries  where  Chris- 
tianity had  gained  a  foothold.  Here  it  prevailed  to  the  almost 
total  exclusion  of  the  hermit  mode  of  life.    Monasteries  arose  on 


Fig.  5.  —  Ruins  of  the  Church  of  St.  Simeon  Stylites,  near 
Antioch,  Syria.  (From  Part  II  of  the  Publications  of  the  Amer- 
ican Archaeological  Expedition  to  Syria  in  1899-1900) 

This  church  was  erected,  a  few  years  after  Simeon's  death,  around  the  pillar  (the 
base  of  which  is  to  be  seen  in  the  cut)  upon  which  the  saint  had  passed  so  many- 
years.    It  became  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  mediaeval  pilgrim  shrines 

every  side.  The  number  that  fled  to  these  retreats  was  vastly 
augmented  by  the  disorder  and  terror  attending  the  invasion  of 
the  barbarians  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire  in  the  West. 

30.  The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict.  — With  the  view  to  introducing 
some  sort  of  regularity  into  the  practices  and  austerities  of  the 
monks,  rules  were  early  prescribed  for  their  observance.  The 
three  essential  requirements  or  vows  of  the  monk  were  poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience. 

The  greatest  legislator  of  the  monks  was  St.  Benedict  of  Nursia 
(a.d.  480-543),  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Monte 


MONASTIC  REFORMS 


25 


Cassino,  situated  midway  between  Rome  and  Naples  in  Italy. 
His  code  was  to  the  religious  world  what  the  Corpus  Juris  Civilis 
of  Justinian  (sec.  50)  was  to  the  lay  society  of  Europe.  Many  of 
his  rules  were  most  wise  and  practical,  as,  for  instance,  one  that 
made  manual  work  a  pious  duty,  and  another  that  required  the 
monk  to  spend  an  allotted  time  each  day  in  sacred  reading. 

The  monks  who  subjected  themselves  to  the  rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict were  known  as  Benedictines.    The  order  became  immensely 
popular.     At  one 
time  it  embraced 
about  forty  thou- 
sand abbeys. 

31.  Monastic  Re- 
forms ;  C 1  u  n  y.  — 
Monasticism  as  an 
active  and  potent 
force  in  the  history 
of  the  West  has  a 
long  and  wonderful 
history  of  more 
than  a  thousand 
years.  This  history 
presents  one  domi- 
nant fact,  —  ever- 
renewed  reform 
movements  in  the 
monasteries. 
Scarcely  was  a 
monastery  or  a 

monastic  order  established  before  the  acquisition  of  wealth  brought 
in  self-indulgence  and  laxity  of  discipline.  But  there  was  always 
among  the  backsliding  dwellers  in  the  cloisters  a  "saving  rem- 
nant," and  upon  these  choice  souls  the  spirit  of  reform  was  sure 
to  descend,  and  thus  it  happens  that  with  the  reform  movements 
marking  the  history  of  the  monks  are  associated  the  names  of  many 
of  the  purest  and  most  exalted  characters  of  the  mediaeval  ages. 


Fig.  6.  —  The   Simopetra  Monastkry   of 
Mount  Athos.     (From  a  photograph) 

•  The  convents  of  Mt.  Athos  in  their  present  state  give 
us  a  very  accurate  notion  of  the  great  monasteries  of 
Europe,  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century."  —  Saba- 
TIER,  Life  of  St.  Francis  of  Assist 


26 


THE   CHURCH   AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS 


Among  the  earliest  and  most  noteworthy  of  these  reform  move- 
ments was  that  which  resulted  in  the  founding  in  the  year  910  of 
the  celebrated  monastery  of  Cluny  in  Burgundy.  The  influences 
which  radiated  from  the  cloisters  of  Cluny  left  a  deep  impression 
upon  more  than  two  centuries  of  history  (sees.  123  and  133). 

32 .  Services  of  the  Monks  to  Civilization.  —  The  early  estab- 
lishment of  the  monastic  system  in  the  Church  resulted  in  great 
advantages  to  the  new  world  that  was  shaping  itself  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  old.  The  monks,  especially  the  Benedictines,  became 
agriculturists,  and  by  patient  labor  converted  the  wild  and  marshy 
lands  which  they  received  as  gifts  from  princes  and  others  into 
fruitful  fields,  thus  redeeming  from  barrenness  some  of  the  most 
desolate  districts  of  Europe. 

The  monks  also  became  missionaries,  and  it  was  largely  to  their 
zeal  and  devotion  that  the  Church  owed  her  speedy  and  signal 
victory  over  the  barbarians.  It  is  about  the  names  of  such  de- 
voted monks  as  Saints  Columba,  Gallus,  and  Boniface  that  gathers 

much  of  the  romance  of  the  mis- 
sions of  the  mediaeval  Church. 
The  quiet  air  of  the  monas- 
teries nourished  learning  as  well 
as  piety.  The  monks  became 
teachers,  and  under  the  shelter 
of  the  monasteries  established 
schools  which  were  the  nurseries 
of  learning  during  the  earher 
Middle  Ages  and  the  homes  for 
centuries  of  the  best  intellectual 
life  of  Europe. 

The  monks  also  became  copy- 
ists, and  with  great  painstaking 
and  industry  gathered  and  multiplied  ancient  manuscripts,  and 
thus  preserved  and  transmitted  to  the  modern  world  much  classical 
learning  and  literature  that  would  otherwise  have  been  lost.  Almost 
all  the  remains  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics  that  we  possess 
have  come  to  us  through  the  agency  of  the  monks. 


Fig.  7.  —  A  Monk  Copyist 

(From  a  manuscript  of   the 

fifteenth  century) 


THE   RISE   OF  THE   PAPACY  2/ 

The  monks  also  became  the  chroniclers  of  the  events  of  their 
own  times,  so  it  is  to  them  that  we  are  indebted  for  a  great  part 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  early  mediaeval  centuries.  Thus  the 
scriptorium,  or  writing  room  of  the  monastery,  held  the  place  in 
mediaeval  society  that  the  great  publishing  house  holds  in  the 
modern  world. 

The  monks  became  further  the  almoners  of  the  pious  and  the 
wealthy,  and  distributed  alms  to  the  poor  and  needy.  Everywhere 
the  monasteries  opened  their  hospitable  doors  to  the  weary,  the 
sick,  and  the  discouraged.  In  a  word,  these  retreats  were  the 
inns,  the  asylums,  and  the  hospitals  of  the  mediaeval  ages.  This 
spirit  of  helpfulness  and  charity  found  its  embodiment  in  the 
women  who  became  nuns.  To  a  woman  is  to  be  attributed  the 
establishment  of  the  first  Christian  hospital.^^ 

III.   The  Rise  of  the  Papacy 

33.  The  Empire  within  the  Empire.  —  Long  before  the  fall  of 
Rome  there  had  begun  to  grow  up  within  the  Roman  Empire  an 
ecclesiastical  state,  which  in  its  constitution  and  its  administrative 
system  was  shaping  itself  upon  the  imperial  model.  This  spiritual 
empire,  like  the  secular  empire,  possessed  a  hierarchy  of  officers, 
of  which  deacons,  priests  or  presbyters,  and  bishops  were  the 
most  important.  The  bishops  collectively  formed  what  is  known 
as  the  episcopate.  There  were  four  grades  of  bishops,  namely, 
country  bishops,  city  bishops,  metropolitans  or  archbishops,  and 
patriarchs.  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  there  were  five 
patriarchates,  that  is,  regions  ruled  by  patriarchs.  These  centered 
in  the  great  cities  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
and  Jerusalem. 

Among  the  patriarchs,  the  patriarchs  of  Rome  were  accorded 
almost  universally  a  precedence  in   honor  and   dignity.    They 

11 "  A  Roman  lady,  named  Fabiola,  in  the  fourth  century  founded  at  Rome,  as 
an  act  of  penance,  the  first  public  hospital,  and  the  charity  planted  by  that  woman's 
hand  overspread  the  world,  and  will  alleviate,  to  the  end  of  time,  the  darkest 
anguish  of  humanity." — Leckv,  History  of  European  Morals^  vol.  ii,  p.  80; 
quoted  by  Wishart,  Monks  and  Monasteries,  p.  105. 


28  THE   CHURCH  AND   ITS  INSTITUTIONS 

claimed  further  a  precedence  in  authority  and  jurisdiction,  and 
this  was  already  very  widely  recognized.  Before  the  close  of  the 
eighth  century  there  was  firmly  established  over  a  great  part  of 
Christendom  what  we  n^ay  call  an  ecclesiastical  monarchy. 

Besides  the  influence  of  great  men,  such  as  Leo  the  Great, 
Gregory  the  Great,  and  Nicholas  I,  who  held  the  seat  of  St.  Peter, 
there  were  various  historical  circumstances  that  contributed  to 
the  realization  by  the  Roman  bishops  of  their  claim  to  suprem- 
acy and  aided  them  vastly  in  establishing  the  almost  universal 
authority  of  the  see  of  Rome.  In  the  following  paragraphs  w^e 
shall  enumerate  several  of  these  favoring  circumstances.  These 
matters  constitute  the  great  landmarks  in  the  rise  and  early 
growth  of  the  Papacy. 

34.  The  Belief  in  the  Primacy  of  St.  Peter  and  in  the  Founding 
by  him  of  the  Church  at  Rome.  —  It  came  to  be  believed  that  the 
apostle  Peter  had  been  given  by  the  Master  a  sort  of  primacy 
among  his  fellow-apostles.  This  belief  was  fostered  by  the  fact 
that  Christ  had  intrusted  that  disciple  with  the  keys  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven,  and  had  invested  him  with  superlative  authority 
as  a  teacher  and  interpreter  of  the  Word  by  the  commission, 
"  Feed  my  sheep ;  .  .  .  feed  my  lambs,"  thus  giving  into  his 
charge  the  entire  flock  of  the  Church.  It  also  came  to  be  believed 
that  Peter  himself  had  founded  the  church  at  Rome.  It  is  prob- 
able that  he  did  so.  Without  doubt  he  preached  at  Rome  and 
suffered  martyrdom  there  under  the  Emperor  Nero. 

These  behefs  and  interpretations  of  history,  which  make  the 
Roman  bishops  the  successors  of  the  first  of  the  apostles  and  the 
holders  of  his  seat,  contributed  greatly,  of  course,  to  enhance  their 
reputation  and  to  justify  their  claim  to  a  primacy  of  authority  over 
all  the  dignitaries  of  the  Church. 

35.  Advantages  of  their  Position  at  the  Political  Center  of  the 
World.  —  The  claims  of  the  Roman  bishops  were  in  the  early  cen- 
turies greatly  favored  by  the  spell  in  which  the  world  was  held  by 
the  name  and  prestige  of  imperial  Rome.  Thence  it  had  been 
accustomed  to  receive  commands  in  all  temporal  matters ;  how 
very  natural,  then,  that  thither  it  should  turn  for  command  and 


THE   RISE   OF  THE   PAPACY  29 

guidance  in  spiritual  affairs.  The  Roman  bishops  in  thus  occupy- 
ing the  geographical  and  political  center  of  the  world  enjoyed  a 
great  advantage  over  all  other  bishops  and  patriarchs.  The  halo 
that  during  many  centuries  of  wonderful  history  had  gathered 
about  the  Eternal  City  came  naturally  to  invest  with  a  kind  of 
aureole  the  head  of  the  Christian  bishop. 

36.  Effect  of  the  Removal  of  the  Imperial  Government  to  Con- 
stantinople. —  Nor  was  this  advantage  that  was  given  the  Roman 
bishops  by  their  position  at  Rome  lost  when  the  old  capital  ceased 
to  be  an  imperial  city.  The  removal,  by  the  acts  of  Diocle- 
tian and  Constantine,  of  the  chief  seat  of  the  government  to  the 
East,  instead  of  diminishing  the  power  and  dignity  of  the  Roman 
bishops,  tended  greatly  to  promote  their  claims  and  authority. 
It  left  the  pontiff  the  foremost  personage  in  Rome. 

37.  The  Pastor  as  Protector  of  Rome.  —  Again,  when  the  bar- 
barians came,  there  came  another  occasion  for  the  Roman  bishops 
to  widen  their  influence  and  enhance  their  authority.  Rome's 
extremity  was  their  opportunity.  Thus  it  will  be  recalled  how 
mainly  through  the  intercession  of  the  pious  Pope  Leo  the  Great 
the  fierce  Attila  was  persuaded  to  turn  back  and  spare  the  imperial 
city;'^  and  how  the  same  bishop,  in  the  year  a.d.  455,  also  ap- 
peased in  a  measure  the  wrath  of  the  Vandal  Geiseric  and  shielded 
the  inhabitants  from  the  worst  passions  of  a  barbarian  soldiery.^* 

Thus  when  the  emperors,  the  natural  defenders  of  the  capital, 
were  unable  to  protect  it,  the  unarmed  Pastor  was  able,  through 
the  awe  and  reverence  inspired  by  his  holy  office,  to  render  serv- 
ices that  could  not  but  result  in  bringing  increased  honor  and 
dignity  to  the  Roman  see. 

38.  Effects  upon  the  Papacy  of  the  Extinction  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  West.  —  But  if  the  misfortunes  of  the  Empire  in  the 

12  Legend  tells  how  Attila,  after  his  retreat  from  Italy,  being  taunted  for  having 
allowed  himself  to  be  turned  back  by  an  unarmed  bishop,  replied,  "  It  was  not  the 
bishop  of  whom  I  was  afraid  but  the  man  who  stood  behind  him."  The  legend 
explains  that  it  was  St.  Peter  whom  Attila  had  seen  standing  with  menacing  gesture 
behind  the  pope.  The  legend,  read  aright,  is  true.  Behind  every  venerated  bishop 
and  holy  abbot  the  barbarians  saw  a  heavenly  Bgure,  whose  restraining  gesture  they 
dared  not  disregard. 

18  See  Ancient  History,  sees.  558  and  559. 


30  THE  CHURCH  AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS 

West  tended  to  the  enhancement  of  the  reputation  and  influence 
of  the  Roman  bishops,  much  more  did  its  final  downfall  tend  to 
the  same  end.  Upon  the  surrender  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 
West  into  the  hands  of.  the  Emperor  of  the  East,  the  bishops  of 
Rome  became  the  most  important  personages  in  Western  Europe, 
and  being  so  far  removed  from  the  court  at  Constantinople  grad- 
ually assumed  almost  imperial  powers.^*  They  became  the  arbiters 
between  the  barbarian  chiefs  and  the  Italians,  and  to  them  were 
referred  for  decision  the  disputes  arising  between  cities,  states, 
and  kings.  Especially  did  the  bishops  and  archbishops  through- 
out the  West  in  their  contests  with  the  Arian  barbarian  rulers  look 
to  Rome  for  advice  and  help.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  greatly  these 
things  tended  to  strengthen  the  authority  and  increase  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Roman  bishops. 

39.  The  Missions  of  Rome.  — Again,  the  early  missionary  zeal 
of  the  church  at  Rome  made  her  the  mother  of  many  churches, 
all  of  whom  looked  up  to  her  with  affectionate  and  grateful  loy- 
alty. Thus  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  won  to  the  faith  by  the  mis- 
sionaries of  Rome,  conceived  a  deep  veneration  for  the  holy  see 
and  became  its  most  devoted  children.  To  Rome  it  was  that  the 
Christian  Britons  made  their  most  frequent  pilgrimages,  and 
thither  they  sent  their  offering  of  St.  Peter's  pence.  And  when 
the  Saxons  became  missionaries  to  their  pagan  kinsmen  of  the 
Continent  they  transplanted  into  the  heart  of  Germany  these  same 
feelings  of  filial  attachment  and  love.  The  monk  St.  Boniface, 
"  the  Apostle  of  Germany,"  with  whose  labors  we  are  already 
familiar  (sec.  23),  while  winning  the  heathen  of  the  German 
forests  to  a  love  for  the  Cross,  inspired  them  also  with  a  pro- 
found reverence  for  the  Roman  see.  Boniface  himself  took  a 
solemn  oath  of  fealty  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  the  bishops 
of  the  German  churches  that  arose  through  the  efforts  of  this 
zealous  apostle  were  required  to  promise  a  like  obedience  to 
Rome. 

14  During  this  time  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  who  was  the  most  eminent  of 
the  early  popes,  ruled  as  though  he  were  a  temporal  prince,  and  administered  affairs 
almost  like  an  independent  sovereign. 


THE   RISE   OF  THE   PAPACY  31 

40.  Result  of  the  Fall  of  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria 
before  the  Saracens.  —  In  the  seventh  century  all  the  great  cities 
of  the  East  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans.  This  was 
a  matter  of  tremendous  consequence  for  the  church  at  Rome, 
since  in  every  one  of  these  great  capitals  there  was,  or  might 
have  been,  a  rival  of  the  Roman  bishop.  The  virtual  erasure  of 
Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria  from  the  map  of  Christendom 
left  only  one  city,  Constantinople,  that  could  possibly  nourish 
a  rival  of  the  Roman  church.  Thus  did  the  very  misfortunes 
of  Christendom  give  an  added  security  to  the  ever-increasing 
authority  of  the  Roman  prelate. 

41.  The  Iconoclastic  Controversy;  the  Popes  become  Temporal 
Sovereigns.  — A  dispute  about  the  use  of  images  in  worship,  known 
in  Church  history  as  the  "War  of  the  Iconoclasts,"  which  broke 
out  in  the  eighth  century  between  the  Greek  churches  of  the 
East  and  the  Latin  churches  of  the  West,  drew  after  it  far- 
reaching  consequences  as  respects  the  growing  power  of  the 
Roman  pontiffs. 

Even  long  before  the  seventh  century  the  churches  both  in  the 
East  and  in  the  West  had  become  crowded  with  images  or  pictures 
of  the  apostles,  saints,  and  martyrs,  which  to  the  ignorant  classes 
at  least  were  objects  of  superstitious  veneration.  But  the  great 
disaster  which  just  at  this  period  befell  the  Church  in  the  East  — 
the  irruption  and  conquests  of  the  Arab  Mohammedans  —  con- 
tributed to  create  among  the  Christians  there  a  strong  sentiment 
against  the  use  of  images  as  aids  in  worship.  A  party  arose,  who, 
like  the  party  of  reform  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  declared 
that  God  had  given  the  Church  over  into  the  hands  of  the  infidels 
because  the  Christians  had  departed  from  his  true  worship  and 
fallen  into  idolatry.  These  opposers  of  the  use  of  images  in 
worship  were  given  the  name  of  Iconoclasts  (image-breakers). 

Leo  the  Isaurian,  who  came  to  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in 
717,  was  a  most  zealous  Iconoclast.  The  Greek  churches  of  the 
East  having  been  cleared  of  images,  the  Emperor  resolved  to 
clear  also  the  Latin  churches  of  the  West  of  these  symbols.  To 
this  end  he  issued  a  decree  that  they  should  not  be  used. 


12  THE  CHURCH  AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS 

The  bishop  of  Rome  not  only  opposed  the  execution  of  the 
edict  but  by  the  ban  of  excommunication  cut  off  the  Emperor 
and  all  the  iconoclastic  churches  of  the  East  from  communion 
with  the  true  Catholic  Church.  Though  images  —  paintings  and 
mosaics  only  —  were  permanently  restored  in  the  Eastern  churches 
in  842,  still  by  this  time  other  causes  of  alienation  had  arisen,  and 
the  breach  between  the  two  sections  of  Christendom  could  not 
now  be  closed.  The  final  outcome  was  the  permanent  separation, 
in  the  last  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  of  the  Church  of  the  East 
from  that  of  the  West.  The  former  became  known  as  the  Greek, 
Byzantine,  or  Eastern  Church ;  the  latter,  as  the  Latin,  Roman,  or 
Catholic  Church. 

The  East  was  thus  eventually  lost  to  the  Roman  see,  but  the 
loss  was  more  than  made  good  by  fresh  accessions  of  power  in  the 
West.  In  this  quarrel  with  the  Eastern  emperors  the  Roman  bishops 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Frankish  princes  of  the  Carolingian 
house  (sec.  72).  We  shall  a  httle  later  tell  briefly  the  story  of  this 
alliance.  Never  did  allies  render  themselves  more  serviceable  to 
each  other.  The  popes  consecrated  the  Frankish  chieftains  as  kings 
and  emperors;  the  grateful  Frankish  kings  defended  the  popes 
against  all  their  enemies,  imperial  and  barbarian,  and  dowering 
them  with  cities  and  provinces,  laid  the  basis  of  their  temporal 
power.^^ 

15  The  cause  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  from  about  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  for- 
ward, was  greatly  furthered  by  two  of  the  most  surprising  and  successful  forgeries  in 
all  history.  These  famous  documents  are  known  as  the  Donation  of  Constantine 
and  the  False  Decretals.  The  probable  object  of  the  former  was  to  justify  the 
donation  of  Pippin  (sec.  ^^  by  providing  evidence  of  a  similar  and  earlier  donation 
by  the  first  imperial  patron  of  the  Church.  It  "  tells  how  Constantine  the  Great, 
cured  of  his  leprosy  by  the  prayers  of  Sylvester,  resolved  ...  to  forsake  the  ancient 
seat  for  a  new  capital  on  the  Bosporus,  lest  the  continuance  of  the  secular  govern- 
ment should  cramp  the  freedom  of  the  spiritual,  and  how  he  bestowed  therewith 
upon  the  f  ope  and  his  successors  the  sovereignty  over  Italy  and  the  countries  of  the 
West."  —  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  E7ttpire,  p.  loo. 

The  so-called  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals,  which  appeared  about  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century,  tended  to  a  similar  end  as  did  the  Donation  of  Constantine,  although 
they  were  originally  put  out  in  the  interest  of  the  bishops  and  not  of  the  Pope. 
They  formed  part  of  a  collection  of  Church  documents,  and  included  many  alleged 
letters  and  edicts  of  the  early  popes.  Granting  their  genuineness,  they  went  to  prove 
that  the  bishops  of   Rome  in  the  second  and  third   centuries   exercised  all  that 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  33 

Such  in  broad  outline  was  the  way  in  which  grew  up  the  Papacy, 
an  institution  which,  far  beyond  all  others,  was  destined  to  mold 
the  fortunes  and  direct  the  activities  of  Western  Christendom 
throughout  the  mediaeval  time. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Bede,  Ecclesiastical  History.  Read  bk.  i, 
chaps,  xxiii-xxv  ;  bk.  ii,  chaps,  i  and  xiii ;  bk.  iii,  chaps,  iii  and  xxv.  Trans- 
lations and  Reprints,  vol.  ii,  No.  7,  "  Life  of  St.  Columban  "  (ed.  by  Dana 
Carleton  Munro) ;  an  instructive  biography  of  an  Irish  monk.  Henderson, 
Select  Historical  Documents,  pp.  274-314,  "The  Rule  of  Saint  Benedict." 
European  History  Studies  (Univ.  of  Nebraska),  vol.  ii,  No.  6,  "  Monasti- 
cism."  Athanasius,  Life  0/ St.  Antony  ;  to  be  found  in  literal  translation 
in  KiNGSLEY,  The  Hermits.  See  also  Robinson,  Readings  in  European 
History,  chap.  v. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Zimmer,  The  Irish  Element  in  Mediceval  Culture  ; 
an  interesting  account  of  the  services  rendered  mediaeval  civilization  by  the 
Irish  monks.  Kingsley,  The  Hermits.  Montalembert,  The  Monks  of 
the  West ;  an  ardent  eulogy  of  monasticism.  Wishart,  A  Short  History 
of  Monks  and  Monasteries  ;  the  best  short  account  in  English.  Putnam, 
Books  and  their  Makers  during  the  Middle  Ages,  vol.  i ;  for  the  labors  of 
the  monks  as  copyists  and  illuminators.  Jessopp,  The  Coming  of  the 
Friars,  chap,  iii,  *'  Daily  Life  in  a  Mediaeval  Monastery."  Hatch,  The 
Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Church  ;  the  best  work  on  the  subject 
from  the  Protestant  side.  Fisher,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  the 
earlier  chapters  ;  concise,  fair,  and  scholarly.  Emerton,  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages,  chap,  ix,  "The  Rise  of  the  Christian  Church," 
and  chap,  xi,  "  The  Monks  of  the  West."  Barry,  The  Papal  Monarchy, 
chaps,  i-v.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  chap,  vi,  "  The 
Formation  of  the  Papacy."  Cardinal  Gibbons,  The  Faith  of  our  Fathers, 
chap,  ix,  "  The  Primacy  of  Peter,"  and  chap,  x,  "  The  Supremacy  of  the 
Popes  " ;  an  authoritative  statement  of  the  Catholic  view  of  these  matters. 
MuNRO  and  Sellery,  Media:val  Civilization,  pp.  60-86  and  11 4-1 58. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Conversion  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons. 
2.  The  Life  of  St.  Antony.  3.  St.  Columba  and  lona.  4.  Whitby.  5.  St. 
Benedict  and  Monte  Cassino.     6.  The  scriptorium  of  the  monastery. 

authority  and  extensive  jurisdiction  which  were  now  being  claimed  by  the  popes 
of  the  ninth  century. 

In  that  uncritical  age  the  documents  were  received  by  everybody  as  authentic. 
The  papal  party  effectively  quoted  them  in  support  of  their  largest  claims  for  the 
Roman  see.  They  are  now  acknowledged  by  all  scholars,  Catholic  as  well  as  Prot- 
estant, to  have  been  forged.  Laurentius  Valla  (1406-1457),  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  humanists  (sec.  300),  ^vas  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  real  character  of  the 
Donation  of  Constantine. 


CHAPTER    IV 
THE  FUSION  OF  LATIN  AND  TEUTON 

42.  Introductory The  conversion  of  the  barbarians  and  the 

development  in  Western  Christendom  of  the  central  authority  of 
the  Papacy  prepared  the  way  for  the  introduction  among  the 
northern  races  of  the  arts  and  the  culture  of  Rome,  and  contrib- 
uted greatly  to  hasten  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Gaul  the  fusion  into  a 
single  people  of  the  Latins  and  the  Teutons,  of  which  important 
matter  we  shall  treat  in  the  present  chapter.  We  shall  tell  how 
these  two  races,  upon  the  soil  of  the  old  Empire  in  the  West, 
intermingled  their  blood,  their  languages,  their  laws,  their  usages 
and  customs,  to  form  new  peoples,  new  tongues,  and  new  institu- 
tions. We  shall  speak  of  only  a  few  things  and  say  only  just 
enough  to  show  how  composite  is  the  character  of  the  structure 
that  was  reared  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Empire,  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  broken-down  civilization  of  Rome  and  the  new 
contributions  of  the  northern  peoples. 

43.  The  Romance  Nations.  —  In  some  districts  the  barbarian 
invaders  and  the  Roman  provincials  were  kept  apart  for  a  long 
time  by  the  bitter  antagonism  of  race,  and  by  a  sense  of  injury 
on  the  one  hand  and  a  feehng  of  disdainful  superiority  on  the 
other.  But  for  the  most  part  the  Teutonic  intruders  and  the 
Latin-speaking  inhabitants  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  France  very  soon 
began  freely  to  mingle  their  blood  by  family  alliances. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  say  what  proportion  the  Teutons  bore 
to  the  Romans.  Of  course  the  proportion  varied  in  the  different 
countries.  In  none  of  the  countries  named,  however,  was  it  large 
enough  to  absorb  the  Latinized  population ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
barbarians  were  themselves  absorbed,  yet  not  without  changing 
very  essentially  the   body  into  which  they  were  incorporated. 

34 


FORMATION  OF  THE  ROMANCE  LANGUAGES   35 

Thus  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  everything  in  Italy, 
Spain,  and  France  —  dwellings,  cities,  dress,  customs,  language, 
laws,  soldiers  —  reminds  us  of  Rome.  A  little  later  and  a  great 
change  has  taken  place.  The  barbarians  have  come  in.  For  a 
time  we  see  everywhere,  jostling  each  other  in  the  streets  and 
markets,  crowding  each  other  in  the  theaters  and  courts,  kneel- 
ing together  in  the  churches,  the  former  Romanized  subjects  of 
the  Empire  and  their  uncouth  Teutonic  conquerors.  But  by  the 
close  of  the  ninth  century,  to  speak  in  very  general  terms,  the 
two  elements  have  become  quite  intimately  blended,  and  a  cen- 
tury or  two  later  Roman  and  Teuton  have  alike  disappeared,  and 
we  are  introduced  to  Italians,  Spaniards,  and  Frenchmen.  These 
we  call  Romance  nations,  because  at  base  they  are  Roman. 

44.  The  Formation  of  the  Romance  Languages.  —  During  the 
five  centuries  of  their  subjection  to  Rome,  the  natives  of  Spain 
and  Gaul  forgot  their  barbarous  dialects  and  came  to  speak  a  cor- 
rupt Latin.  Now,  in  exactly  the  same  way  that  the  dialects  of 
the  Celtic  tribes  of  Gaul  and  of  the  Celtiberians  of  Spain  had 
given  way  to  the  more  refined  speech  of  the  Romans  did  the 
rude  languages  of  the  Teutons  yield  to  the  more  cultured  speech 
of  the  Roman  provincials.  In  the  course  of  two  or  three  centu- 
ries after  their  entrance  into  the  Empire,  Goths,  Lombards, 
Burgundians,  and  Franks  had,  in  a  large  measure,  dropped 
their  own  tongue  and  were  speaking  that  of  the  people  they  had 
subjected. 

But  of  course  this  provincial  Latin  underwent  a  great  change 
upon  the  lips  of  the  mixed  descendants  of  the  Romans  and 
Teutons.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  a  common  popular  hterature, 
the  changes  that  took  place  in  one  country  did  not  exactly  corre- 
spond to  those  going  on  in  another.  Hence,  in  the  course  of 
time,  we  find  different  dialects  springing  up,  and  by  about  the 
ninth  century  the  Latin  has  virtually  disappeared  as  a  spoken 
language,  and  its  place  has  been  usurped  by  what  will  be  known 
as  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French  languages,  all  more  or  less 
resembling  the  ancient  I^tin,  and  all  called  Romance  tongues, 
because  children  of  the  old  Roman  speech. 


36  THE  FUSION   OF   LATIN  AND  TEUTON 

45.  Consequences  of  the  Confusion  of  Languages.  — We  are  now  in 
a  position  to  discern  one  of  the  causes  that  helped  to  render  denser 
that  dark  pall  of  ignorance  which,  settling  over  Western  Europe  in 
the  fifth  century,  continued  almost  unreHeved  until  the  eleventh. 

As  the  provincial  Latin  began  to  change,  the  language  in 
which  the  books  were  written  and  the  everyday  speech  began 
to  diverge.  Thus  the  manuscript  rolls  which  held  the  wisdom 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  soon  became  sealed  to  all  save  the 
learned.  In  this  way  the  confusion  of  tongues  conspired  with 
the  general  confusion  and  anarchy  of  the  times  to  extinguish  the 
last  rays  of  science  and  philosophy,  and  to  deepen  the  gloom  of 
the  night  that  had  settled  upon  all  the  lands  once  illumined  by 
ancient  learning  and  culture.  Several  centuries  had  necessarily 
to  pass  before  the  new  languages  forming  could  develop  each  a 
literature  of  its  own  (sec.  275).  Meanwhile  all  learning  was  shut 
up  within  the  walls  of  the  monasteries.  ''For  many  centuries," 
says  Hallam,  "  to  sum  up  the  account  of  ignorance  in  a  word,  it 
was  rare  for  a  layman,  of  whatever  rank,  to  know  how  to  sign  his 
name."  Charlemagne,  king  of  the  Franks,  the  most  renowned 
personage  of  the  five  centuries  immediately  following  the  fall  of 
Rome,  was  unable  to  write  (sec.  76). 

46.  The  Personal  Character  of  the  Teutonic  Laws.  —  The  laws 
of  the  barbarians  were  generally  personal  instead  of  territorial,  as 
with  us ;  that  is,  instead  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  given  country 
being  subject  to  the  same  laws,  there  were  different  ones  for  the 
different  classes  of  society.  The  Latins,  for  instance,  were  sub- 
ject in  private  law  only  to  the  old  Roman  code,  while  the  Teutons 
lived  under  the  tribal  rules  and  regulations  which  they  had 
brought  with  them  from  beyond  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 
The  curious  state  of  things  resulting  from  this  personality  of  law, 
as  it  is  called,  is  vividly  pictured  by  the  following  observation  of 
a  chronicler:  "For  it  would  often  happen,"  he  says,  "that  five 
men  would  be  sitting  or  walking  together,  not  one  of  whom  would 
have  the  same  law  with  any  other." 

Even  among  themselves  the  Teutons  knew  nothing  of  the 
modern  legal  maxim  that  all  should  stand  equal  before  the  law. 


ORDEALS  37 

The  penalty  inflicted  upon  the  evil  doer  depended  not  upon  the 
nature  of  his  crime  but  upon  his  rank  or  that  of  the  party  injured. 
Thus  slaves  and  serfs  were  beaten  and  put  to  death  for  minor 
offenses,  while  a  freeman  might  atone  for  any  crime,  even  for 
murder,  by  the  payment  of  a  fine,  the  amount  of  the  penalty 
being  determined  by  the  rank  of  the  victim. 

47.  Ordeals. — The  agencies  relied  upon  by  the  Germans  to 
ascertain  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  accused  persons  show  in  how 
rude  a  state  the  administration  of  justice  among  them  was.  One 
very  common  method  of  proof  was  by  what  were  called  ordeals, 
in  which  the  question  was  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  God. 
Of  these  the  chief  were  the  ordeal  by  fire,  the  ordeal  by  water, 
and  the  wager  of  battle} 

The  ordeal  by  fire  consisted  in  taking  in  the  hand  a  piece  of 
red-hot  iron,  or  in  walking  blindfolded  with  bare  feet  over  a  row 
of  hot  plowshares  laid  lengthwise  at  irregular  distances.  If  the  per- 
son escaped  unharmed,  his  innocence  was  held  to*  be  established. 

Another  way  of  performing  the  fire  ordeal  was  by  running 
through  the  flames  of  two  fires  built  close  together,  or  by  walking 
over  live  brands ;  hence  the  phrase  "  to  haul  over  the  coals." 

The  ordeal  by  water  was  of  two  kinds,  by  hot  water  and  by 
cold.  In  the  hot-water  ordeal  the  accused  person  thrust  his  arm 
into  boiling  water,  and  if  no  hurt  was  visible  upon  the  arm  three 
days  after  the  operation,  the  party  was  considered  guiltless.  When 
we  speak  of  one's  being  <*in  hot  water,"  we  use  an  expression 
which  had  its  origin  in  this  ordeal. 

In  the  cold-water  trial  the  suspected  person  was  thrown  into 
a  stream  or  pond  :  if  he  floated,  he  was  held  guilty ;  if  he  sank, 
innocent.  The  water,  it  was  believed,  would  reject  the  guilty, 
but  receive  the  innocent  into  its  bosom.  The  practice  common 
in  Europe  until  a  very  recent  date  of  trying  supposed  witches  by 
throwing  them  into  a  pond  of  water  to  see  whether  they  would 
sink  or  float,  grew  out  of  this  superstition. 

1  The  \vager  of  battle  is  by  some  writers  treated  as  a  distinct  form  of  trial ;  but 
being  an  appeal  to  the  decision  of  Heaven,  it  rested  on  the  same  principle  as  the  trials 
by  fire  and  water,  and  consequently  is  properly  given  a  place  among  the  ordeals. 


38 


THE  FUSION  OF  LATIN  AND  TEUTON 


The  trial  by  combat,  or  wager  of  battle,  was  a  solemn  judicial 
duel.  It  was  resorted  to  in  the  belief  that  God  would  give  vic- 
tory to  the  right.  One  circumstance  that  caused  this  form  of  the 
ordeal  to  be  often  invoked  was  the  misuse  of  the  kind  of  trial 
known  as  compurgation,  or  the  wager  of  law?  This  allowed  a 
person  accused  of  a  crime  to  clear  himself  by  simply  swearing 
that  he  was  innocent,  provided  he  could  get  a  sufficient  number 

of  his  relatives  or 
neighbors  to  swear 
that  he  was  telling 
the  truth.^  The  num- 
ber of  concurring  wit- 
nesses was  depend- 
ent upon  the  serious- 
ness of  the  charge  or 
the  rank  of  the  per- 
son making  the  oath. 
Now,  this  privilege 
was  liable  to  abuse, 
and  the  only  resort 
left  to  the  injured 
person  in  such  case 
was  to  challenge  the 
perjurer  to  submit  to 

the  judgment  of  God 
Fig.  8. — Trial  by  Combat.    (From  a  manuscript  •.     t_      u  i. 

r  .     r-r        ,  r      -r        .  ,     ^     as  it  shouM  be  pro- 

of the  fifteenth  century  ;  after  Lacrotx) 

nounced  m  a  solemn 

judicial    combat.      This   form   of   trial   grew   into   great  favor. 

Naturally  it  was  a  favorite  mode  of  trial  among  a  people  who 

found  their  chief  delight  in  fighting.     Even  the  judge  in  some 

cases  resorted  to  it  to  maintain  the  authority  and  dignity  of  his 

court.     To  a  person  who  had  disregarded  a  summons  the  judge 

2  The  wager  of  law  is  not  to  be  reckoned  among  the  ordeals,  as  it  lacked  the 
essential  element  of  an  ordeal,  namely,  the  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  Heaven. 

3  In  course  of  time  this  form  of  the  oath  was  changed,  so  that  the  compurgators, 
as  the  witnesses  were  called,  simply  swore  that  they  believed  the  oath  of  the  accused 
to  be  true  and  clean. 


ORDEALS 


39 


would  send  a  challenge  in  this  form  :  "  I  sent  for  thee,  and  thou 
didst  not  think  it  worth  thy  while  to  come ;  I  demand  therefore 
satisfaction  for  this  thy  contempt."  Religious  disputes  also  were 
sometimes  settled  by  this  sort  of  "  martial  logic."  In  Spain  as  late 
as  the  eleventh  century  a  contention  as  to  which  of  two  liturgies 
should  be  adopted  was  decided  by  a  combat  between  two  knights. 

The  ordeal  was  frequently  performed  by  deputy,  that  is,  one 
person  for  hire  or  for  the  sake  of  friendship  would  undertake  it  for 
another;  hence  the  ex- 
pression "to  go  through 
fire  and  water  to  serve 
one."  Especially  was 
such  substitution  com- 
mon in  the  judicial  duel, 
as  women  and  ecclesias- 
tics were  generally  forbid- 
den to  appear  personally 
in  the  lists.  There  are 
instances  mentioned, 
however,  where  even 
women  performed  the 
wager  of  battle;  in  which 
case,  to  equalize  the  con- 
ditions, the  man  was 
placed  in  a  pit  waist-deep,  with  his  left  hand  tied  behind  his  back. 

The  champions,  as  the  deputies  were  called,  became  in  time 
a  regular  class  in  society,  like  the  gladiators  in  ancient  Rome. 
Religious  houses  and  chartered  towns  hired  champions  at  a  regular 
salary  to  defend  all  the  cases  to  which  they  might  become  a  party. 
In  order  that  the  champion  might  be  stimulated  to  do  his  best  for 
the  party  he  represented,  he  was  hanged  or  suffered  the  loss  of  a 
hand  or  a  foot  if  he  allowed  himself  to  be  worsted  in  a  combat.* 


Fig.  9.  —  Wager  of  Baitle  between  a 
Man  and  Woman.  (From  a  manuscript 
of  the  fifteenth  century ;  after  Lea,  Super- 
stition and  Force) 


*  There  were  many  other  forms  of  the  ordeal,  besides  those  we  have  given,  in  use 
among  the  different  Teutonic  tribes,  some  of  which  were  plainly  native  customs, 
while  others  seem  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Christian  priests.  Thus,  there 
was  the  ordeal  by  consecrated  bread ;  if  the  morsel  strangled  the  person,  he  was 
adjudged  guilty.     From  this  form  of  trial  arose  the  expression,  "  May  this  morsel 


40  THE   FUSION   OF   LATIN  AND  TEUTON 

48.  The  Revival  of  the  Roman  Law.  —  Now,  the  barbarian  law 
system,  if  such  it  can  be  called,  the  character  of  which  we  have 
merely  suggested  by  the  preceding  illustrations,  gradually  dis- 
placed the  Roman  law  in  all  those  countries  where  the  two  sys- 
tems at  first  existed  alongside  each  other,  save  in  Italy  and 
Southern  France,  where  the  provincials  greatly  outnumbered  the 
invaders.  But  the  admirable  jurisprudence  of  Rome  was  bound 
to  assert  its  superiority.  About  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century 
there  was  a  great  revival  in  the  study  of  the  Roman  law  as 
embodied  in  the  Justinian  code,  and  in  the  course  of  a  century 
or  two  this  became  either  the  groundwork  or  a  strong  modifying 
element  in  the  law  systems  of  almost  all  the  peoples  of  Europe. 

What  took  place  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  fate 
of  the  Teutonic  languages  in  Gaul,  Italy,  and  Spain.  As  the 
barbarian  tongues,  after  maintaining  a  place  in  those  countries 
for  two  or  three  centuries,  at  length  gave  place  to  the  superior 
Latin,  which  became  the  basis  of  the  new  Romance  languages, 
so  now  in  the  domain  of  law  the  barbarian  maxims  and  customs, 
though  holding  their  place  more  persistently,  likewise  finally  give 
way,  almost  everywhere  and  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  to  the 
more  excellent  law  system  of  the  Empire.  Rome  must  fulfill  her 
destiny  and  give  laws  to  the  nations. 

Though  longer  delayed  in  their  adoption,  the  law  maxims  and 
principles  of  the  Empire  at  length  became  more  widely  spread 
and  influential  than  the  Latin  speech ;  for  Germany,  which  never 
gave  up  her  Teutonic  tongue,  finally  adopted  the  Roman  law 
system,  to  the  degree  of  making  its  principles  the  basis  of  her 
jurisprudence.  And  even  England,  though  she  clung  tenaciously 
to  her  Teutonic  customs  and  maxims,  just  as  she  held  on  to  her 
own  Teutonic  speech,  could  not  escape   the  influence  "of  the 

be  my  last."  In  what  was  called  the  ordeal  of  the  bier  the  person  charged  with 
murder  was  made  to  touch  the  body  of  the  dead  man ;  if  the  body  stirred  or  blood 
flowed  afresh  from  the  wound,  the  man  was  held  guilty  of  the  murder. 

Such  ordeals  are  found  among  all  primitive  peoples.  For  proof  by  ordeal  among 
the  Hebrews,  see  Numbers  v.  11-31  and  Joshua  vii.  16-18.  The  combat  between 
David  and  Goliath,  being  an  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  Heaven,  possesses  the 
essential  element  of  the  judicial  duel.  We  also  find  an  ordeal  in  the  test  proposed 
by  Elijah  to  the  prophets  of  Baal,  —  i  Kings  xviii.  17-40. 


REVIVAL  OF  THE  ROMAN  LAW        4I 

Roman  jurisprudence,  which  penetrated  there,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  chiefly  through  the  courts  of  the  Church,  modified  English 
law,  just  as  the  Latin  in  an  indirect  way  finally  modified  and 
enriched  the  English  speech,  while  leaving  it  the  same  in  ground- 
work and  structure.  "  Our  laws,"  says  Lord  Bacon,  "  are  mixed 
as  our  language ;  and  as  our  language  is  so  much  the  richer,  the 
laws  are  the  more  complete." 

Under  the  influence  of  the  classical  revival,  the  various  ordeals, 
which  were  already  disappearing  before  the  growing  enlightenment 
of  the  age  and  the  steady  opposition  of  the  papal  authority,  rap- 
idly gave  way  to  modes  of  trial  more  consonant  with  reason  and 
the  spirit  of  the  civil  Jaw. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Henderson,  Select  Historical  Docu- 
ments, pp.  176-189,  "The  Salic  Law,"  and  pp.  314-319,  "'Formula  Litur- 
giccB  in  Use  at  Ordeals."  Lee,  Source-Book,  chap,  v,  "  Anglo-Saxon  Laws." 
Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iv,  No.  4,  "  Ordeals,"  etc.  (ed.  by  Arthur 
C.  Howland). 

Secondary  Works.  — Emerton,  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages,  chap, 
viii,  "Germanic  Ideas  of  Law."  Lea,  Superstition  and  Force :  Essays  on 
the  Wager  of  Law,  the  Wager  of  Battle,  the  Ordeal  atid  Torture,  Invaluable 
to  the  student  of  primitive  culture.  MuNRO  and.SELLERY,  Mediaeval  Civ- 
ilization, pp.  310-325.  Hadley,  Introduction  to  Roman  Law,  Lect.  ii,  "  The 
Roman  Law  since  Justinian," 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  formation  of  the  Romance  lan- 
guages. 2.  Weregild,  3.  Ordeals.  4.  The  influence  of  the  Roman  law 
upon  the  law  systems  of  Europe. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   ROMAN   EMPIRE  IN   THE  EAST 

49.  The  Era  of  Justinian  (a.d.  527-565).  —  During  the  fifty 
years  immediately  following  the  fall  of  Rome,  the  Eastern  em- 
perors struggled  hard  and  sometimes  doubtfully  to  withstand  the 
waves  of  the  barbarian  inundation  which  constantly  threatened  to 
overwhelm  Constantinople  with  the  same  awful  calamities  that  had 
befallen  the  imperial  city  of  the  West.  Had  the  New  Rome  —  the 
destined  refuge  for  a  thousand  years  of  Grseco-Roman  learning  and 
culture — also  gone  down  at  this  time  before  the  storm,  the  loss  to 
the  cause  of  civilization  would  have  been  incalculable. 

Fortunately,  in  the  year  527,  there  ascended  the  Eastern  throne 
a  prince  of  unusual  ability,  to  whom  fortune  gave  a  general  of  such 
rare  genius  that  his  name  has  been  allotted  a  place  in  the  short  list 
of  the  great  commanders  of  the  world.  Justinian  was  the  name  of 
the  prince,  and  Belisarius  that  of  the  soldier.  The  sovereign  has 
given  name  to  the  period,  which  is  called  after  him  the  "  Era  of 
Justinian." 

50.  Justinian  as  the  Restorer  of  the  Empire  and  '*  The  Lawgiver 
of  Civilization " ;  Calamities  of  his  Reign.  —  One  of  the  most 
important  matters  in  the  reign  of  Justinian  is  what  is  termed  the 
"  Imperial  Restoration,"  by  which  is  meant  the  recovery  from  the 
barbarians  of  several  of  the  provinces  of  the  West  upon  which 
they  had  seized.  Africa,  as  we  have  seen  (sec.  11),  was  first 
wrested  from  the  Vandals.  Italy  was  next  recovered  from  the 
Goths  and  again  made  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  (a.d.  553). 
It  was  governed  from  Ravenna  by  an  imperial  officer  who  bore 
the  title  of  Exarch.  Besides  recovering  Africa  and  Italy  from 
the  barbarians,  Justinian  also  reconquered  from  the  Visigoths  the 
southeastern  part  of  Spain. 

42 


REIGN  OF  JUSTINIAN 


43 


But  that  which  gives  Justinian's  reign  a  greater  distinction  than 
any  conferred  upon  it  by  the  achievements  of  his  generals  was 
the  collection  and  publication  by  him  of  the  Corpus  Juris  CiviliSy 
the  "  Body  of  the  Roman  Law."  This  work  embodied  all  the  law 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  Romans,  and  was  the  most  precious 
legacy  of  Rome  to  the  world.^  In  causing  its  publication  Justinian 
earned  the  title  of  "  The  Lawgiver  of  Civilization." 

Although  the  reign  of  Justinian  was  in  many  respects  auspicious 
and  brilliant,  still  it  was  for  the  Empire  a  time  of  almost  unpar- 
alleled woes  and  sufferings.    Among  the  calamitous  events  of  the 


[  Imperial  Possessions  at  Opening  of  Reign 
Lands  reconqnercd  trom  the  Barbarians 


v.:..^:;^ 


The  Roman  Empire  under  Justinian 

period  a  prominent  place  must  be  given  the  seditions  at  Constan- 
tinople and  the  attendant  destruction  of  property  and  loss  of  Hfe. 
The  parties  or  factions  indulging  in  these  disorders  rose  out  of  the 
chariot  races  of  the  circus.  These  games  possessed  a  strange  and 
fatal  fascination  for  the  populace  of  the  capital,  such  as  the  glad- 
iatorial spectacles  had  had  for  the  debased  multitudes  of  Old 
Rome.  The  people  became  divided  into  two  leading  factions, 
known  as  the  Blues  and  the  Greens.  These  factions  carried  their 
rivalries  into  all  the  relations  of  life,  political  and  religious.  Often 
they  indulged  in  unseemly  disturbances  in  the  circus,  even  in  the 
presence  of  the  Emperor  himself.  In  the  year  532  there  broke 
out  what  is  known  as  the  "  Nika  "  riot,  during  which  a  large  part 
1  See  Ancient  History,  sec.  577. 


44  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE   IN   THE  EAST 

of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes.  The  mob  was  finally  enticed 
within  the  Hippodrome,  where  it  was  set  upon  by  the  soldiers  of 
Belisarius  and  thirty-five  thousand  of  the  rioters  were  slain. 

In  the  year  542,  an  awful  pestilence,  bred  probably  in  Egypt, 
fell  upon  the  Empire  and  did  not  wholly  cease  its  ravages  until 
about  fifty  years  later.  This  plague  was  the  most  terrible  scourge 
of  which  history  has  any  knowledge,  save  perhaps  the  so-called 
Black  Death,  which  afflicted  Europe  in  the  fourteenth  century 
(sec.  217).  It  is  believed  to  have  carried  off  one  third  of  the 
population  of  the  Empire. 

51.  The  Reign  of  Heraclius  (a.d.  610-641).  —  For  half  a  cen- 
tury after  the  death  of  Justinian  the  annals  of  the  Eastern  Roman 
Empire  are  unimportant.  Then  we  reach  the  reign  of  Heraclius, 
a  prince  about  whose  worthy  name  gather  matters  of  significance 
in  world  history. 

About  this  time  Chosroes  II,  king  of  Persia,  wrested  from  the 
hands  of  the  Eastern  emperors  the  fortified  cities  that  guarded 
the  Euphratean  frontier  and  overran  all  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Asia 
Minor.  For  many  years  Heraclius  battled  heroically  for  the 
integrity  of  the  Empire.  The  struggle  between  the  two  rivals  was  at 
last  decided  by  a  terrible  combat  known  as  the  battle  of  Nineveh 
(a.d.  627).  The  Persian  army  was  almost  annihilated.  Grief  or 
violence  ended  the  life  of  Chosroes.  With  his  successor,  Heraclius 
negotiated  a  treaty  which  restored  the  earlier  boundaries  of  the 
Roman  dominions. 

A  few  years  after  this  the  Arabs,  of  whom  we  shall  tell  in  the 
following  chapter,  entered  upon  their  surprising  career  of  conquest, 
which  in  a  short  time  completely  changed  the  face  of  the  entire 
East.  Heraclius  himself  lived  to  see  —  so  cruel  are  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune  —  the  very  provinces  which  he  had  recovered 
from  the  fire  worshipers  in  the  possession  of  the  followers  of  the 
Arabian  Prophet. 

The  conquests  of  the  Arabs  cut  off  from  the  Empire  those  prov- 
inces that  had  the  smallest  Greek  element,  and  thus  rendered 
the  population  subject  to  the  Emperor  more  homogeneous,  more 
thoroughly  Greek.    The  Roman  element  disappeared,  and  though 


ITS  CONTRIBUTIONS   TO  CIVILIZATION  45 

the  government  still  retained  the  imperial  character  impressed 
upon  it  by  the  conquerors  of  the  world,  the  court  of  Constantinople 
became  Greek  in  tone,  spirit,  and  manners.  Hence,  instead 
of  longer  applying  to  the  Empire  the  designation  Romany  many 
historians  from  this  on  call  it  the  Greek  or  Byzantine  Empire. 

52.  Services  rendered  European  Civilization  by  the  Roman  Em- 
pire in  the  East.'*  —  The  later  Roman  Empire  rendered  such  emi- 
nent services  to  the  European  world  that  it  justly  deserves  an 
important  place  in  universal  history.  First,  as  a  military  outpost 
it  held  the  Eastern  frontier  of  European  civilization  for  a  thousand 
years  against  Asiatic  barbarism. 

Second,  it  was  the  keeper  for  centuries  of  the  treasures  of 
ancient  civilization  and  the  instructress  of  the  new  Western 
nations  in  law,  in  government  and  administration,  in  literature, 
in  painting,  in  architecture,  and  in  the  industrial  arts. 

Third,  it  kept  alive  the  imperial  idea  and  principle,  and  gave 
this  fruitful  idea  and  this  molding  principle  back  to  the  West  in 
the  time  of  Charlemagne.  Without  the  later  Roman  Empire 
of  the  East  there  would  never  have  been  a  Romano-German 
Empire  of  the  West  (sec.   75). 

Fourth,  it  was  the  teacher  of  religion  and  civilization  to  the  Slavic 
races  of  Eastern  Europe.  Russia  forms  part  of  the  civilized  world 
to-day  largely  by  virtue  of  what  she  received  from  New  Rome. 

Secondary  Works.  — Gibbon,  chaps,  xl-xliv ;  on  the  reign  of  Justinian. 
Chap,  xliv  deals  with  Roman  jurisprudence.  Oman,  The  Story  of  the 
Hyzantine  Ettipire,  chaps,  iv-xi.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  Invaders ,  vol. 
iv,  "The  Imperial  Restoration."  Rawlinson,  The  Seventh  Great  Oriental 
Afonarchy^  chap.  xxiv.  Encyc.  Brit.,  article  on  Justinian  by  James  Bryce. 
Bury,  History  of  the  Later  Roman  Empire  ;  a  work  of  superior  scholarship. 
B^MONT  and  Monod,  Mediaval  Europe,  chap.  viii.  Harrison,  Byzantine 
History  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages;  a  brilliant  lecture,  which  summarizes  the 
results  of  the  latest  studies  in  the  field  indicated.  Munro  and  Sellf.ry, 
Mediivval  Civilization,  pp.  87-113  and  212-223. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. —  i.  The  recovery  of  Italy.  2.  Belisarius. 
3.  Introduction  into  Europe  of  the  silk  industry.  4.  Justinian  as  a  builder. 
5.  The  Code  of  Justinian.  6.  The  closing  by  Justinian  of  the  schools  of 
Athens. 

2  Pury's  History  of  the  Later  Roman  Empire,  vol.  ii,  chap.  xiv. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  RISE  OF  ISLAM 

53.  The  Attack  from  the  South  upon  Ancient  Civilization.  — 

We  have  seen  the  German  barbarians  of  the  North  descend  upon 
and  wrest  from  the  Roman  Empire  all  its  provinces  in  the  West. 
We  are  now  to  watch  a  similar  attack  made  upon  the  Empire  by 
the  Arabs  of  the  South,  and  to  see  wrested  from  the  emperors  of  the 
East  a  large  part  of  the  lands  still  remaining  under  their  rule.^ 

54.  Origin  and  Character  of  the  Arabs.  —  The  Arabs,  who  are 
now  about  to  play  their  surprising  part  in  history,  are,  after  the 
Hebrews  and  the  Phoenicians,  the  most  important  people  of  the 
Semitic  race.  The  name  Saf^acen,  applied  to  them,  is  of  doubt- 
ful origin,  but  seems  to  come  from  two  Arabic  words  meaning 
"children  of  the  desert."  They  are  divided  into  two  distinct 
classes,  —  dwellers  in  towns  and  dwellers  in  tents.  It  is  to  the 
latter  class  alone  that  the  term  Bedouins  is  properly  applied. 
The  virtues  which  these  nomad  Arabs  most  highly  prize  are 
hospitality,  generosity,  and  fidelity  to  the  ties  of  kinship. 

Secure  in  their  inaccessible  deserts,  the  Arabs  have  never  as  a 
nation  bowed  their  necks  to  a  foreign  conqueror,  although  por- 
tions of  the  Arabian  peninsula  have  been  repeatedly  subjugated 
by  different  invaders. 

55.  The  Religious  Condition  of  Arabia  before  Mohammed.  — 
Religion,  which  had  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  fateful  move- 
ment among  the  German  barbarians,  was  the  inciting  cause  of 
the  great  Arabian  revolution. 

Before  the  reforms  of  Mohammed  the  Arabs  were  idolaters. 
Their  holy  city  was  Mecca.  Here  was  the  ancient  and  most 
revered  shrine  of  the  Kaaba,^  where  was  preserved  a  sacred  black 

1  The  student  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  maps  after  pp.  8  and  52. 

2  So  named  from  its  having  the  shape  of  a  cube. 

46 


THE   RELIGIOUS   CONDITION   OF   ARABIA         47 

stone  that  was  believed  to  have  been  given  by  an  angel  to 
Abraham.  To  this  Meccan  shrine  pilgrimages  were  made  from 
the  most  remote  parts  of  Arabia. 

But  though  polytheism  was  the  prevailing  religion  of  Arabia, 
still  there  were  in  the  land  many  followers  of  other  faiths.  The 
Jews  especially  were  to  be  found  in  some  parts  of  the  peninsula 
in  great  numbers,  having  been  driven  from  Palestine  by  the 
Roman  persecutions.  From  them  the  Arab  teachers  had  been 
made  acquainted  with  the  doctrine  of  one  sole  God.    From  the 


Fig.  io.  —  Tii  K  iv.vA  f,.\ 


Aiht^CA 


numerous  Christian  converts  dwelling  among  them  they  had 
learned  something  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  In  view  of 
these  antecedents  of  the  religion  which  Mohammed  gave  his 
people,  his  creed  appears  to  some  scholars  to  be  essentially 
"Judaism  as  adapted  to  Arabia,"  while  to  others  it  presents  itself 
as  an  heretical  or  modified  form  of  Christianity. 

About  the  time  to  which  we  have  now  come  there  was  much 
religious  unrest  in  Arabia.  As  it  was  in  Judea  at  the  time  of  the 
appearance  of  Christ,  so  was  it  now  in  this  southern  land.  There 
were  here  many  seekers  after  God,  —  men  who,  dissatisfied  with 
the  old  idolatry,  were  ready  to  embrace  a  higher  faith. 


48  THE   RISE   OF   ISLAM 

Such  was  the  reHgious  condition  of  the  tribes  of  Arabia  about 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  of  our  era  when  there 
appeared  among  them  a  Prophet  under  whose  teachings  the  fol- 
lowers of  all  the  idolatrous  worships  were  led  to  give  assent  to  a 
single  and  simple  creed,  and  were  animated  by  a  fanatical  enthu- 
siasm that  drove  them  forth  from  their  deserts  upon  a  career  of 
conquest  which  could  not  be  stayed  until  they  had  overrun  the 
fairest  portions  of  the  Roman  and  Persian  empires,  and  given 
a  new  religion  to  a  large  part  of  the  human  race. 

56.  Mohammed.  —  Mohammed,  the  great  Prophet  of  the 
Arabs,  was  born  in  the  holy  city  of  Mecca,  probably  in  the  year 
A.D.  570.  He  sprang  from  the  distinguished  tribe  of  the  Koreish, 
the  custodians  of  the  sacred  shrine  of  the  Kaaba.  In  his  early 
years  he  was  a  shepherd  and  a  watcher  of  flocks  by  night,  as  the 
great  religious  teachers  Moses  and  David  had  been  before  him. 
Later  he  became  a  merchant  and  a  camel  driver. 

Mohammed  possessed  a  soul  that  was  early  and  deeply  stirred 
by  the  contemplation  of  those  themes  that  ever  attract  the  reli- 
gious mind.  He  declared  that  he  had  visions  in  which  the  angel 
Gabriel  appeared  to  him  and  made  to  him  revelations  which  he 
was  commanded  to  make  known  to  his  fellow-men.  The  starting 
point  of  the  new  faith  which  he  was  to  teach  was  this :  There  is 
but  one  God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  Prophet. 

For  a  long  time  Mohammed  endeavored  to  gain  adherents 
merely  by  persuasion ;  but  such  was  the  incredulity  which  he 
everywhere  met  that  at  the  end  of  three  years  his  disciples 
numbered  only  forty  persons. 

57.  The  Hegira  (a.d.  622). — The  teachings  of  Mohammed  at 
last  aroused  the  anger  of  a  powerful  party  among  the  Koreish,  who 
feared  that  they  as  the  guardians  of  the  national  idols  of  the  Kaaba 
would  be  compromised  in  the  eyes  of  the  other  tribes  by  allowing 
such  heresy  to  be  openly  taught  by  one  of  their  number,  and  accord- 
ingly they  began  to  persecute  Mohammed  and  his  followers. 

To  escape  these  persecutions  Mohammed  fled  to  the  neighbor- 
ing city  of  Medina.  This  Hegira,  or  Flight,  as  the  word  signifies, 
occurred  a.d.  622,  and  was  considered  by  the  Moslems  as  such 


MOHAMMED  AT  MEDINA  49 

an  important  event  in  the  history  of  their  religion  that  they 
adopted  it  as  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  and  from  it  still  con- 
tinue to  reckon  historical  dates. 

58.  Mohammed  at  Medina.  — At  this  time  Medina  was  merely 
a  cluster  of  clan  villages  on  an  oasis  of  the  desert.  Bitter  feuds 
divided  the  clans,  and  the  community  was  in  a  state  of  genuine 
Arab  anarchy.  Mohammed  at  once  assumed  the  functions  of  an 
arbiter  and  lawgiver.  He  framed  for  the  community  a  remark- 
able charter  or  constitution,  which  united  the  warring  clans  into 
a  little  commonwealth, —  the  nucleus  of  the  great  Arabian  Empire. 
His  government  was  a  theocracy,  like  that  of  ancient  Israel. 
Mohammed  was  not  now,  as  while  at  Mecca,  simply  a  prophet, 
but  a  legislator,  judge,  and  king.  It  is  only  by  bearing  in  mind 
his  changed  position  that  we  shall  understand  his  work  and  acts 
at  Medina  and  be  enabled  to  judge  them  justly. 

As  prophet,  Mohammed  continued  to  make  known  the  reve- 
lations that  came  to  him.  A  large  part  of  the  Koran,  but  not 
the  part  of  loftiest  religious  feeling,  was  given  at  Medina.  In  the 
little  rude  mosque  which  he  had  caused  to  be  built  as  a  place  of 
devotion  and  assemblage,  the  apostle  preached  to  the  people  and 
led  them  in  the  service  of  prayer.  In  this  service  he  made  an 
innovation  of  the  greatest  significance.  At  first  he  had  enjoined 
upon  his  followers  in  praying  to  turn,  as  did  the  Jews,  towards 
Jerusalem,  but  failing  in  his  efforts  to  win  over  this  people,  of 
whom  there  was  a  large  number  settled  in  the  suburbs  of  Medina, 
and  to  persuade  them  to  recognize  him  as  a  true  prophet,  he 
broke  with  them,  and  commanded  his  disciples  in  praying  to 
turn  towards  Mecca.  This  meant  that  the  attempt  to  effect  a 
fusion  of  Judaism  and  Islam  had  failed,  and  that  Islam  was  to 
run  its  course  as  a  distinct  religion. 

As  lawgiver  and  judge,  Mohammed  decided  the  various  cases, 
civil  and  religious,  brought  to  him.  The  decisions  rendered  by 
him  and  the  precedents  he  set  form  the  chief  basis  of  the  law 
system  of  the  Moslem  world  to-day. 

As  chief  or  king,  Mohammed,  like  his  prototype  David,  planned 
and  led  border  raids  and  military  campaigns.    The  year  after  the 


50  THE   RISE   OF   ISLAM 

Hegira  he  sent  out  an  expedition  to  intercept  a  caravan  of  the 
Koreish  and  to  make  it  a  prize.  This  was  in  strict  accord  with 
Arab  rule  and  custom,  for  the  Koreish  in  expelling  Mohammed 
from  Mecca  and  in  attempting  to  kill  him  had  estabHshed  a  state 
of  war  between  him  and  themselves.  This  marauding  soon  led  to 
a  pitched  battle  (the  so-called  battle  of  Bedr,  a.d.  624)  between 
the  Meccans  and  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  which  resulted 
in  a  signal  victory  for  the  Moslems.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  holy  wars  of  Islam. ^ 

59.  Capture  of  Mecca ;  Arabia  acknowledges  Mohammed  as  a 
true  Prophet.  —  In  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hegira,  the  Meccans 
having  violated  a  truce  which  they  had  entered  into  with  the 
new  state  at  Medina,  Mohammed  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  ten 
thousand  Bedouins  marched  against  Mecca  and  captured  the  city 
almost  without  a  blow.  The  Prophet  dealt  most  magnanimously 
with  his  former  persecutors.  Only  a  very  few  were  proscribed.  It 
was  the  idols  alone  in  the  place  that  were  given  over  to  destruc- 
tion. Entering  the  Kaaba,  Mohammed  exclaimed,  "Truth  has 
come  and  error  has  fled  away."  He  then  ordered  that  all  the 
idols  there  should  be  hewn  down. 

The  capture  of  Mecca  constitutes  a  great  landmark  in  the 
career  of  Islam.  The  Arabian  tribes  now  almost  unanimously 
turned  to  Mohammed  as  a  true  Prophet.  During  the  year  fol- 
lowing the  fall  of  Mecca  so  many  embassies  of  submission  came 
to  him  that  this  is  called  the  "Year  of  Deputations."  The  once 
rejected  Prophet  had  become  the  spiritual  and  military  head  of 
the  innumerable  Arab  clans,  whom  the  intense  ardor  of  religious 
enthusiasm  had  welded  into  a  mighty  brotherhood  and  nation. 
There  is  nothing  outside  the  realm  of  miracles  more  wonderful 
than  this  quick  triumph  of  Islam  over  the  Arab  race  and  the 
change  wrought  in  them  by  the  force  of  a  great  conviction.* 

3  Mohammed  about  this  time  gave  his  followers  the  following  revelation,  which 
had  great  influence  in  securing  for  early  Islam  its  remarkable  military  successes: 
"  And  those  who  are  slain  in  God's  cause,  their  works  shall  not  go  wrong ;  He  .  .  . 
will  make  them  enter  into  Paradise  which  He  has  told  them  of."  —  The  Koran, 
sura  xlvii,  5  (Palmer's  trans.). 

4  Without  doubt,  as  is  maintained  by  many,  the  Arab's  love  of  warfare  and  hope 
of  plunder  had  much  to  do  in  bringing  about  this  amazing  revolution ;  but,  as  in  the 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   THE   KORAN  5 1 

In  the  founding  of  the  Moslem  state,  Mohammed  without 
doubt  was  guilty  of  many  cruel  and  unjust  acts;  but  it  is  also 
equally  certain  that  the  establishment  of  his  empire  was  attended 
by  less  injustice  and  cruelty  than  marks  the  establishment  of  any 
other  Asiatic  state  known  to  history,  —  from  the  Kingdom  of  Israel 
in  Palestine  to  the  British  Empire  in  India. 

In  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hegira  Mohammed  made  a  farewell 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  He  there  spoke  to  a  vast  throng  of  forty 
thousand  pilgrims,  closing  what  he  felt  to  be  his  last  public 
address  with  these  words  :  "  O  Lord,  I  have  delivered  my  mes- 
sage and  fulfilled  my  mission."  A  few  months  later  he  died,  and 
was  buried  at  Medina,  and  his  tomb  there  is  to-day  a  most  sacred 
place  of  pilgrimage  for  the  Moslem  world. 

60.  The  Origin  of  the  Koran.  —  Before  going  on  to  trace  the 
conquests  of  the  successors  of  Mohammed,  we  must  try  to  form 
some  idea  of  the  religion  of  th^  great  Prophet. 

The  doctrines  of  Mohammedanism,  or  Islam,  which  means 
"  submission  to  God,"  are  contained  in  the  Koran,  which  is 
believed  by  the  orthodox  to  have  been  written  from  all  eternity 
on  tablets  in  heaven.  From  time  to  time  the  apostle  recited® 
to  his  disciples  portions  of  the  "heavenly  book"  as  its  contents 
were  revealed  to  him  in  his  dreams  and  visions.  These  com- 
munications were  held  in  the  "  breasts  of  men,"  or  were  written 
down  upon  bones,  pieces  of  pottery,  and  the  ribs  of  palm  leaves. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  the  Prophet  these  scraps  of  writing 
were  religiously  collected,  supplemented  by  tradition,  and  then 
arranged  chiefly  according  to  length.  Thus  came  into  existence 
the  sacred  book  of  Islam. 

61.  The  Teachings  of  the  Koran. — The  fundamental  doctrine 
of  the  creed  embodied  in  the  Koran  is  the  unity  of  God  :  "  There 
is  no  God  save  Allah"  echoes  through  the  book.  To  this  is 
added  the  equally  binding  declaration  that  "  Mohammed  is  the 
Prophet  of  Allah." 

case  of  the  later  crusading  movement  in  Christendom,  we  shall  not  be  wrong  in 
making  religious  feeling  its  chief  moving  principle. 

6  Palmer  in  the  introduction  to  his  translation  of  the  Koran  says  tluit  it  is 
"probable  Mohammed  could  neither  read  nor  write," 


52  THE   RISE    OF   ISLAM 

The  Koran  inculcates  four  cardinal  virtues.  The  first  of  these 
is  prayer :  five  times  every  day  must  the  believer  turn  his  face 
towards  Mecca  and  engage  in  devotion.  The  second  requirement 
is  almsgiving.  The  third  is  keeping  the  fast  of  Ramadan,  which 
lasts  a  whole  month.  The  fourth  duty  is  making  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca.  Every  person  who  can  possibly  do  so  is  required  to 
make  this  journey. 

To  the  faithful  the  Koran  promises  a  heaven  filled  with  every 
sensual  delight,  with  flowers  and  fruits  and  bright-eyed  maidens 
(houris)  of  ravishing  beauty,  and  threatens  unbelievers  and  the 
doers  of  evil  with  the  torments  of  a  hell  filled  with  every  horror 
of  flame  and  demon. 

62.  The  Sunna. — Islam  is  not  based  upon  the  Koran  alone. 
It  rests  in  part  upon  what  is  known  as  the  Sunna,  that  is,  a  great 
body  of  traditions  of  the  Prophet's  sayings,  —  those  not  forming 
a  part  of  the  sacred  book,  —  hi»  actions,  practices,  and  decisions 
handed  down  from  his  immediate  companions.  The  first  col- 
lection of  these  was  made  in  the  second  century  after  Moham- 
med's death.  These  traditions  are  regarded  by  the  orthodox 
Moslem  as  being  almost  as  sacred  and  authoritative  as  the  words 
of  the  Koran  itself.  In  regard  to  its  significance  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Islam,  we  may  compare  the  Sunna  to  the  body  of  tra- 
ditions handed  down  alongside  the  Bible  in  the  Christian  Church, 
and  which  has  so  greatly  influenced  the  development  particularly 
of  Catholic  Christianity. 

63.  The  Conquest  of  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  North  Africa.  — 
For  exactly  one  century  after  the  death  of  Mohammed  the  caliphs 
or  successors  of  the  Prophet  ^  were  engaged  in  an  almost  unbroken 
series  of  conquests.  Persia  was  subjugated  and  the  authority  of 
the  Koran  was  established  throughout  the  land  of  the  Zend-Avesta. 
Syria  was  wrested  from  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire  and  Asia 
Minor  was   overrun.    Egypt  and   North  Africa,   the  latter   just 

6  Abu  Bekr  (a.d.  632-634),  Mohammed's  father-in-law,  was  the  first  caliph.  He 
was  followed  by  Omar  (a.d.  634-644),  Othman  (a.d.  644-655),  and  Ali  (a.d.  655- 
661),  all  of  whom  fell  by  the  hands  of  assassins,  for  from  the  very  first  dissensions 
were  rife  among  the  followers  of  the  Prophet,  Ali  was  the  last  of  the  four  so-called 
orthodox  caliphs. 


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ATTACKS  UPON  CONSTANTINOPLE      53 

recently  delivered  from  the  Vandals,  were  also  snatched  from  the 
hands  of  the  Byzantine  emperors. 

By  the  conquest  of  Persia  Zoroastrianism,  a  religion  with  a 
great  past,  was,  as  a  force  in  history,  destroyed."^  By  the  con- 
quest of  Syria  the  birthplace  of  Christianity  was  lost  to  the  Chris- 
tian world.  By  the  conquest  of  North  Africa  lands  whose  history 
for  a  thousand  years  had  been  intertwined  with  that  of  the  oppo- 
site shores  of  Europe,  and  which  at  one  time  seemed  destined  to 
share  in  the  career  of  freedom  and  progress  opening  to  the  peoples 
of  that  continent,  were  drawn  back  into  the  fatalism  and  the  stag- 
nation of  the  East.  From  being  an  extension  of  Europe  they 
became  once  more  an  extension  of  Asia. 

64.  Attacks  upon  Constantinople.  — Thus  in  only  a  little  more 
than  fifty  years  from  the  death  of  Mohammed  his  standard  had 
been  carried  by  the  lieutenants  of  his  successors  through  Asia  to 
the  Hellespont  on  the  one  side  and  across  Africa  to  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar  on  the  other.  We  may  expect  to  see  the  Saracens 
at  one  or  both  of  these  points  attempt  the  invasion  of  Europe. 

The  first  attempt  was  made  in  the  East  (a.d.  673-677),  where 
the  Arabs  endeavored  to  gain  control  of  the  Bosporus  by  wrest- 
ing Constantinople  from  the  hands  of  the  Eastern  emperors. 
After  repeated  unsuccessful  assaults  they  abandoned  the  under- 
taking. Forty  years  later  (a.d.  717-718)  the  city  was  again 
invested  by  a  powerful  Saracen  fleet  and  army;  but  the  skill 
and  personal  heroism  of  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian,  the  use 
by  the  besieged  of  a  recently  invented  combustible  compound 
known  as  marine  fire  ("Greek  fire"),  and  timely  aid  from  the 
Bulgarians  saved  the  capital  for  several  centuries  longer  to  the 
Christian  world. 

This  check  that  the  Saracens  received  before  Constantinople 
was  doubtless  next  in  importance  for  European  civilization  to  the 

7  The  number  of  Guebers  or  fire  worshipers  in  Persia  at  the  present  time  is 
about  100,000,  found  for  the  most  part  at  Yezd  and  in  the  province  of  Kernian. 
A  larger  number  may  be  counted  in  Western  India,  —  the  descendants  of  the  Guebers 
who  fled  from  Persia  at  the  time  of  tlie  Arabian  invasion.  They  are  there  called 
Parsees,  from  the  land  whence  they  came.  After  the  English,  they  are  the  most 
enterprising,  intelligent,  and  influential  class  in  India  today. 


54  THE   RISE   OF   ISLAM 

check  given  their  conquering  hordes  a  little  later  in  France  at 
the  great  battle  of  Tours. 

65.  The  Conquest  of  Spain  (a.d.  711).  —  While  the  Moslems 
were  thus  being  repulsed  from  Europe  at  its  eastern  extremity, 
the  gates  of  the  continent  were  opened  to  them  —  legend  says 
by  treachery  —  at  the  western,  and  they  gained  a  foothold  in  Spain. 
At  the  great  battle  of  Xeres  (a.d.  711)  the  last  of  the  Visigothic 
kings  was  hopelessly  defeated,  and  all  the  peninsula  save  some 
mountainous  regions  in  the  northwest  quickly  submitted  to  the 
invaders.  By  this  conquest  some  of  the  fairest  provinces  of  Spain 
were  lost  to  Christendom  for  a  period  of  eight  hundred  years. 

No  sooner  had  the  subjugation  of  the  country  been  effected 
than  multitudes  of  colonists  from  Arabia,  Syria,  and  North  Africa 
crowded  into  the  peninsula,  until  in  a  short  time  the  provinces 
of  Seville,  Cordova,  Toledo,  and  Granada  became  predominantly 
Arabic  in  dress,  manners,  language,  and  rehgion. 

66.  Invasion  of  France;  Battle  of  Tours  (a.d.  732).  —  Four  or 
five  years  after  the  conquest  of  Spain  the  Saracens  crossed  the 
Pyrenees  and  established  themselves  upon  the  plains  of  Gaul. 
This  advance  of  the  Moslem  host  beyond  the  northern  wall  of 
Spain  was  viewed  with  the  greatest  alarm  by  all  Christendom.  It 
looked  as  though  the  followers  of  Mohammed  would  soon  possess 
all  the  continent.  As  Draper  pictures  it,  the  Crescent,  lying  in  a 
vast  semicircle  upon  the  northern  shore  of  Africa  and  the  curving 
coast  of  Asia,  with  one  horn  touching  the  Bosporus  and  the 
other  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  seemed  about  to  round  to  the  full 
and  overspread  all  Europe. 

In  the  year  732,  just  one  hundred  years  after  the  death  of 
the  Prophet,  the  Franks,  under  their  leader  Charles  Martel,  and 
their  aUies  met  the  Moslems  upon  the  plains  of  Tours  in  the  center 
of  Gaul  and  committed  to  the  issue  of  a  single  battle  the  fate  of 
Christendom  and  the  future  course  of  history.  The  Arabs  suffered 
an  overwhelming  defeat  and  soon  withdrew  behind  the  Pyrenees. 

The  young  Christian  civilization  of  Western  Europe  was  thus 
delivered  from  an  appalling  danger  such  as  had  not  threatened  it 
since  the  fearful  days  of  Attila  and  the  Huns. 


CHANGES   IN  THE  CALIPHATE  55 

67.  Changes  in  the  Caliphate ;    its  Golden  Age  at  Bagdad 

Only  eighteen  years  after  the  battle  of  Tours  an  important  event 
marked  the  internal  history  of  the  caliphate.  After  the  assassi- 
nation of  Ali,^  a  usurper,  Moawiyah  by  name,  was  recognized  as 
caliph.  He  succeeded  in  making  the  of!ice  hereditary  instead  of 
elective  or  appointive,  as  it  had  been  hitherto,  and  thus  estab- 
lished what  is  known  as  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommeiades,*  the 
rulers  of  which  family  for  nearly  a  century  (a.d.  661-750)  issued 
their  commands  from  the  city  of  Damascus. 

The  house  of  the  Ommeiades  was  overthrown  by  the  adherents 
of  the  house  of  Ali,  who  established  a  new  dynasty  (a.d.  750), 
known  as  that  of  the  Abbassides,  so  called  from  Abbas,  an  uncle 
of  Mohammed.  The  new  family,  soon  after  coming  to  power, 
established  the  seat  of  the  royal  residence  on  the  lower  Tigris, 
and  upon  the  banks  of  that  river  founded  the  renowned  city  of 
Bagdad,  which  was  destined  to  remain  the  abode  of  the  Abbasside 
caliphs  for  a  period  of  five  hundred  years. 

The  golden  age  of  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad  covered  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighth  and  the  ninth  century  of  our  era,  and  was  illus- 
trated by  the  reigns  of  such  princes  as  Al-Mansur  (a.d.  754-775) 
and  the  renowned  Harun-al-Raschid  (a.d.  786-809).  During 
this  period  science  and  philosophy  and  literature  were  most 
assiduously  cultivated  by  the  Arabian  scholars,  and  the  court  of 
the  caliphs  presented  in  culture  and  luxury  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  rude  and  barbarous  courts  of  the  kings  and  princes  of 
Western  Christendom. 

68.  The  Dismemberment  of  the  Caliphate.  —  "At  the  close  of 
the  first  century  of  the  Hegira,"  writes  Gibbon,  *'  the  caliphs 

8  See  sec.  63,  n.  6. 

8  So  called  from  Omeyyah,  an  ancestor'  of  Moawiyah.  In  securing  their  pow'cr 
the  Ommeiades  had  caused  the  murder  of  the  two  sons  of  Ali,  Hassan  and  Hosain. 
These  youths  were  ever  regarded  as  martyrs  by  the  friends  of  the  house  of  Ali,  and 
the  schism  caused  by  their  cruel  death  has  never  been  healed.  The  Mohammedans 
of  Persia,  who  are  known  as  Shiahs,  are  the  leaders  of  the  party  of  Ali,  while  the 
Turks  and  Arabs,  known  as  Sunnites,  are  the  chief  adherents  of  the  opposite  party. 
These  latter  take  their  name  from  the  fact  that  they  hold  the  Sunna  (sec.  62)  as 
sacred  and  authoritative.  The  Shiahs,  on  the  other  hand,  reject  4II  these  traditions 
of  the  Prophet  save  such  as  can  be  traced  back  to  Ali  or  to  his  immediate  posterity. 


56  THE   RISE   OF    ISLAM 

were  the  most  potent  and  absolute  monarchs  of  the  globe.  The 
word  that  went  forth  from  the  palace  at  Damascus  was  obeyed 
on  the  Indus,  on  the  Jaxartes,  and  on  the  Tagus."  Scarcely  less 
potent  was  the  word  that  at  first  went  forth  from  Bagdad.  But 
in  a  short  time  the  extended  empire,  through  the  quarrels  of 
sectaries  and  the  ambitions  of  rival  aspirants  for  the  honors  of  the 
caliphate,  was  broken  in  fragments,  and  from  three  capitals  — 
from  Bagdad  upon  the  Tigris,  from  Cairo  upon  the  Nile,  and 
from  Cordova  upon  the  Guadalquivir  —  were  issued  the  commands 
of  three  rival  caliphs,  each  of  whom  was  regarded  by  his  adher- 
ents as  the  sole  rightful  spiritual  and  civil  successor  of  Mohammed. 
All,  however,  held  the  great  Prophet  in  the  same  reverence,  all 
maintained  with  equal  zeal  the  sacred  character  of  the  Koran,  and 
all  prayed  with  their  faces  turned  toward  the  holy  city  of  Mecca. 

69.  The  Civilization  of  Arabian  Islam.^°  —  The  Saracens  were 
coheirs  of  antiquity  with  the  Germans.  They  made  especially 
their  own  the  scientific  ^^  accumulations  of  the  ancient  civiliza- 
tions and  bequeathed  them  to  Christian  Europe.  These  elements 
of  civilization  they  added  to  and  enriched,  and  in  several  of  the 
countries  of  which  they  took  possession,  especially  in  Babylonia 
and  in  Spain,  there  developed  a  civilization  which  in  some  respects 
far  surpassed  any  that  the  world  had  yet  seen. 

In  the  arrangements  of  their  court,  the  organization  of  their 
army,  and  the  administration  of  their  government  the  Arabs 
imitated  the  Persians  or  the  Byzantine  Greeks.  Their  govern- 
ment was  an  absolute  monarchy,  such  as  has  always  been  the 
favorite  form  among  Oriental  peoples. 

The  Moslem  law  system,  the  basis  of  which  is  found  in  the 
Koran,  was  the  most  original  creation  of  the  Arab  mind.  After 
the  Roman  law,  it  is  probably  the  most  influential  and  widely 
obeyed  system  of  laws  and  regulations  that  any  race  or  civilization 
has  developed.  Since  the  system  embraces  religious  as  well  as 
civil  matters,  it  is  in  some  respects  like  the  Mosaic  code,  from 

10  Kremer's  Ctilturgeschichte  des  Orients  unter  den  Chalifen,  chaps,  vii  and  ix. 

11  Gibbon  afifirms  that  no  Greek  poet,  orator,  or  historian  was  ever  translated 
into  Arabic.    See  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  lii. 


THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  ARABIAN   ISLAM  57 

which  it  freely  borrowed.  It  deals  with  all  kinds  of  subjects,  ran- 
ging from  prayer  and  pilgrimages  to  contracts  and  inheritances. 

Commerce  and  trade,  in  all  the  countries  of  which  the  Arabs  made 
themselves  masters,  assumed  a  fresh  activity  and  a  new  importance. 
The  Arabs  in  Babylonia  and  Syria  became  the  heirs  and  succes- 
sors of  the  ancient  Chaldaeans  and  Phoenicians,  and  re-created  that 
commercial  activity  of  the  earlier  time  that  nourished  the  great 
cities  of  Babylon,  Tyre,  and  Sidon.  As  in  the  Odyssey  of  Homer 
we  have  a  mirror  of  the  commercial  activity  and  the  adventurous 
trade  voyages  of  the  early  maritime  Greeks,  so  in  the  marvelous 
stories  of  Sindbad  the  Sailor  we  have  a  like  mirror  of  the  voyages 
and  adventures  of  the  Arabian  sailors. 

In  the  lighter  forms  of  literature  —  romance  and  poetry  —  the 
Arabs  produced  much  that  possesses  a  high  degree  of  excellence. 
In  the  field  of  romance  they  followed  the  Persian  story-tellers. 
The  inimitable  tales  of  the  Arabian  Nights,  besides  being  a  valu- 
able commentary  on  Arabian  life  and  manners  at  the  time  of  the 
culmination  of  Oriental  culture  at  the  court  of  Bagdad,  forms 
also  an  addition  to  the  imperishable  portion  of  the  literature  of 
the  world.  The  poetry  of  the  Arabs  was  wholly  original.  It  was 
the  natural  and  beautiful  expression  of  the  Arabian  genius. 

The  physical  sciences  were  also  pursued  by  the  Arabian  schol- 
ars with  great  eagerness  and  with  considerable  success.  Geography 
was  forced  upon  their  attention  by  their  wide  conquests  and 
their  extended  trade  relations.  From  the  Greeks  and  the  Hindus 
they  received  the  germs  of  astronomy,  geometry,  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, medicine,  botany,  and  other  sciences.  Almost  all  of  the 
sciences  that  thus  came  into  their  hands  were  improved  and 
enriched  by  them,  and  then  transmitted  to  European  scholars." 
They  made  medicine  for  the  first  time  a  true  science.   They  devised 

12  What  Europe  received  in  science  from  Arabian  sources  is  kept  in  remembrance 
by  such  words  as  alchemy,  alcohol,  alembic,  algebra,  alkali,  almanac,  aximuih, 
chemistry,  elixir,  zenith,  and  nadir.  To  how  great  an  extent  the  chief  Arabian  cities 
became  the  manufacturing  centers  of  the  mediaeval  world  is  indicated  by  the  names 
which  these  places  have  given  to  various  textile  fabrics  and  other  articles.  Thus 
muslin  comes  from  Mosul,  on  the  Tigris,  damask  from  Damascus,  and  gaute  from 
(iaza.  Damascus  and  Toledo  blades  tell  of  the  proficiency  of  the  Arab  workmen  in 
metallurgy. 


58 


THE   RISE   OF    ISLAM 


what  is  known  from  them  as  the  Arabic  or  decimal  system  of 
notation,^'  and  gave  to  Europe  this  indispensable  instrument  of  all 
scientific  investigations  dependent  upon  mathematical  calculations. 
All  this  literary  and  scientific  activity  naturally  found  expression 
in  the  establishment  of  schools,  universities,  and  libraries.  In  all 
the  great  cities  of  the  Arabian  Empire,  as  at  Bagdad,  Cairo,  and 


Fig.  II.  —  The  Mosque  of  Cordova.     (From  a  photograph) 

Cordova,  centuries  before  Europe  could  boast  anything  beyond 
cathedral  or  monastic  schools,  great  universities  were  drawing  to- 
gether vast  crowds  of  eager  young  Moslems  and  creating  an  atmos- 
phere of  learning  and  refinement.  The  famous  university  at  Cairo, 
which  has  at  the  present  day  an  attendance  of  several  thousand 
students,  is  a  survival  from  the  great  days  of  Arabian  Islam. 

In  the  erection  of  mosques  and  other  public  edifices  the  Arab 
architects  developed  a  new  and  striking  style  of  architecture,  — 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  to 

13  The  figures  or  numerals,  with  the  exception  of  the  zero  symbol,  employed  in 
their  system  they  seem  to  have  borrowed  from  India. 


THE  EVIL  AND  THE  GOOD  IN  ISLAM  59 

us  at  Cordova  and  Granada  in  Spain,  —  a  style  which  has  given 

to  modern  builders  some  of  their  finest  models. 

70.  The  Evil  and  the  Good  in  Islam.  — The  first-fruits  of  Islam 
might  well  lead  one  to  regard  it  as  a  faith  conducive  to  culture ; 
but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  splendid  civilization  of 
Bagdad,  Cairo,  and  Cordova  vi^as,  in  great  measure  at  least,  a 
reflected  glory.  The  relation  of  this  brilliant  culture  to  that  of 
the  declining  Byzantine  and  Persian  empires  has  been  aptly  illus- 
trated by  likening  it  to  the  clouds  which  gather  about  the  setting 
sun  and  are  lighted  up  by  it  with  a  splendor  not  their  own. 

In  many  of  its  teachings  and  institutions  Islam,  in  truth,  is  a 
system  unfavorable  to  social  progress.  In  opposition  to  Christian- 
ity, it  tolerates  polygamy  ^*  and  places  no  restraint  upon  divorce, 
thus  destroying  the  sacredness  of  family  life.  In  authorizing  the 
faithful  to  make  slaves  of  their  captives  in  holy  wars,  it  legalizes 
slavery;  Mohammedan  countries  are  the  main  strongholds  of 
slavery  at  the  present  time.  It  also  fosters  religious  intolerance  ; 
the  Moslem  is  forbidden  by  his  religion  to  grant  equality  to  unbe- 
hevers.  Again,  it  unites  in  the  same  hands  both  religious  and 
civil  authority  and  thereby  creates  despotism. 

Still  another  most  serious  defect  of  Islam  is  found  in  the  immu- 
table character  of  its  system  of  laws.  All  the  enactments  and  judicial 
decisions  of  Mohammed  and  of  the  first  four  caliphs  are  regarded 
as  binding,  at  least  in  spirit,  for  all  time.  Since  the  system  covers 
the  civil  as  well  as  the  religious  sphere,  Mohammedan  law  has  been 
prevented  from  adapting  itself  to  the  changing  needs  of  society. 
This  is  doubtless  one  cause  of  the  unprogressive  character  of 
Mohammedan  society  as  contrasted  with  the  progressive  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Western  races,  who  were  the  fortunate  inheritors  of  the 
admirable  secular,  and  therefore  flexible,  system  of  the  Roman  law. 

Islam,  however,  inculcates  some  inspiring  truths  and  recom- 
mends some  great  virtues.  Like  Christianity  it  teaches  the  unity 
of  God,   immortality,  and  retributive  rewards  and  punishments 

1*  The  Koran  (sura  iv,  3)  allows  the  believer  to  take  "  two,  or  three,  or  four 
wives,  and  not  more."  By  a  special  dispensation  (sura  xxxiii,  49)  Mohammed  was 
allowed  to  take  a  larger  number.   At  one  time  the  Prophet  had  ten  wives. 


6o  THE   RISE   OF   ISLAM 

after  death.  These  doctrines  render  it  immeasurably  superior  to 
fetichism  or  to  polytheism,  and  have  made  it  a  great  force  for  the 
uplift  of  multitudes  of  idolatrous  tribes  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

Among  the  leading  virtues  inculcated  by  Islam  is  that  of  tem- 
perance. The  Koran  forbids  positively  to  the  believer  the  use  of 
wine  and  inferentially  of  all  strong  drinks.  To  this  prohibition  is 
attributable  the  fact  that  drunkenness  is  less  common  and  open 
in  Mohammedan  than  in  Christian  lands. 

Finally,  in  forming  our  estimate  of  Islam  we  should  carefully 
bear  in  mind  that  the  religion  as  held  and  practiced  by  the  dif- 
ferent Mohammedan  races  to-day,  particularly  by  the  Ottoman 
Turks,  is  a  very  degenerate  form  of  the  Islamic  faith  when  com- 
pared with  that  held  and  practiced  by  the  Arabs,  the  people 
among  whom  it  first  arose.  Mohammedanism,  like  Christianity, 
was  at  its  best  in  what  we  may  call  its  Apostolic  Age. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  The  Koran,  like  the  Bible  for  Chris- 
tianity, is  our  chief  source  for  a  knowledge  of  Islam  as  a  religion.  The 
translation  by  Palmer,  in  Sacred  Books  of  the  Easty  is  the  best.  The 
Speeches  and  Table-  Talk  of  the  Prophet  Mohammed  (trans,  by  Stanley  Lane- 
Poole).  Europeajt  History  Studies  (Univ.  of  Nebraska),  vol.  ii,  No.  3, 
"  Selections  from  the  Koran." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Muir,  The  Cordn,  The  Life  of  Mohammed,  Annals 
of  the  Early  Caliphate^  and  The  Rise  ajid  Decline  of  Islam.  All  these 
works  are  based  on  the  original  sources ;  they  are,  however,  written  in  an 
unsympathetic  spirit.  Smith,  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism  ;  has  a 
short  bibliography.  Irving,  Maho7net  and  his  Successors.  Gibbon,  The 
Decli?ie  and  Fall,  chaps.  1-lii.  C  ARLYLE,  Heroes  and  Hero-  Worship,  Lect.  ii, 
"  The  Hero  as  Prophet."  Freeman,  History  and  Cojiquests  of  the  Sara- 
cens;  a  rapid  sketch  by  a  master.  Oilman,  The  Saracens  from  the  Earliest 
Times  to  the  Fall  of  Bagdad ;  contains  a  list  of  over  two  hundred  books 
bearing  on  the  subject.  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  llie  Spirit  of  Islam :  or  the 
Life  and  Teachings  of  Mohatnmed ;  by  a  Mohammedan  barrister  at  law. 
Also  the  same  author's  Short  History  of  the  Saracens.  Poole,  Studies  in 
a  Mosque.  Smith,  The  Bible  in  Islam,  chap,  x,  "Church  and  State";  for 
Mohammed's  position  at  Medina.  Munro  and  Sellery,  Mediceval  Civiliza- 
tion, pp.  224-239.  The  articles  by  Wellhausen,  Noldeke,  and  Guyard,  under 
the  word  Mohajnmedanism  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  have  a  very  special  value. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Mohammed  at  Medina.  2.  The  con- 
quest of  Egypt  by  the  Arabs.  3.  The  caliph  Harun-al-Raschid.  4.  The 
Arabian  Nights.     5.  The  Moors  in  Spain. 


CHAPTER   VII 

CHARLEMAGNE  AND  THE  RESTORATION  OF  THE  EMPIRE  IN 

THE  WEST 

71.  Introductory.  — We  return  now  to  the  West.  The  Franks, 
who  with  the  aid  of  their  confederates  withstood  the  advance  of 
the  Saracens  upon  the  field  of  Tours  and  saved  Europe  from  sub- 
jection to  the  Koran,  are  the  people  that  first  attract  our  attention. 
Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the  Great,  their  king,  is  the  imposing 
figure  that  moves  amidst  all  the  events  of  the  times,  —  indeed,  is 
the  one  who  makes  the  events  and  renders  the  period  an  epoch 
in  universal  history. 

The  story  of  this  era  affords  the  key  to  very  much  of  the  sub- 
sequent history  of  Western  Europe.  The  mere  enumeration  of 
the  events  which  are  to  claim  our  attention  will  illustrate  the 
important  and  germinal  character  of  the  period.  We  shall  tell 
how  the  mayors  of  the  palace  of  the  Merovingian  princes  became 
the  actual  kings  of  the  Franks ;  how,  through  the  liberality  of  the 
Frankish  kings,  the  popes  laid  the  foundations  of  their  temporal 
sovereignty;  and  how  Charlemagne  restored  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  West,  and  throughout  its  extended  hmits,  in  the  fusion  of 
things  Roman  and  of  things  Germanic,  laid  the  basis  of  modern 
civilization. 

72.  How  Duke  Pippin  became  King  of  the  Franks  (a.d.  751).  — 
Charles  Martel,  who  saved  the  Christian  civilization  of  Western 
Europe  on  the  field  of  Tours,  although  the  real  head  of  the  Frank- 
ish nation,  was  nominally  only  an  officer  of  the  Merovingian  court 
(sec.  12).  He  died  without  ever  having  borne  the  title  of  king, 
notwithstanding  he  had  exercised  all  the  authority  of  that  office. 

But  Charles'  son,  Pippin  II,  aspired  to  the  regal  title  and 
honors.    He  resolved  to  depose  his  titular  master  and  to  make 

61 


62  CHARLEMAGNE 

himself  king.  Not  deeming  it  wise,  however,  to  do  this  without 
the  sanction  of  the  Pope,  he  sent  an  embassy  to  represent  to  him 
the  state  of  affairs  and  to  soHcit  his  advice.  Mindful  of  recent 
favors  that  he  had  received  at  the  hands  of  Pippin,  the  Pope  gave 
his  approval  to  the  proposed  scheme  by  replying  that  it  seemed 
altogether  reasonable  that  the  one  who  was  king  in  reality  should 
be  king  also  in  name.  This  was  sufficient.  Childeric  —  such  was 
the  name  of  the  Merovingian  king  —  was  straightway  deposed, 
and  Pippin,  whose  own  deeds  together  with  those  of  his  illustri- 
ous father  had  done  so  much  for  the  Frankish  nation  and  for 
Christendom,  was  crowned  king  of  the  Franks  (a.d.  751),  and 
thus  became  the  first  of  the  Carolingian  line,  the  name  of  his 
illustrious  son  Charles  (Charlemagne)  giving  name  to  the  house. 

73.  Pippin  helps  to  establish  the  Temporal  Power  of  the  Popes 
(a.d.  756).  —  In  the  year  a.d.  754  Pope  Stephen  II,  troubled  by 
the  king  of  the  Lombards,  besought  Pippin's  aid  against  the  bar- 
barian. Pippin,  quick  to  return  the  favor  which  the  head  of  the 
Church  had  rendered  him  in  the  securing  of  his  crown,  straight- 
way interposed  in  behalf  of  the  Pope.  He  descended  into  Italy 
with  an  army,  expelled  the  Lombards  from  their  recent  con- 
quests, and  made  a  donation  to  the  Pope  of  the  regained  lands  ^ 
(a.d.  756).  As  a  symbol  of  the  gift  he  laid  the  keys  of  Ravenna, 
Rimini,  and  of  many  other  cities  on  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter. 

This  endowment  may  be  regarded  as  having  practically  laid 
the  basis  of  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  popes ;  for  although 
Pope  Stephen,  as  it  seems,  had  already  resolved  to  cast  off  alle- 
giance to  the  Eastern  Emperor  and  set  up  an  independent  Church 
state,  still  it  is  not  probable  that  he  could  have  carried  out  such 
an  enterprise  successfully  had  he  not  been  aided  in  his  project  by 
the  Frankish  king. 

74.  Accession  of  Charlemagne ;  his  Wars.  —  Pippin  died  in  the 
year  768,  and  his  kingdom  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  two  sons, 
Carloman  and  Charles,  the  latter  being  better  known  by  the  name 
he  achieved  of  Charlemagne,  or  "  Charles  the  Great."    Three  years 

1  The  sovereignty  of  all  these  lands  belonged  nominally  to  the  Emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople.    His  claims  were  ignored  by  Pippin. 


ACCESSION   OF   CHARLEMAGNE  63 

after  the  accession  of  the  brothers,  Carloman  died,  and  Charles 
took  possession  of  his  dominions. 

Charlemagne's  long  reign  of  nearly  half  a  century  —  he  ruled 
forty-six  years  —  was  filled  with  miUtary  expeditions  and  con- 
quests, by  which  he  so  extended  the  boundaries  of  his  dominions 
that  they  came  to  embrace  the  larger  part  of  Western  Europe. 
He  made  over  fifty  military  campaigns,  the  chief  of  which  were 
against  the  Lombards,  the  Saracens,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Avars. 

Among  the  first  undertakings  of  Charlemagne  was  a  campaign 
against  the  Lombards,  whose  king,  Desiderius,  was  troubling  the 
Pope.  Charlemagne  wrested  from  Desiderius  all  his  possessions, 
shut  up  the  unfortunate  king  in  a  monastery,  and  placed  on  his 
own  head  the  famous  "  Iron  Crown  "  of  the  Lombards  (sec.  13). 

In  the  year  778  Charlemagne  gathered  his  warriors  for  a  cru- 
sade against  the  Mohammedan  Moors  in  Spain.  He  crossed  the 
Pyrenees  and  succeeded  in  winning  from  the  Moslems  all  the 
northeastern  corner  of  the  peninsula.  These  lands  thus  regained 
for  Christendom  he  made  a  part  of  his  dominions,  under  the  title 
of  the  Spanish  March.^ 

But  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  campaigns  of  Charlemagne 
were  directed  against  the  still  pagan  Saxons.  These  people  were 
finally  reduced  to  permanent  submission  and  forced  to  accept 
Charlemagne  as  their  sovereign  and  Christianity  as  their  religion. 

To  the  east  and  the  southeast,  behind  the  German  tribes  that 
Charlemagne  had  reduced  to  obedience,  were  the  Avars,  a  race 
terrible  as  the  Huns  of  Attila,  and  an  offshoot  seemingly  of  the 
same  stock.  In  a  series  of  campaigns  Charlemagne  broke  their 
power  and  reduced  the  race  to  a  tributary  condition.  This  sub- 
jugation of  the  Avars  was  one  of  the  greatest  services  that  he 
rendered  the  young  Christian  civiHzation  of  Europe.  For  three 
centuries  they  had  been  the  scourge  of  all  their  neighbors. 

2  As  Charles  was  leading  his  victorious  bands  back  across  the  Pyrenees,  the  rear 
of  his  army,  while  hemmed  in  by  the  walls  of  the  Pass  of  Roncesvalles,  was  set  upon 
by  the  wild  mountaineers  (the  Gascons)  and  cut  to  pieces  before  he  could  give  relief. 
Of  the  details  of  this  event  no  authentic  account  has  been  preserved ;  but  long  af ter- 
\vards,  associated  with  the  fabulous  deeds  of  the  hero  Roland,  it  formed  a  favorite 
theme  of  the  tales  and  songs  of  the  Trouveurs  of  Northern  France  (sec  243). 


64  CHARLEMAGNE 

75.  Restoration  of  the  Empire  in  the  "West  (a.d.  800).  —  An 
event  of  seemingly  little  real  moment,  yet  in  its  influence  upon 
succeeding  affairs  of  the  very  greatest  importance,  now  claims 
our  attention.  Pope  Leo  III  having  called  upon  Charlemagne 
for  aid  against  a  hostile  faction  at  Rome,  the  king  soon  appeared 
in  person  at  the  capital  and  punished  summarily  the  disturbers 
of  the  peace  of  the  Church.  The  gratitude  of  Leo  led  him  at 
this  time  to  make  a  most  signal  return  for  the  many  services  of 
the  Prankish  king.  To  understand  his  act  a  word  of  explanation 
is  needed. 

For  a  considerable  time  a  variety  of  circumstances  had  been 
fostering  a  growing  feeling  of  enmity  between  the  Italians  and 
the  emperors  at  Constantinople.  Just  at  this  time,  by  the  crime 
of  the  Empress  Irene,  who  had  deposed  her  son,  Constantine  VI, 
and  put  out  his  eyes  that  she  might  have  his  place,  the  Byzantine 
throne  was  vacant,  in  the  estimation  of  the  Italians,  who  con- 
tended that  the  crown  of  the  Caesars  could  not  be  worn  by  a 
woman.  In  view  of  these  circumstances  Pope  Leo  and  those 
about  him  conceived  the  purpose  of  taking  away  from  the  hereti- 
cal and  effeminate  Greeks  the  imperial  crown  and  bestowing  it 
upon  some  strong  and  orthodox  and  worthy  prince  in  the  West. 

Now,  among  all  the  Teutonic  chiefs  of  Western  Christendom 
there  was  none  who  could  dispute  in  claims  to  the  honor  with  the 
king  of  the  Franks,  the  representative  of  a  most  illustrious  house 
and  the  strongest  champion  of  the  young  Christianity  of  the  West 
against  her  pagan  foes.  Accordingly,  as  Charlemagne  was  parti- 
cipating in  the  solemnities  of  Christmas  Day  in  the  basilica  of 
St.  Peter  at  Rome,  the  Pope  approached  the  kneehng  king,  and 
placing  a  crown  of  gold  upon  his  head  proclaimed  him  Emperor 
and  Augustus  (a.d.  800). 

The  intention  of  Pope  Leo  was,  by  a  sort  of  reversal  of  the  act 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  to  bring  back  from  the  East  the  seat  of 
the  imperial  court ;  but  what  he  really  accomplished  was  a  resto- 
ration of  the  line  of  emperors  in  the  West,  which  three  hundred 
and  twenty-four  years  before  had  been  ended  by  Odoacer,  when 
he  dethroned  Romulus  Augustulus  and  sent  the  royal  vestments 


'I'll  \ 
«   >    ♦ »» 


EUROPE 

IN  THE  TIME  OF 

CHARLES  THE  GREAT 
814 


t5  80  3S 


^     [        I  Wulem  CalipUu 
2     I         I  Sait*m  CalipkaU 


CHARLES  THE  GREAT  AS  A  RULER      6$ 

to  Constantinople.  We  say  this  was  what  he  actually  effected ; 
for  the  Greeks  of  the  East,  disregarding  wholly  what  the  Roman 
people  and  the  Pope  had  done,  maintained  their  line  of  emperors 
just  as  though  nothing  had  occurred  in  Italy.  So  now  from  this 
time  on  for  centuries  there  were,  most  of  the  time,  two  emperors, 
one  in  the  East  and  another  in  the  West,  each  claiming  to  be  the 
rightful  successor  of  Caesar  Augustus.* 

This  revival  of  the  Empire  in  the  West  was  one  of  the  most 
important  matters  in  European  history.  It  gave  to  the  following 
centuries  "  a  great  political  ideal,"  which  was  the  counterpart  of 
the  religious  ideal  of  a  Universal  Church  embodied  in  the  Papacy, 
and  which  was  to  shape  large  sections  of  mediaeval  history. 

76.  Charles  the  Great  as  a  Ruler.  —  Charlemagne  must  not  be 
regarded  as  a  warrior  merely.  His  most  noteworthy  work  was 
that  which  he  effected  as  a  legislator  and  administrator.  In  this 
field,  too,  were  exhibited  the  finer  qualities  of  his  masterful  per- 
sonality. In  building  up  his  great  empire  Charlemagne  practiced 
much  cruelty  and  unrighteousness,  but  over  this  empire,  once 
established,  he  ruled  with  the  constant  solicitude  of  a  father. 

Among  the  characteristic  institutions  of  the  Empire  was  the 
Diet,  or  General  Assembly,  a  sur\'ival  manifestly  of  the  old 
Teutonic  folkmote,  an  assembly  of  freemen.  This  body  held  a 
meeting  every  year  in  the  spring.*  At  these  gatherings  there 
took  place  merely  an  interchange  of  views  between  Charlemagne 
and  the  assembled  freemen  of  the  realm ;  for  the  Diet  was  not 

a  legislative   body.    Its  functions  were  confined  to  giving  the 

• 

8  From  this  time  on  it  will  be  proper  for  us  to  use  the  terms  Western  Empire  and 
Eastern  Empire.  These  names  should  not,  however,  be  employed  before  this  time, 
for  the  two  parts  of  the  old  Roman  Empire  were  simply  administrative  divisions  of 
a  single  empire ;  but  we  may  properly  enough  speak  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  th« 
West,  and  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  East,  or  of  the  Western  and  Eastern  emperors. 
What  it  is  very  essential  to  note  is,  that  the  restoration  of  the  line  of  the  Western 
emperors  actually  destroyed  the  unity  of  the  old  Empire,  so  that  from  this  time  on 
until  the  destruction  of  the  Eastern  Empire  in  1453,  there  were,  as  we  have  said  in 
the  text,  two  rival  emperors,  each  in  theory  having  rightful  suzerainty  of  the  whole 
world,  whereas  the  two  emperors  in  Roman  times  were  the  co-rulers  of  a  single  and 
indivisible  World  Empire.     See  Bryce's  The  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

■*  In  the  autumn  there  gathered  a  second  smaller  assembly,  or  council,  which  was 
composed  solely  of  the  magnates  of  the  Empire  and  the  chief  royal  advisees. 


66  CHARLEMAGNE 

Emperor  advice  and  information.  Its  relation  to  Charlemagne 
is  well  shown  by  the  words  with  which  he  is  represented  as  having 
once  addressed  one  of  its  meetings  :  *'  Counsel  me,"  he  said, 
"  that  I  may  know  what  to  do." 

In  connection  with  the  General  Assembly  we  should  notice 
the  celebrated  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne.  These  were  not  laws 
proper,  but  collections  of  decrees,  decisions,  and  instructions 
covering  matters  of  every  kind,  civil  and  religious,  public  and 
domestic.  Some  of  them  were  drawn  up  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  Diet;  a  greater  number  embodied  simply  Charlemagne's 
own  ideas  of  what  his  chiefs  or  his  subjects  needed  in  the  way  of 
advice,  suggestion,  or  command. 

Another  noteworthy  feature  of  the  government  of  Charlemagne 
was  the  itinerant  commissioners  (jnissi  dominici)  whose  duty  it 
was  to  visit  at  stated  intervals  all  parts  of  a  given  circuit,  observe 
how  the  local  magistrates  were  discharging  their  several  duties, 
correct  what  was  wrong,  and  report  to  the  Emperor  all  matters 
of  which  he  should  be  informed.  This  was  an  admirable  device 
for  putting  the  head  of  the  vast  Empire  in  close  and  almost 
personal  touch  with  all  its  parts  near  and  remote. 

Charlemagne,  particularly  after  his  coronation  as  Emperor,  exer- 
cised as  careful  a  superintendence  over  religious  as  over  civil 
affairs.  He  called  synods  or  councils  of  the  clergy  of  his  domin- 
ions, presided  at  these  meetings,  revised  the  canons  of  the  Church, 
and  addressed  to  abbots  and  bishops  fatherly  words  of  admoni- 
tion, reproof,  and  exhortation. 

Education  was  also  a  matter  to  which  Charlemagne  gave  zealous 
attention.  He  was  himself  from  first  to  last  as  diligent  a  student 
as  his  busy  hfe  permitted.  His  biographer,  Einhard,  says  that  he 
could  repeat  his  prayers  as  well  in  Latin  as  in  German,  and  that 
he  understood  Greek,  although  he  had  difficulty  in  its  pronuncia- 
tion. He  never  ceased  to  be  a  learner.  In  his  old  age  he  tried 
to  learn  to  write,  but  found  that  it  was  too  late. 

Distressed  by  the  dense  ignorance  all  about  him,  Charlemagne 
labored  to  instruct  his  subjects,  lay  and  clerical,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  and  the  multiplication  and  dissemination  of  books 


THE   DEATH   OF  CHARLEMAGNE  67 

through  the  agency  of  the  copyists  of  the  monasteries.  He  invited 
from  England  the  celebrated  Alcuin,  one  of  the  finest  scholars  of 
the  age,  and  with  his  help  organized  what  became  known  as  the 
Palace  School,  in  which  his  children  and  courtiers  and  he  himself 
were  pupils.  A  spirit  of  rare  comradeship  seems  to  have  pervaded 
this  happy  school.  The  different  members  of  it  were  in  pleasantry 
given  Hebrew  or  classical  names.  Charlemagne  was  known  as 
King  David  ;  Alcuin,  as  Flaccus  ;  while  still  others  bore  the  names 
of  Homer,  Pindar,  Samuel,  Columba,  and  Jeremiah. 

A  great  number  of  other  schools  were  established  by  Charle- 
magne in  connection  with  the  cathedrals  and  monasteries  through- 
out his  dominions.  Many  of  these  were  organized  by  Alcuin, 
whose  influence  was  unbounded.  In  causing  the  establishment 
of  these  schools  Charlemagne  set  at  work  influences  that  left 
a  deep  and  permanent  impression  upon  European  civilization. 
They  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  intellectual  life  for  Western 
Christendom. 

77.  The  Death  of  Charlemagne  (814)  ;  his  Place  in  History.  — 
Charlemagne  enjoyed  the  imperial  dignity  only  fourteen  years, 
dying  in  814.  Einhard  in  speaking  of  the  event  simply  says  that 
he  was  buried  on  the  day  of  his  death  within  the  basilica  at 
Aachen,  which  he  himself  had  built.  A  later  tradition  affirms 
that  the  dead  monarch  was  placed  upon  a  throne,  with  his  royal 
robes  about  him,  his  good  sword  by  his  side,  and  a  book  of  the 
(xospels  open  on  his  lap.^  It  seemed  as  though  men  could  not 
believe  that  his  reign  was  over.    And  it  was  not. 

By  the  almost  universal  verdict  of  students  of  the  mediaeval 
period,  Charles  the  Great  has  been  pronounced  the  most  imposing 
personage  that  appears  between  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  fifteenth 
century.  "  He  stands  alone,"  says  Hallam,  "  like  a  beacon  upon 
a  waste,  or  a  rock  in  the  broad  ocean."  He  is  the  King  Arthur 
of  the  French,  —  the  favorite  hero  of  mediaeval  minstrelsy.    His 


•'■'  This  account  differs  so  widely  from  that  of  contemporaries  of  Charlemagne  that 
it  cannot  be  received  as  historical.  Consult  I.indner,  Die  Fabel  von  der  Bestattung 
Karh  des  Grossen ;  Mombert,  Charles  the  Great,  pp.  484-486;  and  ilodgkin, 
Charles  the  Great,  p.  250. 


68  CHARLEMAGNE 

greatness  has  erected  an   enduring  monument  for  itself  in  his 
name,  the  one  by  which  he  is  best  known,  —  Charlemagne. 

78.  The  Results  of  his  Reign. — Among  the  many  results  of 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne  we  should  take  notice  of  the  three  fol- 
lowing. First,  he  did  for  Germany  what  Caesar  did  for  Gaul,  — 
brought  this  barbarian  land  within  the  pale  of  civilization  and 
made  it  a  part  of  the  new-forming  Romano-German  world. 

Second,  through  the  part  he  played  in  the  revival  of  the 
Empire,  he  helped  to  give  to  the  following  generations  "  a  great 
political  ideal,"  and  to  set  up  an  authority  among  the  European 
princes  which  was  destined  to  lend  character  to  large  sections  of 
mediaeval  history. 

Third,  Charlemagne  kneaded  into  something  like  a  homogene- 
ous mass  the  various  racial  elements  composing  the  mixed  society 
of  the  wide  regions  over  which  he  ruled.  Throughout  his  long 
and  vigorous  reign  that  fusion  of  Roman  and  Teuton  of  which  we 
spoke  in  a  previous  chapter  went  on  apace.  He  failed  indeed  to 
unite  the  various  races  of  his  extended  dominions  in  a  permanent 
political  union,  but  he  did  much  to  create  among  them  those  reli- 
gious, intellectual,  and  social  bonds  which  were  never  afterwards 
severed.  From  his  time  on,  as  it  has  been  concisely  expressed, 
there  was  a  Western  Christendom. 

79.  Division  of  the  Empire;  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  (843). 
—  Like  the  kingdom  of  Alexander  and  that  of  many  another 
great  conqueror,  the  mighty  empire  of  Charlemagne  fell  to  pieces 
soon  after  his  death.  "  His  scepter  was  the  bow  of  Ulysses  which 
could  not  be  drawn  by  any  weaker  hand." 

Charlemagne  was  followed  by  his  son  Lewis,  surnamed  the 
Pious  (814-840).  Upon  his  death  fierce  contention  broke  out 
afresh  among  his  surviving  sons,  Lewis,  Charles,  and  Lothair, 
and  myriads  of  lives  were  sacrificed  in  the  unnatural  strife. 
Finally,  by*  the  famous  Treaty  of  Verdun  (843),  the  Empire  was 
divided  as  follows  :  to  Lewis  was  given  the  part  east  of  the  Rhine, 
the  nucleus  of  the  later  Germany  ;  to  Charles,  the  part  west  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Meuse,  one  day  to  become  France ;  and  to 
Lothair,  the  narrow  central  strip  between  these,  stretching  across 


RENEWAL  OF  THE  EMPIRE  BY   OTTO   I  69 

Europe  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  including 
the  rich  lands  of  the  lower  Rhine,  the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  and 
Italy.    To  Lothair  also  was  given  the  imperial  title. 

This  treaty  is  celebrated,  not  only  because  it  was  the  first  great 
treaty  among  the  European  states,  but  also  on  account  of  its 
marking  the  divergence  from  one  another,  and  in  some  sense  the 
origin,  of  two  of  the  great  nations  of  modern  Europe,  —  Teutonic 
Germany  and  Romanic  France.  As  shown  by  the  celebrated 
bilingual  oath  of  Strassburg,®  there  had  by  this  time  grown  up 
in  Gaul,  through  the  mixture  of  the  provincial  Latin  with  Ger- 
man elements,  a  new  speech,  which  was  to  grow  into  the  French 
tongue,  —  the  firstborn  of  the  Romance  languages.' 

After  this  dismemberment  of  the  dominions  of  Charlemagne 
the  annals  of  the  different  branches  of  the  Carolingian  family 
become  intricate,  wearisome,  and  uninstnictive.  A  fate  as  dark 
and  woeful  as  that  which,  according  to  Grecian  story,  overhung 
the  royal  house  of  Thebes  seemed  to  brood  over  the  house  of 
Charlemagne.  In  all  its  different  lines  a  strange  and  adverse 
destiny  awaited  the  lineage  of  the  great  king.  The  tenth  cen- 
tury witnessed  the  extinction  of  the  family. 

80.  Renewal  of  the  Empire  by  Otto  the  Great  (962).  —  In  the 
division  of  the  dominions  of  Charlemagne,  the  imperial  title,  as 
we  have  just  seen,  went  to  Lothair.  The  title,  however,  meant 
scarcely  anything,  carrying  with  it  little  or  no  real  authority. 
Matters  ran  on  thus  for  more  than  a  century,  the  empty  honor 
of  the  title  sometimes  being  enjoyed  by  the  kings  of  Italy,  and 
again  by  those  of  the  Eastern  Franks. 

But  with  the  accession  of  Otto  I  to  the  throne  of  Germany 
in  the  year  936,  there  appeared  among  the  princes  of  Europe 
a  second  Charlemagne.  Besides  being  king  of  Germany,  he 
became,  through  interference  on  request  in  the  affairs  of  Italy, 
king  of  that  country  also.    Furthermore,  he  wrested  large  tracts 

8  This  was  an  oath  of  friendship  and  mutual  fidelity  taken  by  I-ewis  and  Charles 
just  before  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  (in  S42).  The  text  of  the  oath  has  been  preserved 
both  in  the  old  German  sj)eech  and  in  the  new-forming  Romance  language.  It  Is 
interesting  as  affording  the  oldest  existing  specimens  of  these  languages. 

"  Compare  sees.  44  and  241. 


70  CHARLEMAGNE 

of  land  from  the  Slavs,  and  forced  the  Danes,  Poles,  and  Hunga- 
rians to  acknowledge  his  suzerainty.  Thus  favored  by  fortune,  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  reviving  once  piore  the  imperial  authority, 
just  as  it  had  been  revived  in  the  time  of  the  great  Charles. 

So  in  962,  just  a  little  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  after 
the  coronation  at  Rome  of  Charlemagne,  Otto,  at  the  same  place 
and  by  the  same  papal  authority,  was  crowned  Emperor  of  the 
Romans.  For  a  generation  no  one  had  borne  the  title.  From 
this  time  on  it  was  the  rule  that  the  prince  whom  the  German 
Electors  chose  as  their  king  had  a  right  to  the  crown  of  Italy  and 
also  to  the  imperial  crown. 

After  this  the  Empire  came  to  be  called  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire^  although,  as  Voltaire  very  truthfully  observed  concerning 
it  later,  it  was  "  neither  holy,  nor  Roman,  nor  an  empire."  Re- 
specting the  great  part  that  the  idea  of  the  Empire  played  in  sub- 
sequent history  we  shall  speak  in  a  later  chapter  (Chapter  XI). 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Eginhard  (Einhard),  lAfe  of  the 
Emperor  Karl  the  Great.  Einhard  was  Charles'  confidential  friend  and 
secretary.  "  Almost  all  our  real,  vivifying  knowledge  of  Charles  the  Great," 
says  Hodgkin,  "is  derived  from  Einhard,  and  .  .  .  the  Vita  Caroli  is  one 
of  the  most  precious  bequests  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,"  Henderson, 
Select  Historical  Documents^  pp.  189-201,  "Capitulary  of  Charlemagne, 
issued  in  the  year  802."  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol,  vi.  No.  5,  "  Selec- 
tions from  the  Laws  of  Charles  the  Great "  (ed.  by  Dana  Carleton  Munro). 

Secondary  Works.  —  Hodgkin,  Charles  the  Great,  and  Mombert,  A 
History  of  Charles  the  Great ;  the  first  is  the  best  short  biography  in  English. 
Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  chaps,  iv,  v,  and  xxi ;  gives  a  clear  view 
of  the  import  of  the  restoration  of  the  Empire.  Emerton,  Introduction 
to  the  Middle  Ages,  chaps,  xii-xiv.  Sergeant,  The  Franks,  chaps,  xvi- 
xxii ;  an  admirable  sketch,  with  a  calm  and  moderate  appraisement  of 
Charles'  work.  West,  Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  the  Christian  Schools,  and 
Mullinger,  The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great ;  for  the  influence  upon  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  Middle  Ages  of  the  schools  founded  by  Charlemagne. 
Freeman,  The  Chief  Periods  of  European  History,  Lects.  iii  and  iv,  Adams, 
Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  chap,  vii,     Davis,  Charlemagne. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Charlemagne  and  the  Saxons.  2.  Ro- 
mances connected  with  Charlemagne's  expedition  against  the  Moors  in 
Spain,  3.  Alcuin  and  the  Palace  School,  4.  Tradition  of  the  burial  of 
Charlemagne. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  NORTHMEN:   THE  COMING  OF  THE  VIKINGS 

8i.  The  Northern  Folk.  —  Northmen,  Norsemen,  Scandina- 
vians, are  different  names  applied  in  a  general  way  to  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden.  For  the  reason 
that  those  making  settlements  in  England  came  for  the  most  part 
from  Denmark,  the  term  Danes  is  often  used  with  the  same  wide 
application  by  the  English  writers.  These  people  were  very  near 
kin  to  those  tribes  —  Goths,  Vandals,  Franks,  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
the  rest  —  that  seized  upon  the  western  provinces  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  They  were  Teutons  in  language,  religion,  habits,  and 
spirit. 

82.  The  Northmen  as  Pirates  and  as  Colonizers.  —  For  the  first 
eight  centuries  of  our  era  the  Norsemen  are  practically  hidden 
from  our  view  in  their  remote  northern  home ;  but  towards  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century  their  black  piratical  crafts  are  to  be 
seen  creeping  along  the  coasts  of  Britain,  Ireland,  and  Gaul,  and 
even  venturing  far  up  the  inlets  and  creeks. 

Every  summer  these  dreaded  sea  rovers  made  swift  descents 
upon  the  exposed  shores  of  these  countries,  plundered,  burned, 
murdered ;  and  then  upon  the  approach  of  the  stormy  season 
they  returned  to  winter  in  the  sheltered  fiords  of  the  Northern 
peninsulas.  After  a  time  the  bold  corsairs  began  to  winter  in  the 
lands  they  had  harried  during  the  summer ;  and  soon  all  the 
shores  of  the  countries  visited  were  dotted  with  their  stations 
and  settlements.  With  a  foothold  once  secured,  fresh  bands  came 
from  the  crowded  lands  of  the  North  ;  the  winter  stations  grew 
into  permanent  colonies ;  the  surrounding  country  was  gradually 
wrested  from  the  natives  ;  and  in  course  of  time  the  settlements 
coalesced  into  a  real  kingdom. 

7' 


72  THE  NORTHMEN 

Thus  Northern  Gaul  fell  at  last  so  completely  into  the  hands 
of  the  Northmen  as  to  take  from  them  the  name  of  Normandy ; 
while  Northeastern  England,  crowded  with  settlers  from  Den- 
mark and  surrendered  to  Danish  rule,  became  known  as  the 
Danelagh  (Dane-law).  From  Normandy,  as  a  new  base  of  opera- 
tions, fresh  colonies  went  out  and  made  conquests  and  settle- 
ments in  South  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  in  England.  While  these 
things  were  going  on  in  Europe,  other  bands  of  Northmen  were 
pushing  out  into  the  western  seas  and  colonizing  Iceland  and 
Greenland,  and  visiting  the  shores  of  the  American  continent. 

Commencing  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century,       ix 
these  marauding  expeditions  and  colonizing  enterprises    M 


Fig.  12.  —  A  Viking  Ship 

It  was  the  custom  of  the  Northmen  to  bury  their  dead  sea  king  near  the  sea  in 
his  ship  and  over  the  spot  to  raise  a  great  mound  of  earth.  The  boat  shown 
in  the  cut  was  found  in  1880  in  a  burial  mound  at  Gokstadt,  South  Norway. 
Its  length  is  78  feet.  From  the  mode  of  sepulture  it  is  inferred  that  the 
mound  was  raised  between  a.d.  700  and  1000 

did  not  cease  until  the  eleventh  century  was  far  advanced.  The 
consequences  of  this  wonderful  outpouring  of  the  Scandinavian 
peoples  were  so  important  and  lasting  that  the  movement  may 
well  be  compared,  as  it  has  been,  to  the  great  migration  of  their 
German  kinsmen  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  Europe  is  a 
second  time  inundated  by  the  Teutonic  barbarians. 

The  most  noteworthy  characteristic  of  these  Northmen  is  the 
readiness  with  which  they  laid  aside  their  own  manners,  habits, 
ideas,  and  institutions,  and  adopted  those  of  the  country  in  which 
they  established  themselves.  "  In  Russia  they  became  Russians ;  in 
France,  Frenchmen;  in  Italy,  Italians;  in  England,  Englishmen." 


DISCOVERIES   OF  THE   NORTHMEN 


73 


83.  Colonization  of  Iceland  and  Greenland ;  the  Discovery  of 
America.  —  Iceland  was  settled  by  the  Northmen  in  the  ninth 
century,^  and  about  a  century  later  Greenland  was  discovered 
and  colonized.  In  1874  the  Icelanders  celebrated  the  thou- 
sandth anniversary  of  the  settlement  of  their  island,  an  event 
very  Hke  our  Centennial  of  1876. 

America  was  reached  by  the  Northmen  as  early  as  the  open- 
ing of  the  eleventh  century ;  the  "  Vinland  "  of  their  traditions 
was  probably  some  part  of  the  New  England  coast.  Whether 
these  first 
visitors  to  the 
continent  ever 
made  any  set- 
tlements in  the 
new  land  is  a 
disputed  ques- 
tion. 

84.  The 
Norsemen  in 
Russia.  — 
While  the  Nor- 
wegians were 
sailing  boldly 
out  into  the 


UlSCOVERIES   OF  THE   NORTHMEN 


Atlantic  and  taking  possession  of  the  isles  and  coasts  of  the  west- 
ern seas,  the  Swedes  were  pushing  their  crafts  across  the  Baltic 
and  troubling  the  Finns  and  Slavs  on  the  eastern  shore  of  that 
sea.  Either  by  right  of  conquest  or  through  the  invitation  of  the 
contentious  Slavonic  clans,  the  renowned  Scandinavian  chieftain 

1  Iceland  became  the  literary  center  of  the  Scandinavian  world.  There  grew  up 
here  a  class  of  scalds,  or  bards,  who,  before  the  introduction  of  writing,  preserved 
and  transmitted  orally  the  sagas,  or  legends,  of  the  Northern  races.  About  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  these  f>oems  and  legends  were  gathered  into  col- 
lections known  as  the  Elder  or  Poetic  Edda  and  the  Younger  or  Prose  Edda. 
These  are  among  the  most  interesting  and  important  of  the  literary  niemorials  that 
we  possess  of  the  early  Teutonic  peoples.  They  reflect  faithfully  the  beliefs,  man- 
ners, and  customs  of  the  Norsemen,  and  the  wild,  adventurous  spirit  of  their 
sea  kings. 


74  THE   NORTHMEN 

Ruric  acquired,  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  kingly 
dignity,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  first  royal  line  of  Russia. 
The  state  estabhshed  by  him  and  his  descendants  was  the  beginning, 
or  rather  the  prototype,  of  the  great  empire  of  the  modern  Tsars. 

85.  The  Danish  Conquest  of  England.  —  The  Northmen  — 
Danes,  as  called  by  the  English  writers  —  began  to  make  descents 
upon  the  English  coast  toward  the  close  of  the  eighth  century. 
These  sea  rovers  spread  the  greatest  terror  throughout  the  island; 
for  they  were  not  content  with  plunder,  but,  being  pagans,  took 
special  delight  in  burning  the  churches  and  monasteries  of  the 
now  Christian  Anglo-Saxons,  or  English,  as  we  shall  hereafter  call 
them.  In  a  short  time  fully  one  half  of  England  was  in  their 
hands.  The  wretched  English  were  subjected  to  exactly  the  same 
treatment  that  they  had  inflicted  upon  the  Celts.  Just  when  it 
began  to  look  as  though  they  would  be  wholly  enslaved  or  driven 
from  the  island  by  the  heathen  intruders,  Alfred  (871-901),  later 
to  be  known  as  Alfred  the  Great,^  came  to  the  throne  of  Wessex. 

For  six  years  the  youthful  king  fought  heroically  at  the  head 
of  his  brave  thanes ;  but  each  year  the  possessions  of  the  English 
grew  smaller,  and  finally  Alfred  and  his  few  remaining  followers 
were  forced  to  take  refuge  in  the  woods  and  morasses.  After  a 
time,  however,  the  affairs  of  Alfred  began  to  mend.  He  gained 
some  advantage  over  the  Danes,  but  he  could  not  expel  them 
from  the  island,  and  by  the  celebrated  Treaty  of  Wedmore  (878) 
gave  up  to  them  all  the  northeastern  part  of  England. 

2  Alfred  is  the  only  sovereign  of  England  on  whom  the  title  of  Great  has  been  con- 
ferred. Perhaps  his  best  claims  to  this  distinction  spring  from  his  work  as  a  lawgiver 
and  a  patron  of  learning.  He  collected  and  revised  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  tempering  and  altering  them  in  accordance  with  Christian  morals  and  prin- 
ciples. The  code  that  he  thus  made  formed  the  basis  of  early  English  jurisprudence. 
Alfred  also  fostered  learning  by  himself  becoming  a  translator.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Bible,  some  short  poems,  and  the  well-known  Paraphrase  of  the  Scriptures 
(see  sec.  22),  the  translations  by  Alfred  were  the  first  books  written  in  their  own 
tongue  that  the  English  had  placed  in  their  hands.  Here  we  have  the  beginnings  of 
the  prose  literature  of  England.  "  The  mighty  roll  of  the  prose  books  that  fill  her 
libraries,"  writes  Green,  "  begins  with  the  translations  of  Alfred,  and  above  all  with 
the  Chronicle  of  his  reign."  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  here  alluded  to  was  a  minute 
and  chronological  record  of  events,  probably  begun  in  systematic  form  in  Alfred's 
reign  and  continued  down  to  the  year  1154.  It  was  kept  by  the  monks  of  different 
monasteries,  and  forms  one  of  our  most  valuable  sources  for  early  English  history. 


THE  BANELAW. 


'      TMt  H.-N.  CO.,  surrAU, 


SETTLKMENT  OF  THE  NORTHMEN  IN  GAUL  75 

Fur  a  full  century  following  the  death  of  Alfred  his  successors 
were  engaged  in  a  constant  struggle  to  hold  in  restraint  the  Danes 
already  settled  in  the  land,  or  to  protect  their  domains  from  the 
plundering  inroads  of  fresh  bands  of  pirates  from  the  Northern 
peninsulas.  In  the  end  the  Danes  got  the  victory,  and  Canute, 
king  of  Denmark,  became  king  of  England  (1016).  For  eighteen 
years  he  reigned  in  a  wise  and  parental  way. 

Altogether  the  Danes  ruled  in  England  about  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  and  then  the  old  English  line  was  restored  in  the  person 
of  Edward  the  Confessor  (1042). 

86.  Settlement  of  the  Northmen  in  Gaul.  —  The  Northmen 
began  to  make  piratical  descents  upon  the  coasts  of  Gaul  before 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  The  great  king  had  been 
dead  only  thirty  years  when  these  sea  rovers  ascended  the  Seine 
and  sacked  Paris  (845). 

We  need  not  stop  to  give  in  detail  the  story  of  their  subsequent 
plundering  expeditions  in  Gaul  and  of  their  final  settlement  in 
the  northwest  of  the  country,  for  this  is  simply  a  repetition  of  the 
tale  of  the  Danish  forays  and  settlement  in  England.  At  last,  the 
Carolingian  king,  Charles  the  Simple,  did  something  very  like 
what  Alfred  the  Great  had  done  across  the  Channel  only  a  short 
time  before.  He  granted  to  Rollo,  the  leader  of  the  Northmen 
who  had  settled  at  Rouen,  a  considerable  section  of  country  in  the 
north  of  Gaul,  upon  condition  of  homage  and  conversion  (912). 
In  a  short  time  the  newcomers  had  adopted  the  language,  the 
manners,  and  the  religion  of  the  French,  and  had  caught  much 
of  their  vivacity  and  impulsiveness  of  spirit,  without,  however, 
any  loss  of  their  own  native  virtues.  This  transformation  in  their 
manners  and  life  we  may  conceive  as  being  recorded  in  their  trans- 
formed name,  —  Northmen  becoming  softened  into  Norman. 

87.  Normandy  in  French  History. — The  establishment  of  a 
Scandinavian  settlement  in  Gaul  proved  a  most  momentous 
matter,  not  only  for  the  history  of  the  French  people,  but  for 
the  history  of  European  civilization  as  well.  This  Norse  factor 
was  destined  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  those  various 
racial  elements   which  on  the  soil  of  the   old  Gaul  blend e<i  to 


ye  THE    NORTHMEN 

create  the  richly  dowered  French  nation.  For  many  of  the  most 
romantic  passages  of  her  history  France  is  indebted  to  the  adven- 
turous spirit  of  the  descendants  of  these  wild  rovers  of  the  sea. 
The  knights  of  Normandy  lent  an  added  splendor  to  French 
knighthood,  and  helped  greatly  to  make  France  the  hearth  of  chiv- 
alry and  the  center  of  the  crusading  movement  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries. 

Nor  was  the  influence  of  the  incoming  of  this  Scandinavian 
race  felt  upon  French  history  alone.  Normandy  became  the 
point  of  departure  of  enterprises  that  had  deep  and  lasting  con- 
sequences for  Europe  at  large.  These  undertakings  had  for  their 
arena  England  and  the  Mediterranean  lands.  Their  results  were 
so  important  and  far-reaching  that  we  shall  devote  to  the  nar- 
ration of  them  a  subsequent  chapter  (Chapter  X). 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  The  Heimskringla,  or  Chronicle  of  the 
Kings  of  Norway  (trans,  by  Samuel  Laing).  These  sagas  are  of  surpassing 
value  to  us  for  the  reason  that,  in  the  words  of  Keary,  they  are  "  the  last 
articulate  voice  of  Teutonic  heathenism."  The  Story  of  Burnt  A^jal 
(trans,  by  George  W.  Dasent).  An  Icelandic  saga ;  a  picture  of  times  and 
manners.  MABIE,  Norse  Stories,  retold  from  the  Eddas.  Colby,  Selec- 
tions, Nos.  8,  9,  and  lo.  Kendall,  Source-Book,  chap,  ii,  "  England  and 
the  Danes." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Keary,  The  Vikings  in  Western  Christendom. 
The  author  depicts  the  various  Viking  undertakings  as  "  one  phase  ...  of 
the  long  struggle  between  Christianity  and  the  heathenism  of  the  North." 
Pauli,  The  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great ;  the  best  life  of  the  great  king. 
Green,  The  Conquest  of  England ;  all  excepting  chaps,  x  and  xi.  Du 
Chaillu,  The  Viking  Age;  reflects  the  life  and  ideals,  customs  and 
manners  of  the  Norsemen,  chiefly  as  depicted  in  the  sagas.  Hughes, 
Alfred  the  Great.  The  millenary  celebration  of  Alfred's  death  has  called 
into  existence  an  "  Alfred  Library."  Among  these  recent  books  the  fol- 
lowing should  be  noticed:  Macfadyen,  Alfred,  the  West  Saxon,  and 
Bowker,  Alfred  the  Great.  Boyesen,  The  Story  of  Norway ;  the  open- 
ing chapters. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  physical  characteristics  of  Scandi- 
navia. 2.  Manners  and  customs  of  the  Northmen.  3.  The  Eddas.  4.  The 
Icelanders'  millennial  anniversary,  1874.  5.  Discovery  of  America  by  the 
Northmen.     6.  Tales  and  legends  of  Alfred  the  Great. 


6v .  ^'>i^ 


SECOND   PERIOD  — THE  AGE  OF   REVIVAL 

(From  the  Opening  of  the  Eleventh  Century  to  the  Discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus  in  1493) 


CHAPTER  IX 
FEUDALISM   AND   CHIVALRY 

I.   Feudalism 

88.  Feudalism  defined.  —  Feudalism  is  the  name  given  to  a 
special  form  of  society  and  government,  based  upon  a  peculiar 
tenure  of  land,  which  prevailed  in  Europe  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  attaining,  however,  its  most  perfect  develop- 
ment in  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

The  three  most  essential  features  of  the  system  were  :  (i)  the 
holding  of  land  from  a  lord  or  superior;  (2)  the  existence  of  a 
close  personal  bond  between  the  grantor  of  an  estate  and  the 
receiver  of  it ;  (3)  the  full  or  partial  rights  of  sovereignty  which 
the  holder  of  an  estate  had  over  those  living  upon  it. 

An  estate  of  this  nature  —  it  might  embrace  a  few  acres  or 
an  entire  kingdom  —  was  called  a  fief  or  feud^  whence  the  term 
FeudaHsm.  The  person  granting  a  fief  was  called  the  suzerain^  lifgf^ 
or  lord ;  the  one  receiving  it,  his  vassal,  liegeman^  or  retainer, 

A  person  receiving  a  large  fief  might  parcel  it  out  in  tracts 
to  others  on  terms  similar  to  those  on  which  he  himself  had 
received  it.  This  regranting  of  feudal  lands  was  known  as  subin- 
fcudation;  in  principle  it  was  not  unlike  what  we  know  as  the 
subletting  of  lands.  The  process  of  Subinfeudation  might  be 
carried  to  almost  any  degree.  Practically  it  was  seldom  carried 
beyond  the  fourth  stage. 

n 


j^  FEUDALISM   AND    CHIVALRY 

89.  The  Ideal  System.  — The  few  definitions  given  above  will 
render  intelligible  the  following  explanation  of  the  theory  of  the 
feudal  system.  We  take  the  theory  of  the  system  first  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  infinitely  simpler  than  the  thing  itself.  In  fact, 
feudalism,  as  we  find  it  in  actual  practice,  was  one  of  the  most 
complex  institutions  that  the  mediaeval  ages  produced. 

In  theory  all  the  kings  of  the  earth  were  vassals  of  the  Emperor, 
who  according  to  good  imperialists  was  God's  vassal,  and  according 
to  good  churchmen,  the  Pope's.  The  kings  received  their  domin- 
ions as  fiefs  to  be  held  on  conditions  of  loyalty  to  their  suzerain 
and  of  fealty  to  right  and  justice.  Should  a  king  become  disloyal 
or  rule  unjustly  and  wickedly,  through  such  misconduct  he  for- 
feited his  fief,  and  it  might  be  taken  from  him  by  his  suzerain 
and  given  to  another  worthier  liegeman. 

In  the  same  way  as  the  king  received  his  fief  from  the  Emperor, 
so  might  he  grant  it  out  in  parcels  to  his  chief  men,  they,  in  return 
for  it,  promising,  in  general,  to  be  faithful  to  him  as  their  lord, 
and  to  serve  and  aid  him.  Should  these  men,  now  vassals,  be  in 
any  way  untrue  to  their  engagement,  they  forfeited  their  fiefs, 
and  these  might  be  resumed  by  their  suzerain  and  bestowed  upon 
others. 

In  like  manner  these  immediate  vassals  of  the  king,  or  suzerain, 
might  parcel  out  their  domains  in  smaller  tracts  to  others,  on  con- 
ditions similar  to  those  upon  which  they  had  themselves  received 
theirs ;  and  so  on  down  through  any  number  of  stages. 

We  have  thus  far  dealt  only  with  the  soil  of  a  country.  We 
must  next  notice  what  disposition  was  made  of  the  people  under 
this  system. 

The  king  in  receiving  his  fief  was  intrusted  with  sovereignty 
over  all  persons  living  upon  it;  he  became  their  commander, 
their  lawmaker,  and  their  judge,  —  practically,  their  absolute  and 
irresponsible  ruler.  Then,  when  he  parceled  out  his  fief  among 
his  great  men,  he  invested  them,  within  the  limits  of  the  fiefs 
granted,  with  all  his  own  sovereign  rights.  Each  vassal  became 
a  virtual  sovereign  in  his  own  domain.  And  when  these  great 
vassals  subdivided  their  fiefs  and  granted  portions  of  them  to 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   FIEFS 


79 


others,  they  in  turn  invested  their  vassals  with  more  or  less  of 
those  powers  of  sovereignty  with  which  they  themselves  had 
been  clothed.^ 

To  illustrate  the  workings  of  the  system,  we  will  suppose  the 
king,  or  suzerain,  to  be  in  need  of  an  army.  He  calls  upon  his 
own  immediate  vassals  for  aid ;  these  in  turn  call  upon  their 
vassals ;  and  so  the  order  runs  down  through  the  various  stages 
of  the  hierarchy.  Each  lord  commands  only  his  own  vassals. 
The  retainers  in  the  lowest  rank  rally  around  their  respective 
lords,  who,  with  their  bands,  gather  about  their  lords,  and  so  on 
up  through  the  rising  tiers  of  the  hierarchy,  until  the  immediate 
vassals  of  the  suzerain,  or  lord  paramount,  present  themselves 
before  him  with  their  graduated  trains  of  followers.  The  array 
constitutes  a  feudal  army,  —  a  splendidly  organized  body  in 
theory,  but  in  fact  an  extremely  poor  instrument  for  warfare. 

Such  was  the  ideal  feudal  state.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the 
ideal  was  never  perfectly  realized.  The  system  simply  made  more 
or  less  distant  approaches  to  it  in  the  several  European  countries. 
But  this  general  idea  which  we  have  tried  to  give  of  the  theory 
of  the  system  will  help  to  an  understanding  of  it  as  we  find  it  in 
actual  existence. 

We  will  now  in  three  distinct  paragraphs  say  a  word  about  the 
probable  origin  of  the  three  prominent  elements  of  the  system,  — 
namely,  the  fief^  the  pati-onage^  and  the  sovereignty. 

90.  The  Origin  of  Fiefs.  —  In  the  sixth  century  probably  the 
greater  portion  of  the  soil  of  the  countries  which  had  once  formed 
a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West  was  held  by  what  was 
called  an  allodial  or  freehold  tenure.  The  landed  proprietor 
owned  his  domain  absolutely,  held  it  just  as  a  man  among  us 
holds  his  estate.  He  enjoyed  it  free  from  any  rent  or  service  due 
to  a  superior,  save  of  course  public  taxes  and  duties.  But  by  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century  probably  the  larger  part  of  the  land 

1  The  holders  of  small  fiefs  were  not  allowed  to  exercise  the  more  important 
functions  of  sovereignty.  Thus,  of  the  estimated  number  of  70,000  fief  holders  in 
France  in  the  tenth  century,  only  between  100  and  200  possessed  the  right  "  to  coin 
money,  levy  taxes,  make  laws,  and  administer  their  own  justice." 


8o  FEUDALISM  AND   CHIVALRY 

in  these  same  countries,  as  well  as  in  other  regions  into  which  the 
feudal  system  had  been  carried,  was  held  by  a  beneficiary  or  feudal 
tenure.    We  must  now  see  how  this  great  change  came  about. 

The  fief  grew  out  of  the  beneficium,  a  form  of  estate  well  known 
among  the  Romans.  When  the  barbarians  overran  the  soil  of  the 
Empire,  they  appropriated,  as  we  have  seen,  a  good  part  of  it  to 
their  own  use.  The  king  or  leader  of  the  invading  tribe  naturally 
had  allotted  to  him  a  large  share.  Following  his  custom  of  bestow- 
ing gifts  of  arms  and  other  articles  upon  his  companions,  he 
granted  to  his  followers  and  friends  parcels  of  his  domains,  upon 
the  simple  condition  of  faithfulness.  At  first  these  estates  were 
bestowed  only  for  life,  and  were  called  by  the  Latin  name  of  bene- 
fices; but  in  the  course  of  time  they  became  hereditary,  and  then 
they  began  to  be  called  fiefs  or  feuds.  They  took  this  latter  name 
about  the  ninth  century.  As  the  royal  lands  were  very  extensive 
and  were  being  constantly  added  to  by  inheritance  and  successful 
wars,  these  were  a  very  important  source  of  feudal  estates. 

Another  and  still  more  important  source  of  fiefs  was  usurpation. 
Under  the  later  Carolingians  the  counts,  dukes,  marquises,  and 
other  royal  officers,  who  were  at  first  simply  appointed  magistrates, 
succeeded,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  their  sovereigns, 
in  making  their  offices  hereditary,  and  then  in  having  their  duchies, 
counties,  and  provinces  regarded  as  fiefs  granted  to  them  by  the 
king.  By  the  year  877  this  process  had  proceeded  so  far  that  in 
that  year  Charles  the  Bald  of  France  recognized  the  hereditary 
character  of  the  offices  of  his  counts.  In  this  way  the  countries 
originally  embraced  within  the  limits  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne 
became  broken  up  into  a  considerable  number  of  enormous  fiefs, 
the  heads  of  which,  bearing  the  names  of  count,  duke,  marquis, 
and  so  on,  became  the  great  vassals  of  the  crown. 

Another  way  in  which  fiefs  arose  was  through  the  owners  of 
allodial  estates  voluntarily  surrendering  them  into  the  hands  of 
some  powerful  lord,  and  then  receiving  them  back  as  benefices 
or  fiefs.  We  shall  see,  a  little  further  on,  how  the  confusion  and 
anarchy  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  caused  multitudes  of 
allodial  proprietors  thus  to  turn  their  freeholds  into  fiefs,  that 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  FEUDAL  PATRONAGE     8l 

they  might  thereby  come  within  the  feudal  system  and  enjoy  its 
advantages  and  protection. 

91.  Origin  of  the  Feudal  Patronage. — We  named  the  close 
personal  tie  uniting  the  lord  and  his  vassal  as  the  second  of  the 
essential  features  of  the  feudal  system.  Some  have  traced  this  to 
the  Teutons,  and  think  it  the  same  tie  as  that  which  bound  the 
companion  to  his  chief  and  created  the  ancient  German  institu- 
tion known  as  the  comitatus.  Others  have  pronounced  it  iden- 
tical with  the  tie  that  at  Rome  bound  the  client  to  his  patron. 
Still  others  have  traced  it  to  the  Celtic  or  Gallic  custom  of  com- 
mendation, whereby  a  person  subjected  himself  to  a  more  power- 
ful lord  for  the  sake  of  his  patronage  and  protection.  All  these 
things  indeed  are  very  much  alike,  and  any  one  might  have  served 
as  the  germ  out  of  which  feudal  patronage,  the  special  relation  of 
lord  and  vassal,  was  developed. 

The  important  thing  to  bear  in  mind,  however,  is  that  in  the 
Frankish  kingdom,  which  was  the  cradle  of  feudalism,  we  find  all 
the  officers  of  the  court  and  the  great  men  of  the  nation  holding 
to  the  king  relations  of  sworn  fidelity  and  trust  which  were  in 
various  respects  analogous  to  the  relations  that  subsisted  in  earlier 
times  between  the  German  war  leader  and  his  companions. 

Now,  in  time  this  peculiar  personal  relation,  characterized  on  the 
part  of  the  vassal  by  pledges  of  fealty,  service,  and  aid,  and  on 
the  part  of  the  lord  by  promise  of  counsel  and  protection,  came 
to  be  united  with  the  benefice,  with  which  at  firsi  it  had  nothing  to 
do.    The  union  of  these  two  ties  completed  the  feudal  tenure. 

92.  Origin  of  the  Feudal  Sovereignty.  —  It  still  remains  to  speak 
of  the  feudal  sovereignty.  How  did  the  possessor  of  a  fief  acquire 
the  rights  of  a  sovereign  over  the  persons  living  upon  it,  —  the 
right  to  administer  justice,  to  coin  money,  and  to  wage  war  ? 
How  did  these  privileges  and  authorities  which  at  first  resided  in 
the  king  come  to  be  distributed  among  the  fief  holders  ?  In  two 
ways  largely,  —  by  the  king's  voluntary  surrender  of  his  rights  and 
powers,  and  by  usurpation. 

Thus  the  Merovingian  and  Carolingian  rulers  very  frequently 
conferred  upon  churches,  monasteries,  and  important  personages  a 


82 


FEUDALISM   AND    CHIVALRY 


portion  of  the  royal  power.  This  was  done  by  what  were  known  as 
grants  of  immunity ?  Thus  a  monastery,  for  instance,  would,  by 
such  a  grant,  be  freed  from  certain  public  charges  and  duties,  and 
be  given  administrative  and  judicial  authority  over  all  classes  of 
persons  living  upon  its  lands.  In  this  way  the  royal  authority 
was  much  scattered  and  weakened. 

A  still  more  important  source  of  feudal  sovereignty  was  the 
usurpation  of  the  kingly  power  by  the  royal  officers.  Under  the 
later  C'arolingians  these  magistrates,  as  we  have  already  seen,  suc- 
ceeded in  making  their  offices  hereditary,  and  thus  transformed 
themselves  into  petty  sovereigns,  only  nominally  dependent  upon 
their  king.  They  became  powerful  vassals,  while  their  sovereign 
became  a  suzerain,  a  shadow  king.  By  such  usurpations  the  king- 
doms into  which  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  was  at  first  broken 

became  still  further  subdivided  into 
numerous  petty  feudal  principalities, 
and  the  royal  power  was  distributed 
down  through  the  ranks  of  a  more  or 
less  perfectly  graded  civil  hierarchy. 
93.  The  Ceremony  of  Homage.  — 
A  fief  was  conferred  by  a  very  solemn 
and  peculiar  ceremony  called  hom- 
age.   The  person  about  to  become 
a  vassal,   kneeling  with  uncovered 
head,  placed  his  hands  in  those  of 
his  future  lord  and  solemnly  vowed 
to  be  henceforth  his  man^  and  to 
serve  him  faithfully  even  with  his 
life.    This  part  of  the  ceremony,  sealed  with  a  kiss,  was  what 
properly  constituted  the  ceremony  of  homage.     It  was  accom- 
panied by  an  oath  of  fealty,  and  the  whole  was  concluded  by  the 

2  A  grant  of  immunity  may  for  purposes  of  illustration  be  compared  to  the 
charter  granted  by  the  modern  state  to  the  board  of  directors  of  a  college  or  other 
corporation,  whereby  are  conferred  upon  this  body  limited  rights  of  legislation  and 
jurisdiction ;  or  a  better  illustration  perhaps  would  be  the  Constitution  that  the  United 
States  Government  by  its  ratification  gives  to  a  territory  and  thereby  makes  it  a 
State  with  many  sovereign  powers.  Federalism  indeed  presents  various  instructive 
analogies  to  feudalism.  3  Latin  homo^  whence  "  homage." 


Fig.  13.  —  The  Ceremony  of 
Homage.  (From  a  seal  of 
the  twelfth  century) 


THE   RELATIONS   OF   LORD  AND   VASSAL         83 

act  of  investiture,  whereby  the  lord  put  his  vassal  in  actual  pos- 
session of  the  land  or,  by  placing  in  his  hand  a  clod  of  earth  or 
a  twig,  symbolized  the  delivery  to  him  of  the  estate  for  which  he 
had  just  now  done  homage  and  sworn  fealty. 

94.  The  Relations  of  Lord  and  Vassal.  —  In  general  terms  the 
duty  of  the  vassal  was  service ;  that  of  the  lord,  protection.  The 
most  honorable  service  required  of  the  vassal,  and  the  one  most 
willingly  rendered  in  a  martial  age,  was  military  aid.  The  liegeman 
must  always  be  ready  to  follow  his  lord  upon  his  military  expedi- 
tions ;  but  the  time  of  service  for  one  year  was  usually  not  more 
than  forty  days.  He  must  defend  his  lord  in  battle  ;  if  he  should 
be  unhorsed,  must  give  him  his  own  animal ;  and,  if  he  should  be 
made  a  prisoner,  must  offer  himself  as  a  hostage  for  his  release. 
He  must  also  give  entertainment  to  his  lord  and  his  retinue  on 
their  journeys.  He  was,  moreover,  under  obligation,  upon  sum- 
mons, to  serve  as  juror  or  judge  in  the  lord's  court,  and  thus  aid 
him  in  the  settlement  of  disputes  between  his  vassals. 

There  were  other  incidents  mainly  of  a  financial  nature  attach- 
ing to  a  fief,  which  grew  up  gradually  and  did  not  become  a  part 
of  the  system  much  before  the  eleventh  century.  These  were 
known  as  Reliefs^  Fines  upon  Alienation^  Escheats^  and  Aids. 

A  Relief  was  the  name  given  to  the  sum  of  money  which  an 
heir  upon  coming  into  possession  of  a  fief  must  pay  to  the  lord 
of  the  domain.  This  was  often  a  large  amount,  being  usually  the 
entire  revenue  of  the  estate  for  one  year. 

A  Fine  upon  Alienation  was  a  sum  of  money  paid  to  the  lord 
by  a  vassal  foe  permission  to  alienate  his  fief,  that  is,  to  substitute 
another  vassal  in  his  place. 

By  Escheat  was  meant  the  falling  back  of  the  fief  into  the  hands 
of  the  lord  through  failure  of  heirs.  If  the  fief  lapsed  through  dis- 
loyalty or  other  misdemeanor  on  the  part  of  the  vassal,  this  was 
known  as  Forfeiture. 

Aids  were  sums  of  money  which  the  lord  had  a  right  to  demand 
to  enable  him  to  meet  unusual  expenditures,  especially  for  defray- 
ing the  expense  of  knighting  his  eldest  son,  for  providing  a  mar- 
riage dower  for  his  eldest  daughter,  and  for  ransoming  his  own 


84  FEUDALISM   AND    CHIVALRY 

person  from  captivity  in  case  he  were  made  a  prisoner  of  war.* 
The  chief  return  that  the  lord  was  bound  to  make  to  the  vassal 
as  a  compensation  for  these  various  services  and  rights  was  justice 
and  protection,  —  by  no  means  a  small  return  in  an  age  of  turmoil 
and  insecurity. 

95.  Serfs  ^  and  Serfdom.  — The  vassals,  or  fief  holders  of  vari- 
ous grades,  constituted  only  a  very  small  portion,  perhaps  five  per 
cent  or  less,  of  the  population  of  the  countries  where  feudalism 
came  to  prevail.  The  great  bulk  of  the  folk  were  agricultural 
serfs.^  These  were  the  men  who  actually  tilled  the  soil.  Just 
how  this  servile  class  arose  is  not  positively  known.  Some  think 
that  the  ancestors  of  the  mediaeval  serfs  were  bondsmen,  others 
that  they  were,  speaking  generally,  freemen.  In  some  countries 
at  least  they  seem  to  have  been  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
slaves  of  Roman  times,  whose  condition  had  been  gradually 
ameliorated.  Their  status  varied  greatly  from  country  to  country 
and  from  period  to  period  ;  that  is  to  say,  there  came  to  be  many 
grades  of  serfs  filling  the  space  between  the  actual  slave  and  the 
full  freeman.  Consequently  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  general 
account  of  the  class  which  can  be  regarded  as  a  true  picture  of 
their  actual  condition  as  a  body  at  any  given  time.  The  following 
description  must  therefore  be  taken  as  reflecting  their  duties  and 
disabihties  only  in  the  most  general  way. 

The  first  and  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  condition  of 
the  serfs  was  that  they  were  afiixed  to  the  soil.    They  could  not 

•*  The  right  of  wardship  was  the  right  of  the  lord,  when  a  successor  to  a  fief  was  a 
minor,  to  assume  the  guardianship  of  the  heir  and  to  enjoy  the  revenues  of  the  fief 
until  his  ward  became  of  age.  The  right  of  marriage  was  the  right  of  the  lord  to 
select  a  husband  for  his  female  ward,  "  lest  he  should  get  an  enemy  for  a  vassal." 

5  The  terms  serf  and  villain^  although  in  some  countries  they  denoted  different 
classes,  are  used  interchangeably  by  many  writers.  Thus  English  writers  usually 
employ  the  terms  villains  and  villanage  in  speaking  of  the  servile  English  peasantry 
after  the  Norman  Conquest.  We  shall,  however,  throughout  our  work  use  the  words 
serf  and  serfdom  only  in  the  sense  defined  in  the  present  paragraph. 

6  There  were  some  free  peasants  and  a  larger  number  of  free  artisans  and  traders, 
inhabitants  of  the  towns.  The  number  of  actual  slaves  was  small.  They  had  almost 
all  disappeared  before  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  either  having  been  emancipated 
or  been  lifted  into  the  lowest  order  of  serfs,  which  was  an  advance  toward  freedom. 
At  the  time  of  the  great  Domesday  survey  (sec.  117)  there  were,  according  to  this 
record,  only  about  25,000  slaves  in  England. 


Photograph  of  an  Open  Field  in  Hitchin  Manor 

Showing  the  grassy  balks,  or  unplowed  furrows,  which  take  the  place  of  hedges 
and  divide  the  acre  and  half-acre  strips  of  the  great  open  field 

*This  map  is  based  on  charts  in  Seebohm's  The  Euj^lish  I'illage  Ctfmmmmitjr^  and 
illustrates  the  open-field  system  of  cultivation  of  the  niedi.x'\-al  manor.  The  thirty  scattered 
strips  colored  red  represent  the  normal  holding  of  a  villain  {vt7/anMs) ;  the  strips  colored 
blue,  comprising  about  one  third  of  the  land  of  the  manor,  show  the  ^-ay  in  which  the 
demesne  of  the  lord  was  often  made  up  of  numerous  tracts  scattered  about  ll»e  open  nelds 
instead  of  formine  a  continuous  tract  around  the  manor  house ;  the  areas  colored  green 
represent  the  meadows  and  common  pasture  lands. 


SERFS   AND   SERFDOM  85 

of  their  own  will  leave  the  estate  or  manor  to  which  they  belonged  ; 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  could  their  lord  deprive  them  of  Uieir 
holdings  and  set  them  adrift.  When  the  land  changed  masters 
they  passed  with  it,  just  like  a  "  rooted  tree  or  stone  earth-bound." 
It  was  this  that  constituted  the  peasants  serfs  in  the  sense  in  which 
we  shall  use  the  term. 

Each  serf  had  allotted  him  by  his  lord  a  cottage  and  a  number 
of  acres  of  land,  —  thirty  acres  formed  a  normal  holding,  —  con- 
sisting of  numerous  narrow  strips  scattered  about  the  great  open 
fields  of  the  manor.  For  these  he  paid  a  rent,  usually  during  the 
earlier  feudal  times  in  kind  and  in  personal  services.  The  personal 
services  included  a  certain  number  of  days'  work,  usually  two  or 
three  days  each  week,  on  the  demesne,  that  is,  the  land  which 
the  lord  had  kept  in  his  own  hands  as  a  sort  of  home  farm.  The 
nature  of  the  work  consisted  in  plowing  the  lord's  land,  tilling 
and  weeding  his  crops,  ditching,  building  walls,  repairing  roads 
and  bridges,  cutting  and  hauling  wood  to  the  manor  house,  wash- 
ing and  shearing  sheep,  feeding  the  hounds,  and  picking  nuts  and 
wild  berries  for  the  folk  in  the  castle.  Often  the  poor  serf  could 
find  time  to  till  his  own  little  plot  only  on  moonlit  nights  or  on 
rainy  days.  He  must  furthermore  grind  his  grain  at  his  lord's 
mill,  press  his  grapes  at  his  wine  press,  bake  his  bread  at  his 
oven,  often  paying  for  these  services  an  unreasonable  toll. 

After  the  serf  had  rendered  to  the  lord  all  the  rent  in  kind  he 
owed  for  his  cottage  and  bit  of  ground,  the  remainder  of  the 
produce  from  his  fields  was,  in  accordance  with  custom  if  not 
always  with  law,  his  own.  Generally  the  share  was  only  just 
sufficient  to  keep  the  wolf  of  hunger  from  his  door.  Some  serfs, 
however,  were  able  to  accumulate  considerable  personal  property, 
enough  wherewith  to  purchase  their  freedom. 

In  some  countries  upon  the  death  of  the  serf  all  that  he  had 
became  in  the  eye  of  the  law  the  property  of  his  lord ;  in  other 
lands,  again,  the  lord  could  take  only  the  best  animal  or  the  best 
implement  of  the  deceased  serf.    This  was  called  the  herioL 

Besides  all  these  payments,  services,  gifts,  and  dues,  there  were 
often  others  of  a  whimsical  and  teasing  rather  than  an  oppressive 


S6  FEUDALISM   AND   CHIVALRY 

nature.  But  of  these  we  need  not  now  speak.  What  we  have 
alr^dy  said  will  convey  some  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  relations 
that  existed  between  the  lord  and  his  serf,  and  will  indicate  how 
servile  and  burdensome  were  the  incidents  of  the  tenure  by  which 
the  serf  held  his  cottage  and  bit  of  ground.  How  the  serf  gradu- 
ally freed  himself  from  the  heavy  yoke  of  his  servitude  and  became 
a  freeman  will  appear  as  we  advance  in  our  narrative. 

96.  Development  of  the  Feudal  System. — Although  the  germs 
of  feudalism  may  be  found  in  the  society  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  cen- 
tury, still  the  system  did  not  develop  so  as  to  exhibit  its  charac- 
teristic features  before  the  eighth  or  ninth. 

What  greatly  contributed  to  the  development  of  feudalism,  par- 
ticularly on  its  military  side,  was  the  means  adopted  by  Charles 
Martel,  after  the  battle  of  Tours,  to  repel  the  continued  raids  of 
the  Arab  horsemen  into  Southern  Gaul.  Foot  soldiers  being  useless 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  mounted  marauders,  Charles  created  a  cav- 
alry force,  appropriating  for  this  purpose  Church  lands  which  he 
granted  in  fief  to  meet  the  cost  of  service  on  horseback.  This 
was  the  opening  of  the  day  of  feudal  chivalry  (sec.  102).  Grad- 
ually the  old  general  levies  of  foot  soldiers  were  almost  wholly 
superseded  by  arrays  of  feudal  knights. 

This  development  of  feudalism  as  a  defensive  military  system 
and  in  the  typical  form  which  it  had  now  assumed  in  the  Gallic 
border  land  between  Saracen  and  Christian  was  hastened  by  the 
disturbed  state  of  society  everywhere  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  ninth  and  the  tenth  century ;  for  after  the  death  of  Charle- 
magne and  the  partition  of  his  empire  among  his  feeble  successors, 
it  appeared  as  though  the  world  were  again  falling  back  into 
chaos.  The  bonds  of  society  seemed  entirely  broken.  Every  man 
did  that  which  was  right  in  his  own  eyes. 

To  internal  disorders  were  added  the  invasions  of  the  outside 
barbarians ;  for,  no  longer  held  in  restraint  by  the  strong  arm  of 
the  great  Charles,  they  had  now  begun  their  raids  anew.  From 
the  north  came  the  Scandinavian  pirates  to  harry  the  shores  of 
Germany,  Gaul,  and  Britain.  The  terror  which  these  pagan  sea 
rovers  inspired  is  commemorated  by  the  supphcation  of  the  Htany 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   FEUDAL  SYSTEM        87 

of  those  days  :  **  From  the  fury  of  the  Northmen,  good  Lord,  deliver 
us."  From  the  east  came  the  terrible  Hungarians.  These  pagan 
marauders  not  only  devastated  Germany  but  troubled  Southern 
France  and,  passing  the  Alps,  spread  before  them  a  terror  like  that 
which  had  run  before  the  Huns  nearly  five  hundred  years  earlier. 

By  the  way  of  the  sea  on  the  south  came  an  equally  dreaded 
foe.  The  Saracens,  now  intrenched  in  Spain  and  Sicily,  made 
piratical  descents  upon  all  the  Christian  shores  of  the  Western 
and  Middle  Mediterranean,  sacking  and  burning,  and  creating 
here  such  panic  and  dismay  as  the  Northmen  and  Hungarians 
were  creating  by  their  irruptions  in  the  north  and  east. 

It  was  this  anarchical  state  of  things  that,  as  we  have  said, 
caused  the  rapid  development  of  feudalism.  All  classes  hastened 
to  enter  the  system  in  order  to  secure  the  protection  which  it 
alone  could  afford.  Kings,  princes,  and  wealthy  persons  who  had 
large  landed  possessions  which  they  had  never  parceled  out  as 
fiefs,  were  now  led  to  do  so,  that  their  estates  might  be  held  by 
tenants  bound  to  protect  them  by  all  the  sacred  obligations  of 
homage  and  fealty.  Thus  sovereigns  and  princes  became  suze- 
rains and  feudal  lords.  Again,  the  smaller  proprietors  who  held 
their  estates  by  allodial  tenure  voluntarily  surrendered  them  into 
the  hands  of  some  neighboring  lord,  and  then  received  them  back 
again  from  him  as  fiefs,  that  they  might  claim  protection  as 
vassals.  They  deemed  this  better  than  being  robbed  of  their 
property  altogether. 

Moreover,  for  like  reasons  and  in  like  manner,  churches, 
monasteries,  and  cities  became  members  of  the  feudal  system. 
They  granted  out  their  vast  possessions  as  fiefs,  and  thus  became 
suzerains  and  lords.  Bishops  and  abbots  became  the  heads  of 
great  bands  of  retainers,  and  often  themselves  led  military  expe- 
ditions like  temporal  chiefs.  On  the  other  hand,  these  same 
monasteries  and  towns  frequently  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  some  powerful  lord,  and  thus  came  in  vassalage  to 
him.  Sometimes  the  bishops  and  the  heads  of  religious  houses, 
instead  of  paying  military  service,  bound  themselves  to  say  a 
certain  number  of  Masses  for  the  lord  or  his  family.    Lewis  the 


88 


FEUDALISM   AND   CHIVALRY 


Pious,  son  and  successor  of  Charles  the  Great,  decreed  that  with 
some  exceptions  all  the  monasteries  of  his  domains  should  hold 
their  estates  on  the  sole  condition  "  that  they  should  pray  for  the 
welfare  of  the  Emperor  and  his  children  and  the  Empire." 

In  this  way  were  Church  and  State,  all  classes  of  society  from  the 
wealthiest  suzerain  to  the  humblest  vassal,  bound  together  by  feudal 
ties.    Everything  was  impressed  with  the  stamp  of  feudalism. 

97.  Castles  of  the  Nobles.  — The  lawless  and  violent  character 
of  the  times  during  which  feudalism  prevailed  is  well  shown  by 
the  nature  of  the  residences  which  the  great  nobles  built  for 


Fig.  14.  —  Typical  Medieval  Castle.    (From  an  engraving) 


themselves.  These  were  strong  stone  fortresses,  often  perched 
upon  some  rocky  eminence,  and  defended  by  moats  and  towers. 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  Northern  Spain,  England,  and  Scot- 
land, in  which  countries  the  feudal  system  became  most  thoroughly 
developed,  fairly  bristled  with  these  fortified  residences  of  the 
nobility.  Strong  walls  were  the  only  protection  against  the  univer- 
sal violence  of  the  age.  Not  only  had  each  lord  to  protect  himself 
against  the  attacks  of  neighboring  chiefs,  but  also  against  those  of 
foreign  foes,  such  as  the  Hungarians  and  the  Northmen  ;  for  there 
was  no  strong  central  authority  to  make  law  respected  and  to  give 
protection  to  all. 


CAUSES   OF  THE   DECAY   OF   FEUDALISM         89 

One  of  the  most  striking  and  picturesque  features  of  the  land- 
scape of  many  regions  in  Europe  to-day  is  the  ivy-mantled  towers 
and  walls  of  these  feudal  castles,  now  falling  into  ruins.  They 
are  impressive  memorials  of  an  age  that  has  passed  away. 

98.  Sports  of  the  Nobles  ;  Hunting  and  Hawking.  —  When  not 
engaged  in  military  enterprises,  the  nobles  occupied  much  of 
their  time  in  hunting  and  hawking.  "  With  the  northern  barba- 
rians," writes  Hallam,  "  it  [hunting]  was  rather  a  predominant 
appetite  than  an  amusement ;  it  was  their  pride  and  their  orna- 
ment, the  theme  of  their  songs,  the  object  of  their  laws,  and  the 
business  of  their  lives."  It  was  the  forest  laws  of  the  Norman 
conquerors  of  England,  designed  for  the  protection  of  the  game  in 
the  royal  preserves,  which,  perhaps  more  than  anything  else,  caused 
these  foreign  rulers  to  be  so  hated  by  the  English  (sec.  118). 

Abbots  and  bishops  entered  upon  the  chase  with  as  great  zest 
as  the  lay  nobles.  Even  the  prohibitions  of  Church  councils 
against  the  clergy's  indulging  in  such  worldly  amusements  were 
wholly  ineffectual. 

Hawking  grew  into  a  very  passion  among  all  classes,  even 
ladies  participating  in  the  sport.  In  the  celebrated  tapestries 
and  upon  all  the  monuments  of  the  feudal  age,  the  greyhound 
and  the  falcon,  the  dog  lying  at  the  feet  of  his  master  and  the 
bird  perched  upon  his  wrist,  are,  after  the  knightly  sword  and 
armor,  the  most  common  emblems  of  nobility. 

99.  Causes  of  the  Decay  of  Feudalism.  —  Chief  among  the 
various  causes  which  undermined  and  at  length  overthrew  feudal- 
ism were  the  hostility  of  the  kings  and  the  common  people  to  the 
system,  the  Crusades,  the  growth  of  the  cities,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  firearms  in  the  art  of  war. 

The  feudal  system  was  hated  and  opposed  by  both  the  royal 
power  and  the  people.  In  fact  it  was  never  regarded  with  much 
favor  by  any  class  save  the  nobles,  who  enjoyed  its  advantages 
at  the  expense  of  all  the  other  orders  of  society.  Kings  opposed 
it  and  sought  to  break  it  down,  because  it  left  them  only  the 
semblance  of  power.  We  shall  see  later  how  the  kings  came 
again  to  their  own  (Chapter  XVII). 


90  FEUDALISM   AND   CHIVALRY 

The  common  people  always  hated  it  for  the  reason  that  under 
it  they  were  regarded  as  of  less  value  than  the  game  in  the  lord's 
hunting  park.  The  record  of  their  struggles  for  recognition  in 
society  and  a  participation  in  the  privileges  of  the  haughty  feudal 
aristocracy  forms  the  most  interesting  and  instructive  portions  of 
mediaeval  and  even  of  later  history. 

The  Crusades,  or  Holy  Wars,  that  agitated  all  Europe  during 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  did  much  to  weaken  the 
power  of  the  nobles ;  for  in  order  to  raise  money  for  their  expe- 
ditions they  frequently  sold  or  mortgaged  their  estates,  and  in 
this  way  power  and  influence  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  kings 
or  the  wealthy  merchants  of  the  cities.  Many  of  the  great  nobles 
also  perished  in  battle  with  the  infidels,  and  their  lands  escheated 
to  their  suzerain,  whose  domains  were  thus  augmented. 

The  growth  of  the  towns  also  tended  to  the  same  end.  As 
they  increased  in  wealth  and  influence,  they  became  able  to  resist 
the  exactions  and  tyranny  of  the  lord  in  whose  fief  they  happened 
to  be,  and  eventually  were  able  to  secede,  as  it  were,  from  his 
authority,  and  to  make  of  themselves  little  republics. 

Again,  improvements  and  changes  in  the  mode  of  warfare, 
especially  those  resulting  from  the  use  of  gunpowder,  hastened 
the  downfall  of  feudalism  by  rendering  the  yeoman  foot  soldier 
equal  to  the  armor-clad  knight.  "  It  made  all  men  of  the  same 
height,"  as  Carlyle  puts  it.  The  people  with  muskets  in  their 
hands  could  assert  and  make  good  their  rights.  And  the  castle, 
the  body  of  feudahsm,  that  in  which  it  lived  and  moved  and 
had  its  being,  now  became  a  useless  thing.  Its  walls  might  bid 
defiance  to  the  mounted,  steel-clad  baron  and  his  retainers,  but 
they  could  offer  little  protection  against  well-trained  artillery. 

But  it  is  to  be  carefully  noted  that,  though  feudalism  as  a 
system  of  government  disappeared,  speaking  broadly,  with  the 
Middle  Ages,"  it  still  continued  to  exist  as  a  social  organization. 

'  Different  events  and  circumstances  marked  the  decline  and  extinction  of  feu- 
dalism in  the  various  countries  of  Europe  (Chapter  XVII).  In  England  it  was  the 
contention  for  the  crown,  known  as  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  (1455-1485),  in  which 
many  of  the  nobility  were  killed  or  ruined  in  estate,  that  gave  the  deathblow  to 
the  institution  there.     The  ruin  of  the  system  in  France  may  be  dated  from  the 


DtFKi.  ih    Ub    TilK    KLUDAi.   .^Nhl  KM  91 

The  nobles  lost  their  power  and  authority  as  petty  sovereigns, 
but  retained  their  titles,  their  privileges,  their  social  distinction, 
and,  in  many  cases,  their  vast  landed  estates. 

100.  Defects  of  the  Feudal  System.  —  Feudalism  was  perhaps 
the  best  form  of  social  organization  that  it  was  possible  to  main- 
tain in  Europe  during  the  mediaeval  period;  yet  it  had  many 
and  serious  defects.  Among  its  chief  faults  may  be  pointed  out 
the  two  following. 

First,  it  rendered  impossible  the  formation  of  strong  national 
governments.  Every  country  was  divided  and  subdivided  into  a 
vast  number  of  practically  independent  principalities.  Thus  in 
the  tenth  century  France  was  partitioned  among  about  a  hundred 
and  fifty  overlords,  all  exercising  equal  and  coordinate  powers  of 
sovereignty.  The  enormous  estates  of  these  great  lords  were  again 
subdivided  into  about  seventy  thousand  smaller  fiefs. 

In  theory,  as  we  have  seen,  the  holders  of  these  petty  estates 
were  bound  to  serve  and  obey  their  overlords,  and  these  great 
nobles  were  in  turn  the  sworn  vassals  of  the  French  king.  But  many 
of  these  lords  were  richer  and  stronger  than  the  king  himself,  and 
if  they  chose  to  cast  off  their  allegiance  to  him,  he  found  it  impos- 
sible to  reduce  them  to  obedience.  The  king's  time  was  chiefly 
occupied  in  ineffectual  efforts  to  reduce  his  haughty  and  refractory 
nobles  to  proper  submission,  and  in  intervening  feebly  to  compose 
their  endless  quarrels  with  one  another.  It  is  easy  to  conceive  the 
disorder  and  wretchedness  produced  by  this  state  of  things. 

A  second  evil  of  the  institution  was  its  exclusiveness.  Under 
the  workings  of  the  system  society  became  divided  into  classes 
separated  by  lines  which,  though  not  impassable,  were  yet  very 
rigid,  with  a  proud  hereditary  aristocracy  at  its  head.  It  was  only 
as  the  lower  classes  in  the  different  countries  gradually  wrested 
from  the  feudal  nobility  their  special  and  unfair  privileges  that  a 
better,  because  more  democratic,  form  of  society  arose,  and  civili- 
zation began  to  make  more  rapid  progress. 

establishment  of  a  regular  standing  army  by  Charles  VII  (in  1448).  The  rubbish 
of  the  institution,  however,  was  not  cleared  away  in  that  country  until  the  great 
Revolution  of  1789.  In  Spain  the  feudal  aristocracy  received  its  deathblow  at  the 
1  lands  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


92 


FEUDALISM  AND   CHIVALRY 


loi.  The  Good  Results  of  Feudalism.  — The  most  conspicuous 
service  that  feudalism  rendered  European  civilization  was  the 
protection  which  it  gave  to  society  after  the  break-up  of  the 
empire  of  Charles  the  Great.  "  It  was  the  mailed  feudal  horse- 
man and  the  impregnable  walls  of  the  feudal  castle  that  foiled  the 
attacks  of  the  Danes,  the  Saracens,  and  the  Hungarians  "  (Oman). 
Feudalism  rendered  another  noteworthy  service  to  society  in 
fostering  among  its  privileged  members  self-reliance  and  love 
of  personal  independence.  Turbulent,  violent,  and  refractory  as 
was  the  feudal  aristocracy  of  Europe,  it  performed  the  grand 
service  of  keeping  alive  during  the  later  mediaeval  period  the 

spirit  of  liberty. 
The  feudal  lords 
would  not  allow 
themselves  to  be 
dealt  with  arro- 
gantly by  their 
king;  they  stood 
on  their  rights  as 
freemen.  Hence 
royalty  was  pre- 
vented from  be- 
coming as  despotic 
as  would  otherwise 
have  been  the  case. 
Thus  in  England, 
for  instance,  the 
feudal  lords  held 
such  tyrannical 
rulers  as  King 
John  in  check  (sec.  210),  until  such  time  as  the  yeoman  and 
the  burgher  were  bold  enough  and  strong  enough  alone  to  resist 
their  despotically  inclined  sovereigns.  In  France,  where,  unfor- 
tunately, the  power  of  the  feudal  nobles  was  broken  too  soon, 
—  before  the  burghers,  the  Third  Estate,  were  prepared  to  take 
up  the  struggle  for  liberty,  —  the  result  was  the  growth  of  that 


Fig.  15.  —  Group  in  the  Manor  House.   (From  a 
tapestry  of  the  fourteenth  century ;  after  Green) 


CHUALKY    DEFINED  93 

autocratic,  despotic  royalty  which  led  the  French  people  to  the 
Revolution  and  the  Reign  of  Terror. 

Another  of  the  good  effects  of  feudahsm  was  the  impulse  it 
gave  to  certain  forms  of  polite  literature.  Just  as  learning  and 
philosophy  were  fostered  by  the  seclusion  of  the  cloister,  so  were 
poetry  and  romance  fostered  by  the  open  and  joyous  hospitalities 
of  the  baronial  hall.  The  castle  door  was  always  open  to  the 
wandering  singer  and  story-teller,  and  it  was  amidst  the  scenes 
of  festivity  within  that  the  ballads  and  romances  of  mediaeval  min- 
strelsy and  literature  had  their  birth.  "It  is  to  the  feudal  times," 
says  Guizot,  "  that  we  trace  back  the  earliest  literary  monuments 
of  P^ngland,  France,  and  Germany,  the  earhest  intellectual  enjoy- 
ments of  modem  Europe." 

Still  another  service  which  feudalism  rendered  to  civilization 
was  the  development  within  the  baronial  castle  of  those  ideas 
and  sentiments  —  among  others  a  nice  sense  of  honor  and  an 
exalted  consideration  for  woman  —  which  found  their  noblest 
expression  in  chivalry,  of  which  institution  and  its  good  effects 
upon  the  social  life  of  Europe  we  shall  now  proceed  to  speak. 

II.   Chivalry 

102.  Chivalry  defined;  Origin  of  the  Institution.  —  Chivalry  has 
been  aptly  defined  as  the  "  Flower  of  Feudalism."  It  was  a  mili- 
tary institution  or  order,  the  members  of  which,  called  knights, 
were  pledged  to  the  protection  of  the  Church  and  to  the  defense 
of  the  weak  and  the  oppressed. 

The  germ  out  of  which  chivalry  developed  seems  to  have  been 
the  body  of  vassal  horsemen  which  Charles  Martel  created  to 
repel  the  raids  of  the  Saracens  into  Aquitaine®  (sec.  96).  It  was 
in  these  border  wars  that  the  Franks  learned  from  the  Arab 
Moors  "  to  put  their  trust  in  horses."  From  South  France  this 
new  military  system,  in  which  mounted  armor-clad  warriors  largely 

8  See  Brunner,  "  Der  Reiterdienst  und  die  Anfange  des  I^hnwesens  "  in  his  For- 
schungcn  zitr  Geschichie  des  dcntschen  und  fransosischen  Rechtts  (Stuttgart,  1894). 
This  important  study  is  of  tlie  nature  of  a  discovery  respecting  the  beginnings,  or 
rather  the  development,  of  the  fief  system  and  of  chivalry. 


94  FEUDALISM   AND    CHIVALRY 

superseded  the  earlier  foot  soldiers,  spread  over  Europe.  The 
development  was  closely  connected  with  that  of  feudalism ;  in- 
deed, it  was  the  military  side  of  that  development.  It  became  the 
rule  that  all  fief  holders  must  render  military  service  on  horseback- 
Fighting  on  horseback  gradually  became  the  normal  mode  and  for 
centuries  remained  so. 

Gradually  this  feudal  warrior  caste  underwent  a  transforma- 
tion. It  became  in  part  independent  of  the  feudal  system,  in  so 
far  as  that  had  to  do  with  the  land,  so  that  any  person,  if  qualified 
by  birth  and  properly  initiated,  might  be  a  member  of  the  order 
without  being  the  holder  of  a  fief.  A  great  part  of  the  later 
knights  were  portionless  sons  of  the  nobility. 

At  the  same  time  the  religious  spirit  of  the  period  entered 
into  the  order,  and  it  became  a  Christian  brotherhood,  some- 
what like  the  order  of  the  priesthood.  Thus,  like  all  other 
mediaeval  institutions,  chivalry  resulted  from  a  union  of  various 
elements.  Its  military  forms,  spirit,  and  virtues  came  from  the 
side  of  feudalism ;  its  religious  forms,  spirit,  and  virtues,  from 
the  side  of  the  Church.  What  actually  took  place  is  best  illus- 
trated by  those  military  orders  of  monks,  the  Knights  Templars 
and  Knights  Hospitalers  (sec.  143),  which  came  into  existence 
during  the  Crusades.  But  notwithstanding  their  monastic  vows 
of  celibacy  and  poverty,  we  probably  shall  not  be  wrong  if  we 
regard  these  monk-knights  as  the  virtual  descendants  of  those 
warriors  to  whom  Charles  Martel  gave  fiefs  and  whom  he  put  on 
horses  to  repel  the  plundering  incursions  of  the  "  swift  Moors." 

103.  Its  Universality;  the  Church  and  Chivalry. — As  France 
was  the  cradle,  so  was  it  the  true  home,  of  chivalry.  Yet  its 
influence  was  felt  everywhere  and  in  everything.  It  colored  all 
the  events  and  enterprises  of  the  latter  half  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  Hterature  of  the  period  is  instinct  with  its  spirit.  The  Cru- 
sades, the  greatest  undertakings  of  the  mediaeval  ages,  were 
primarily  enterprises  of  the  Christian  chivalry  of  Europe ;  for 
chivalry  had  then  come  under  the  tutelage  of  the  Church.  In 
the  year  1095  the  Council  of  Clermont,  which  assembly  formally 
inaugurated  the  First  Crusade,  decreed  that  every  person  of  noble 


TRAININC;    Ob    THE    KiNKiill 


95 


birth,  on  attaining  the  age  of  twelve,  should  take  a  solemn  oath 
before  a  bishop  "  that  he  would  defend  to  the  uttermost  the 
oppressed,  the  widow,  and  the  orphan  ;  and  that  women  of  noble 
birth  should  enjoy  his  special  care." 

104.  Training  of  the  Knight. — When  chivalry  had  once 
become  established,  all  the  sons  of  the  nobility,  save  such  as 
were  to  enter  the  holy  orders  of  the  Church,  were  set  apart  and 
disciplined  for  its  service.  The  sons  of  the  poorer  nobles  were 
usually  placed  in  the  family  of  some  lord  of  renown  and  wealth, 
whose  castle  became  a  sort  of  school,  where  they  were  trained 
in  the  duties  and  exercises  of  knighthood. 

This  education  began  at  the  early  age  of  seven,  the  youth  bear- 
ing the  name  of  page  or  varlet  until  he  attained  the  age  of  four- 
teen, when  he  acquired  the  title  of  squire,  or  esquire.  The  lord 
and  his  knights  trained  the  boys  in  manly  and  martial  duties,  while 
the  ladies  of  the  castle  instructed  them  in  the  duties  of  religion 
and  in  all  knightly  etiquette.  The  duties  of  the  page  were  usu- 
ally confined  to  the  castle,  though  sometimes  he  accompanied 
his  lord  to  the  field.  The  esquire  always  attended  in  battle  the 
knight  to  whom 
he  was  attached, 
carrying  his  arms 
and,  if  need  be, 
engaging  in  the 
fight. 

105.  The  Cere- 
mony of  Knight- 
ing. —  At  the  age 
of  twenty-one  the 
squire  became  a 
knight,  being  then 
introduced  to  the  order  of  knighthood  by  a  peculiar  and  impressive 
service.  After  a  long  fast  and  vigil  the  candidate  listened  to  a 
lengthy  sermon  on  his  duties  as  a  knight.  Then  kneeling,  as 
in  the  feudal  ceremony  of  homage,  before  the  lord  conducting 
the  services,   he  vowed   to  defend    religion  and   the  ladies,  to 


Fig.  16.  — Arming  a  Knight.     (From  a  manu- 
script of  the  thirteenth  century;  after  Lacroix) 


96  FEUDALISM   AND   CHIVALRY 

succor  the  distressed,  and  ever  to  be  faithful  to  his  compan- 
ion knights.  His  arms  were  now  given  to  him,  and  his  sword 
was  girded  on,  when  the  lord,  striking  him  with  the  flat  of  his 
sword  on  the  shoulders,  said,  "  In  the  name  of  God,  of  St. 
Michael,  and  of  St.  George,  I  dub  thee  knight ;  be  brave,  bold, 
and  loyal." 

1 06.  The  Tournament. — The  tournament  was  the  favorite 
amusement  of  the  age  of  chivalry.  It  was  a  mimic  battle  between 
two  companies  of  noble  knights,  armed  usually  with  pointless 
swords  or  blunted  lances.  In  the  universal  esteem  in  which  the 
participants  were  held,  it  reminds  us  of  the  sacred  games  of  the 


Fig.  17.  —  A  Tilting  Match  between  Two  Knights.    (From 
an  engraving) 

Greeks ;  while  in  the  fierce  and  sanguinary  character  it  some- 
times assumed,  it  recalls  the  gladiatorial  combats  of  the  Roman 
amphitheater. 

The  prince  or  baron  giving  the  festival  made  wide  proclama- 
tion of  the  event,  brave  and  distinguished  knights  being  invited 
even  from  distant  lands  to  grace  the  occasion  with  their  pres- 
ence and  an  exhibition  of  their  skill  and  prowess.  The  lists  —  a 
level  space  marked  off  by  a  rope  or  raiUng,  and  surrounded  with 


CHARACTER  OF  THE   KNIGHT 


97 


galleries  for  spectators  —  were  made  gay  with  banners  and  tapes- 
tries and  heraldic  emblems. 

When  the  moment  arrived  for  the  opening  of  the  ceremony, 
heralds  proclaimed  the  rules  of  the  contest,  whereupon  the  combat- 
ants advanced  into  the  lists,  each  knight  displaying  upon  his  helmet 
or  breast  the  device  of  the  mistress  of  his  affections.  At  the  given 
signal  the  opposing  parties  of  knights,  with  couched  lances,  rode 
fiercely  at  each  other.  Victory  was  accorded  to  him  who  unhorsed 
his  antagonist  or  broke  in  a  proper  manner  the  greatest  number  of 
lances.  The  guerdon  of  the  victor  was  a  wreath  of  flowers,  armor, 
greyhounds,  or  steeds  decked  with  knightly  trappings,  and,  more 
esteemed  than  all 
else,  the  praises  and 
favor  of  his  lady- 
love. 

The  joust  dif- 
fered from  the  tour- 
nament in  being  an 
encounter  between 
two  knights  only, 
and  in  being  at- 
tended with  less 
ceremony. 

107.  Character 
of  the  Knight.  — 
Chivalric  loyalty  to 
the  mistress  of  his 
supreme  affection 
was  the  first  article 
in  the  creed  of  the 
true  knight.  "  He 
who   was  faithful 

and  true  to  his  lady,"  says  Hallam,  "  was  held  sure  of  salvation 
in  the  theology  of  castles,  though  not  of  Christians."  He  must 
also  be  gentle,  brave,  courteous,  truthful,  pure,  generous,  hospi- 
table, faithful  to  his  engagements,  and  ever  ready  to  risk  life 


Fic;.  18.  —  Degradation  of  a  Knight.    (Frag- 
ment of  a  woodcut  dated  1565;  after  Lacroix) 


98  FEUDALISM   AND   CHIVALRY 

and  limb  in  the  cause  of  religion  and  in  defense  of  his  com- 
panions in  arms. 

But  these  were  the  virtues  and  qualifications  of  the  ideal 
knight.  It  is  needless  to  say  that,  though  there  were  many  who 
illustrated  all  these  virtues  in  their  blameless  lives  and  romantic 
enterprises,  there  were  too  many  who  were  knights  only  in  profes- 
sion. "  An  errant  knight,"  as  an  old  writer  puns,  with  too  much 
truth,  "  was  an  arrant  knave."  Another  writer  says,  "  Deeds  that 
would  disgrace  a  thief,  and  acts  of  cruelty  that  would  have  dis- 
gusted a  Hellenic  tyrant  or  a  Roman  emperor,  were  common 
things  with  knights  of  the  highest  lineage." 

But  cruelty,  treachery,  untruthfulness,  cowardice,  baseness, 
and  crime  of  every  sort  were  opposed  to  the  true  spirit  of  chiv- 
alry ;  and  the  knight  who  was  convicted  of  such  faults  could  be 
punished  by  expulsion  from  the  order  of  knighthood,  by  what 
was  known  as  the  Ceremony  of  Degradation.  In  this  ceremony 
the  spurs  of  the  offending  knight  were  struck  off  from  his  heels 
with  a  heavy  cleaver,  his  sword  was  broken,  and  his  horse's  tail  cut 
off.  Then  the  disgraced  knight  was  dressed  in  a  burial  robe,  and 
the  usual  funeral  ceremonies  were  performed  over  him,  signifying 
that  he  was  "  dead  to  the  honors  of  knighthood." 

1 08.  Decline  of  Chivalry. — The  fifteenth  century  was  the 
evening  of  chivalry.  The  decHne  of  the  system  resulted  from 
the  operation  of  the  same  causes  that  effected  the  overthrow  of 
feudalism.  The  changes  in  the  mode  of  warfare  which  helped  to 
do  away  with  the  feudal  baron  and  his  mail-clad  retainers  likewise 
tended  to  destroy  knight-errantry.  And  then  as  civilization 
advanced,  new  feelings  and  sentiments  began  to  claim  the  atten- 
tion and  to  work  upon  the  imagination  of  men.  Presons  ambitious 
of  distinction  began  to  seek  it  in  other  ways  than  by  adventures  of 
chivalry.  Governments,  too,  became  more  regular,  and  the  in- 
creased order  and  security  of  society  rendered  less  needful  the  serv- 
ices of  the  gallant  knight  in  behalf  of  the  weak  and  the  oppressed. 

In  a  word,  the  extravagant  performances  of  the  knight-errant 
carried  into  a  practical  and  commercial  age  —  an  age  very  differ- 
ent from  that  which  gave  birth  to  chivalry  —  became  fantastic  and 


THE  EVIL  AND  THE  GOOD  IN  CHIVALRY 


99 


ridiculous  ;  and  when,  finally,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
genial  Spanish  satirist  Cervantes  wrote  his  famous  Don  Quixote^ 
in  which  work  he  leads  his  hero  knight  into  all  sorts  of  absurd 
adventures,  such  as  running  a  tilt  against  a  windmill,  which  his 
excited  imagination  had  pictured  to  be  a  monstrous  giant  flour- 
ishing his  arms  with  some  wicked  intent,  everybody,  struck  with 
the  infinite  absurdity  of  the  thing,  fell  a-laughing;  and  amidst 
the  fitting  accompaniment  of  smiles  and  broad  pleasantries  the 
knight-errant  took  his  departure  from  the  world.® 

109.  The  Evil  and  the  Good  in  Chivalry. — The  system  of 
chivalry  had  many  vices,  chief  among  which  were  its  aristocratic, 
exclusive  tendencies.  Dr.  Arnold,  indignant  among  other  things 
at  the  knights'  forgetfulness  or  disregard  of  the  brotherhood  of 
man,  exclaims  bitterly,  "  If  I  were  called  upon  to  name  what 
spirit  of  evil  predominantly  deserved  the  name  of  Antichrist, 
I  should  name  the  Spirit  of  Chivalry."  And  another  indignant 
^vriter  declares  that  "  it  is  not  probable  that  the  knights  supposed 
they  could  be  guilty  of  injustice  to  the  lower  classes."  These 
were  regarded  with  indifference  or  contempt,  and  considered  as 
destitute  of  any  claims  upon  those  of  noble  birth  as  were  beasts 
of  burden  or  the  game  of  the  chase.  It  is  always  the  young  and 
beautiful  woman  of  gentle  birth  whose  wrongs  the  valiant  knight 
is  risking  his  life  to  avenge,  always  the  smiles  of  the  queen  of 
love  and  beauty  for  which  he  is  splintering  his  lance  in  the  fierce 
tournament.  The  fostering  of  this  aristocratic  spirit  was  one  of  the 
most  serious  faults  of  chivalry.  Yet  we  must  bear  in  mind  that 
this  fault  should  be  charged  to  the  age  rather  than  to  the  knight. 

But  to  speak  of  the  beneficial,  refining  influences  of  chivalry, 
we  should  say  that  it  undoubtedly  contributed  powerfully  to  lift 
that  sentiment  of  respect  for  the  gentler  sex  which  characterized 
all  the  northern  nations,  into  that  tender  veneration  of  woman 
which  forms  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  present  age, 
and  makes  it  differ  from  all  preceding  phases  of  civilization. 

^  That  is,  from  the  world  of  romantic  literature ;  for  the  satire  of  Cervantes  was 
aimed  at  the  extravagances  of  the  romancers  of  his  times.  (Recall  Spenser's  Tht 
Faery  Qtteene.)     There  were  not  many  real  knights-errant  when  Cervantes  wrote. 


lOO  FEUDALISM   AND    CHIVALRY 

Again,  chivalry  did  much  to  create  that  ideal  of  character  — 
an  ideal  distinguished  by  the  virtues  of  courtesy,  gentleness, 
humanity,  loyalty,  magnanimity,  and  fidelity  to  the  plighted 
word  —  which  we  rightly  think  to  surpass  any  ever  formed 
under  the  influences  of  antiquity.  Just  as  Christianity  gave  to 
the  world  an  ideal  manhood  which  it  was  to  strive  to  realize, 
so  did  chivalry  hold  up  an  ideal  to  which  men  were  to  conform 
their  lives.  Men,  indeed,  have  never  perfectly  realized  either 
the  ideal  of  Christianity  or  that  of  chivalry;  but  the  influence 
which  these  two  ideals  have  had  in  shaping  and  giving  character 
to  the  lives  of  men  cannot  be  overestimated.  Together,  through 
the  enthusiasm  and  effort  awakened  for  their  realization,  they 
have  produced  a  new  type  of  manhood,  which  we  indicate  by  the 
phrase  "  a  knightly  and  Christian  character." 


Selections  from  the  Sources. —  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iii,  No.  5, 
"English  Manorial  Documents,"  and  vol.  iv,  No.  3,  "  Documents  Illustra- 
tive of  Feudalism  "  (both  ed.  by  Edward  P.  Cheyney). 

Secondary  Works.  —  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  chap.  ix. 
Emerton,  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages,  chap,  xv ;  and  Mediceval 
Europe,  chap,  xiv  and  the  first  part  of  chap.  xv.  Adams,  Civilization 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  chap.  ix.  Seignobos,  The  Feitdal  Regime. 
Bemont  and  Monod,  Mediceval  Europe,  chap.  xvi.  Seebohm,  The  Eng- 
lish Village  Community.  This  is  the  most  noteworthy  work  in  our  lan- 
guage on  the  subject  with  which  it  deals.  The  author  seeks  the  origin 
of  the  English  manor  in  the  Roman  villa  with  its  servile  population, 
thus  making  English  history  begin  with  servitude  and  not  with  freedom. 
Cheyney,  An  Introduction  to  the  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  Eng- 
land, chap,  ii,  "  Rural  Life  and  Organization."  Munro  and  Sellery, 
Medicsval  Civilization,  pp.  159-2 11  and  240-247.  CuTTS,  Scenes  and  Char- 
acters of  the  Middle  Ages,  ^^.  311-460,  "Knights  of  the  Middle  Ages." 
Lacroix,  Military  and  Religious  Life.  Consult  Table  of  Contents. 
James,  History  of  Chivalry.     Cornish,  Chivalry. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Life  of  the  serfs  on  a  mediaeval  manor. 
2.  The  open-field  system  of  cultivation.  See  Seebohm.  3.  Description  of 
a  feudal  castle.  4.  Life  in  the  castle.  5.  A  tournament.  6.  Legend  of 
the  Holy  Grail. 


?v^o^:rp^^^?^rs^// \arM 


Fig.  19.  —  Landing  in  England  of  William  of  Normandy 
(From  the  Bayeux  tapestry) 


CHAPTER   X 

THE  NORMANS 

I.    The  Normans  at  Home  and  in  Italy 

no.  Introductory.  — The  history  of  the  Normans  —  the  name, 
it  will  be  recalled,  of  the  transformed  Scandinavians  who  settled 
in  Northern  Gaul  (sec.  86)  —  is  simply  a  continuation  of  the 
story  of  the  Northmen;  and  nothing  could  better  illustrate  the 
difference  between  the  period  we  have  left  behind  and  the  one 
upon  which  we  have  entered,  nothing  could  more  strikingly 
exhibit  the  gradual  transformation  that  has  crept  over  the  face 
and  spirit  of  European  society,  than  the  transformation  which 
time  and  favoring  associations  have  wrought  in  these  men. 
When  first  we  met  them  in  the  ninth  century  they  were  pagans ; 
now  they  are  Christians.  Then  they  were  rough,  wild,  merciless 
corsairs ;  now  they  are  become  the  most  cultured,  pohshed,  and 
chivalrous  people  in  Europe.  But  the  restless,  daring  spirit  that 
drove  the  Norse  sea  kings  forth  upon  the  waves  in  c^uest  of 
adventure  and  booty  still  stirs  in  the  breasts  of  their  descend- 
ants. As  has  been  said,  they  were  simply  changed  from  heathen 
Vikings,  delighting  in  the  wild  life  of  sea  rover  and  pirate,  into 
Christian  knights,  eager  for  pilgrimages  and  cnisades. 

It  is  these  men,  uniting  in  their  t  liaractcr  the  strength,  inde- 
pendence,  and    daring  of   the    ScaiidinaN  ian   with   the    vm  ,,  ttv 
imagination,  and  culture  of  the   Rouuinu  (uuil,  that  \v 

lOI 


I02  THi;  NORMANS 

to  follow,  as  from  their  seats  in  France  they  go  forth  to  make 
fresh  conquests,  —  to  build  up  a  kingdom  in  the  Mediterranean 
lands,  and  to  set  a  line  of  Norman  kings  upon  the  EngHsh  throne. 
Later,  in  following  the  fortunes  of  the  crusaders,  we  shall  meet 
them  on  the  battlefields  of  Palestine,  there  winning  renown  as 
the  most  valiant  knights  of  Christendom. 

111.  The  Dukes  of  Normandy.  —  Under  Rollo  (sec.  86)  and  his 
immediate  successors  —  William  Longsword  (927-943),  Richard 
the  Fearless  (943-996),  and  Richard  the  Good  (996-1027)  — 
the  power  of  the  Normans  in  France  became  gradually  consoli- 
dated. The  country  of  Normandy  grew  more  populous,  both 
through  the  natural  increase  of  the  population  at  home  and  the 
arrival  of  fresh  bands  of  Scandinavians  from  the  Northern  coun- 
tries. Finally,  after  more  than  one  hundred  years  had  passed, 
years  for  the  most  part  of  uneventful  yet  steady  growth  and  de- 
velopment, the  old  Norse  spirit  of  adventure  revived,  and  Southern 
Europe  and  England  became  the  scene  of  the  daring  and  brilliant 
exploits  of  the  Norman  warriors. 

112.  The  Normans  in  Italy  and  Sicily.  — The  Normans  secured 
a  foothold  in  Southern  Italy  in  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh 
century,  some  httle  time  before  the  conquest  of  England.  Their 
superior  fighting  qualities  had  led  to  their  services  being  sought 
after  by  the  Christian  rulers  of  that  region  in  their  constant  feuds 
with  each  other,  and  particularly  in  their  warfare  against  the  Mos- 
lems, who  at  that  time  were  in  possession  of  the  island  of  Sicily, 
and  were  constantly  troubhng  the  neighboring  shores  of  Italy.      : 

From  the  position  of  guests  and  mercenaries  the  Norman 
knights  soon  rose  to  that  of  masters  and  rulers.  They  got  pos- 
session finally  of  all  Southern  Italy  and  of  Sicily,  and  built  up  in 
these  southern  lands  a  prosperous  state,  which  came  to  be  known 
as  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  or  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
and  which  lasted,  although  with  many  changes  of  dynasties,  until 
the  political  unification  of  Italy  in  our  own  day. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  Norman  leaders  during  this  period 
of  conquest  and  organization  was  Robert  Guiscard  (d.  1085),  a 
character  only  less  celebrated  than   the  renowned  William  the 


THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST  OF  ENGLAND   103 

Conqueror,  of  whom  we  shall  come  to  speak  presently.  His 
entire  career  was  one  series  of  daring  and  adventurous  exploits, 
which  spread  the  renown  of  the  Norman  name  throughout  the 
Mediterranean  lands. 

One  of  the  most  important  consequences  of  the  creation  of 
this  new  Norman  state  in  the  south  was  its  effect  upon  the 
Crusades,  to  the  eve  of  which  we  have  now  come.  These  Nor- 
man rulers  built  up  a  strong  maritime  power,  which  had  the  great 
port  of  Amalfi  as  its  center,  and,  with  the  help  of  the  fleets  of 
Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Venice,  cleared  the  Middle  Mediterranean  of 
Saracen  corsairs,  thus  opening  up  for  the  coming  crusaders  a 
water  route  to  the  Holy  Land. 

II.  The  Norman  Conquest  of  England 

113.  Events  leading  up  to  the  Conquest. — The  conquest  of  Eng- 
land by  the  Normans  was  the  most  important  of  their  enterprises, 
and  one  followed  by  consequences  of  the  greatest  magnitude,  not 
only  to  the  conquered  people,  but  indirectly  to  the  world. 
'  In  the  year  1035  the  duke  of  the  Normans,  known  as  Robert 
the  Magnificent  (102  7-1035),  died  in  Asia  Minor,  while  on  his 
way  home  from  a  romantic  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  his 
son  William,  the  destined  conqueror  of  England,  became  Duke 
of  Normandy.  William  was  at  this  time  only  seven  years  of  age. 
The  cruelty  with  which  he,  while  yet  a  mere  boy,  punished  those 
of  his  enemies  that  had  especially  awakened  his  resentment  indi- 
cated the  stern  and  unrelenting  character  of  the  man  whom 
destiny  had  selected  to  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  history 
of  the  eleventh  century. 

The  situation  of  affairs  in  England  at  this  time  was  this.  In 
the  year  1066  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  whose  person,  it  will  be 
recalled,  the  old  English  line  was  restored  after  the  Danish  usurpa- 
tion (sec.  85),  died,  and  immediately  the  Witan,*  in  accordance 

1  The  Witan,  or  Witenagemot,  which  means  the  "  Meeting  of  the  Wise  Men," 
was  the  common  council  of  the  reahn.  The  House  of  Lords  of  the  present  Parlia- 
ment is  a  survival  of  this  early  national  assembly. 


104  THE   NORMANS 

with  the  dying  wish  of  the  king,  chose  Harold,  Earl  of  Wessex, 
the  best  and  strongest  man  in  all  England,  to  be  his  successor. 

When  the  news  of  the  action  of  the  Witan  and  of  Harold's 
acceptance  of  the  English  crown  was  carried  across  the  Channel 
to  William,  he  was  really  or  feignedly  transported  with  rage.  He 
declared  that  Edward,  who  was  his  cousin,  had  during  his  life- 
time promised  the  throne  to  him,  and  that  Harold  had  assented 
to  this,  and  by  solemn  oath  engaged  to  sustain  him.  He  now 
demanded  of  Harold  that  he  surrender  to  him  the  usurped  throne, 
threatening  the  immediate  invasion  of  the  island  in  case  he 
refused.  King  Harold  answered  the  demand  by  expeUing  from 
the  country  the  Normans  who  had  followed  Edward  into  the 
kingdom,  and  by  collecting  an  army  for  the  defense  of  his 
dominions.  Duke  William  now  made  ready  for  a  descent  upon 
the  English  coast. 

114.  The  Battle  of  Hastings  (1066).  —  The  Norman  army  of 
invasion  landed  in  the  south  of  England,  at  the  port  of  Hastings, 
which  place  gave  name  to  the  battle  that  almost  immediately 
followed,  —  the  battle  that  was  to  determine  the  fate  of  England. 
It  was  begun  by  a  horseman  riding  out  from  the  Norman  lines 


Fig.  20.  —  Battle  of  Hastings.     (From  the  Bayeux  tapestry) 

and  advancing  alone  toward  the  English  army,  tossing  up  his 
sword  and  skillfully  catching  it  as  it  fell,  and  singing  all  the  while 
the  stirring  battle  song  of  Charlemagne  and  Roland.  The  English 
watched  with  astonishment  this  exhibition  of  "  careless  dexterity," 
and  if  they  did  not  contrast  the  vivacity  and  nimbleness  of  the 
Norman  foe  with  their  own  heavy  and  clumsy  manners,  others  at 
least  have  not  failed  to  do  so  for  them. 


THE   COMPLETION   OF  THE   CONQUEST         105 

The  battle  once  joined,  the  conflict  was  long  and  terrific. 
The  day  finally  went  against  the  English.  Harold  fell,  pierced 
through  the  eye  by  an  arrow ;  and  William  was  master  of  the 
field  (1066). 

115.  The  Completion  of  the  Conquest  (1067-1070). — William 
now  marched  upon  London,  and  at  Westminster,  on  Christmas 
Day,  1066,  was  crowned  and  anointed  king  of  England ;  but  he 
was  yet  far  from  being  such  in  fact.  The  most  formidable  resist- 
ance made  to  the  Conqueror  was  in  the  north,  where  the  popu- 
lation was  composed  chiefly  of  Danes,  who  were  aided  by  their 
kinsmen  from  Denmark.  To  protect  himself  on  this  side,  William 
finally  ravaged  all  the  country  between  the  Humber  and  the 
Tees,  converting  it  into  an  uninhabitable  desert.  More  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century  af  ten\'ards  the  desolated  district  was  marked 
by  untilled  fields  and  the  charred  ruins  of  hamlets  and  towns. 
One  hundred  thousand  people,  deprived  of  food  and  shelter, 
perished  miserably  during  the  unusually  severe  winter  following 
the  cruel  act. 

116.  The  Distribution  of  the  Land  and  the  Gemot  of  Salisbury. 
—  Almost  the  first  act  of  William  after  he  had  established  his 
power  in  England  was  to  fulfill  his  promise  to  the  nobles  who  had 
aided  him  in  his  enterprise,  by  distributing  among  them  the  unre- 
deemed ^  estates  of  the  English  who  had  fought  at  Hastings  in 
defense  of  their  king  and  country. 

Profiting  by  the  lesson  taught  by  the  wretched  condition  of 
France,  which  country  was  kept  in  a  state  of  constant  turmoil  by 
a  host  of  feudal  chiefs  and  lords,  many  of  whom  were  almost  or 
quite  as  powerful  as  the  king  himself  (sec.  100),  William  took  care 
that  in  the  distribution  no  feudatory  should  receive  an  entire  shire, 
save  in  two  or  three  exceptional  cases.  To  the  great  lord  to  whom 
he  must  needs  give  a  large  fief,  he  granted  not  a  continuous  tract 
of  land,  but  several  estates  or  manors  scattered  in  different  parts 

2  "  When  the  lands  of  all  those  who  had  fought  for  Harold  were  confiscated, 
those  who  were  willing  to  acknowledge  William  were  allowed  to  redeem  theirs, 
either  paying  money  at  once  or  giving  hostages  for  the  payment "  (Stubbs,  C\mst. 
Hist.,  vol.  i,  p.  258).  As  many  as  20,000  Saxon  proprietors  in  all  are  said  to  have 
been  dispossessed  by  as  many  Norman  followers  of  William. 


I06  THE    NORMANS 

of  the  country,  in  order  that  there  might  be  no  dangerous  con- 
centration of  property  or  power  in  the  hands  of  the  vassal. 

Another  equally  important  limitation  of  the  power  of  the  vassal 
was  effected  by  William  through  his  requiring  all  fief  holders,  great 
and  small,  to  take  an  oath  of  fealty  directly  to  him  as  overlord. 
This  was  a  great  innovation  upon  feudal  custom,  for  the  rule  was 
that  the  vassal  should  swear  fealty  to  his  own  immediate  lord  only, 
and  in  war  follow  his  banner  even  against  his  own  king.  The 
oath  that  William  exacted  from  every  fief  holder  made  the  alle- 
giance which  he  owed  to  his  king  superior  to  that  which  he  owed 
to  his  own  immediate  lord.  At  the  great  gemot  or  military 
assembly  of  Salisbury  in  the  year  1086  "all  the  landholders  of 
substance  in  England "  swore  to  William  this  solemn  oath  of 
superior  fealty  and  allegiance. 

William  also  denied  to  his  feudatories  the  right  of  coining 
money  and  making  laws ;  and  by  other  wise  restrictions  upon 
their  power,  subordinating,  for  instance,  all  the  baronial  courts  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  royal  judges,  he  saved  England  from  those 
endless  contentions  and  petty  wars  that  were  distracting  almost 
every  other  country  of  Europe. 

To  overawe  the  dispossessed  people,  William  now  built  and 
garrisoned  fortresses  or  towers  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the 
realm.  The  celebrated  Tower  of  London  and  the  great  black, 
massive  tower  still  standing  in  the  city  of  Newcastle  were  built 
by  him,  and  are  impressive  memorials  of  the  days  of  the  Con- 
quest. His  nobles  also  erected  strong  castles  upon  their  lands,  so 
that  the  whole  country  fairly  bristled  with  these  fortified  private 
residences.  With  the  towns  dominated  by  the  great  fortresses,  and 
the  open  country  watched  over  by  the  barons  secure  in  their  thick- 
walled  castles,  the  Normans,  though  vastly  inferior  in  numbers  to 
the  conquered  Saxons,  were  able  to  hold  them  in  perfect  subjection. 

117.  Domesday  Book. — One  of  the  most  celebrated  acts  of 
the  Conqueror  was  the  making  of  Domesday  Book.  This  famous 
book  contained  a  description  and  valuation  of  all  the  lands  of 
England,  —  excepting  those  of  some  counties,  mostly  in  the  north, 
that  were  either  unconquered  or  unsettled ;  an  enumeration  of 


THE  CURFEW  AND  THE  FOREST  LAWS 


107 


wm 


the  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  statements  of  the  income  of  every 
man.  It  was  intended,  in  a  word,  to  be  a  perfect  survey  and 
census  of  the  entire  kingdom. 

The  commissioners  who  went  through  the  land  to  collect  the 
needed  information  for  the  work  were  often  threatened  by  the 
people,  who  resented  this  "  prying  into  their  affairs,"  and  looked 
upon  the  whole  thing  as  simply  another  move  preparatory  to  fresh 
taxation.  But  notwithstanding  the  bitter  feelings  with  which  the 
English  viewed  the  preparation  of  the  work,  it  was  certainly  a  wise 
and  necessary 
measure,  and  one 
prompted  by 
statesmanlike 
motives. 

118.  The  Cur- 
few and  the  Forest 
Laws.  — Among 
the  regulations 
introduced  into 
England  by  the 
Conqueror  was 
the  peculiar  one 
known  as  the  Cur- 
few bell.  This  law 
required  that, 
upon  the  ringing  of  the  church  bell  at  nightfall,  every  person 
should  be  at  home,  and  that  the  fires  should  be  buried  *  and  the 
lights  extinguished. 

Two  reasons  have  been  assigned  for  this  ordinance :  the  one 
supposes  that  its  object  was  to  prevent  the  people's  assembling 
by  night  to  plan  or  execute  treasonable  undertakings ;  the  other 
represents  it  simply  as  a  safeguard  against  fire.  The  law  was  cer- 
tainly in  force  in  Normandy  before  the  Conquest;  indeed,  accord- 
ing to  Palgrave,  it  was  a  universal  custom  of  police  throughout 
the  whole  of  mediaeval  Europe. 

*  Hence  the  term  Curfew,  from  couvrir.  to  cover,  and  ffu.  fire. 


Fig.  21.  —  Domesday  Book.     (From  a  facsimile 
edition  published  by  royal  command  in  1862) 

There  are  two  large  volumes  of  the  survey,  one  being  a 
folio  of  760  pages  and  the  other  a  large  octavo  of  900 
pages.  The  strong  box  shown  in  the  cut  is  the  chest 
in  which  the  volumes  were  formerly  kept 


I08  THE   NORMANS 

Less  justifiable  and  infinitely  more  odious  to  the  people  were 
the  Forest  Laws  of  the  Normans.  The  Normans  were  excessively 
fond  of  the  chase.  William  had  for  the  sport  a  perfect  passion. 
An  old  chronicler  declares  that  "  he  loved  the  tall  deer  as  if  he 
were  their  father."  Extensive  tracts  of  country  were  turned  into 
forests  by  the  destruction  of  the  farmhouses  and  villages.  More 
than  fifty  hamlets,  and  numerous  churches,  are  said  to  have  been 
destroyed  in  the  creation  of  what  was  known  as  the  New  Forest.* 

The  game  in  these  forests  was  protected  by  severe  laws.  To 
kill  a.  deer  was  a  greater  crime  than  to  kill  a  man.  Several  mem- 
bers of  the  Conqueror's  family  were  killed  while  hunting  in  these 
royal  preserves,  and  the  people  declared  that  these  misfortunes 
were  the  judgment  of  Heaven  upon  the  cruelty  of  their  founder. 

119.  The  Norman  Successors  of  the  Conqueror  (1087-1154). — 
For  nearly  three  quarters  of  a  century  after  the  death  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  England  was  ruled  by  Norman  kings.  Three 
names  span  this  long  period, — William  II,  known  as  Rufus,  or 
the  Red  (108  7-1 100);  Henry  I,  surnamed  Beauclerc,  or  the 
''good  scholar"  (1100-1135);  and  Stephen  of  Blois  (1135- 
II 54),  a  grandson  of  the  Conqueror. 

Notwithstanding  the  many  oppressive  laws  and  cruel  acts  that 
marked  the  reigns  of  the  sons  of  the  great  duke,  —  William  and 
Henry,  —  England  flourished  under  their  rule;  commerce  and 
the  various  industries  were  steadily  progressing,  and  the  Normans 
and  the  English,  forgetting  their  mutual  enmities,  were  gradually 
blending  into  a  single  people. 

But  upon  the  death  of  Henry  a  dispute  as  to  the  succession 
arose  between  his  daughter  Matilda  and  Stephen  of  Blois.  For 
several  years  the  realm  was  wasted  by  civil  war.  Eventually  a  cov- 
enant was  made  between  the  contending  parties  whereby  it  was 
agreed  that  Stephen  should  hold  the  crown  undisturbed  during 
his  life,  but  that  at  his  death  it  should  go  to  the  son  of  Matilda. 
The  year  following  this  arrangement  Stephen  died,  and  the  crown 

4  The  term  forest  as  applied  to  these  hunting  parks  does  not  necessarily  mean 
a  continuous  wooded  tract,  but  simply  untilled  ground  left  to  grow  up  to  weeds  and 
shrubs  as  a  covert  for  game. 


RESULTS   OF  THE   NORMAN   CONQUEST         109 

was  placed,  according  to  the  treaty,  upon  the  head  of  Henry 
of  Anjou,  who  thus  became  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Angevins,  or  Plantagenets  (1154). 

120.  Results  of  the  Norman  Conquest.  —  The  most  important 
and  noteworthy  result  of  the  Conquest  was  the  establishment  in 
England  of  a  strong  centralized  government.  This  came  about  not 
only  through  the  monarchical  views  of  government  brought  in  by 
the  Norman  kings  and  the  modification  of  feudal  rules  and  practices 
effected  by  the  Conqueror,  but  also  through  the  wholesome  lessons 
impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  people  by  the  intolerable  anarchy 
of  Stephen's  reign.  England  now  became  a  feal  kingdom,  —  what 
it  had  hardly  been  in  more  than  semblance  before. 

A  second  result  of  the  Conquest  was  the  founding  of  a  new 
feudal  aristocracy.  The  Saxon  thane  was  displaced  by  the  Nor- 
man baron.  This  not  only  introduced  a  new  and  more  refined 
element  into  the  social  life  of  England,  but  it  also  changed  the 
membership,  the  temper,  and  the  name  of  the  national  assembly, 
the  old  English  Witan  now  becoming  the  Parliament  of  later  times. 

A  third  result  of  the  Conquest  was  the  drawing  of  England 
into  closer  relations  with  the  countries  of  continental  Europe. 
The  Norman  Conquest  was  in  this  respect  like  the  Roman  con- 
quest of  the  island.  Through  the  many  continental  relations  — 
political,  social,  commercial,  and  ecclesiastical  —  now  established 
or  made  more  intimate,  England's  advance  in  trade,  in  architec- 
ture, in  her  religious  and  intellectual  life,  was  greatly  promoted. 
And  in  this  connection  must  be  borne  in  mind  particularly  the 
close  political  and  feudal  relations  into  which  England  was 
brought  with  France,  for  out  of  these  grew  the  jealousies  and 
rivalries  which  led  to  the  long  Hundred  Years'  War  bet>^'een  the 
two  countries.^ 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  The  Bayeux  Tapestry.  (Reproduced  in 
autotype  plates  with  historic  notes  by  Frank  Rede  Fovvke,  London,  1S75.) 
This  is  a  strip  of  linen  canvas  over  two  hundred  feet  long  and  nineteen 
inches  wide,  upon  which  are  embroidered  in  colors  seventy-two  pictures, 

8  For  the  effects  of  the  Conquest  upon  the  English  language  and  literature,  see 
sees.  226  and  227. 


no  THE   NORMANS 

representing  episodes  in  the  Norman  conquest  of  England.  The  work 
was  executed  not  long  after  the  events  it  depicts,  and  is  named  from  the 
cathedral  in  France  where  it  is  kept.  Its  importance  consists  in  the  infor- 
mation it  conveys  respecting  the  life  and  manners,  and  the  costumes,  arms, 
and  armor  of  the  times.  Lee,  Sou?-ce-Book,  pp.  111-129.  Kendall, 
Source-Book,  chap,  iii,  "  Norman  England." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Freeman,  The  Norman  Conquest.  This  is  a 
little  book  which  contains  "  the  same  tale  told  afresh,"  that  fills  the  six 
volumes  of  the  author's  earlier  great  work  on  the  Norman  Conquest. 
Also  by  the  same  author,  William  the  Conqueror.  Johnson,  The  Nor- 
mans in  Europe.  Creasy,  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,  chap,  vii,  "  The 
Battle  of  Hastings,  a.d.  1066."  Green,  The  Conquest  of  England,  chap.  x. 
Jewett,  The  Story  of  the  Normans,  chap,  vii,  "  The  Normans  in  Italy." 
For  life,  culture,  and  manners  :  Traill,  Social  England,  vol.  i,  chap,  iii ; 
and  Bateson,  AledicBval  England. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Robert  Guiscard.  2.  The  Bayeux  tap- 
estry. 3.  Domesday  Book.  4.  The  Curfew.  5.  The  "  forests  "  and  forest 
laws  of  the  Norman  kings. 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  EMPIRE 

121.  The  Two  World  Powers.  —  "The  two  great  ideas,"  says 
James  Bryce,  "which  expiring  antiquity  bequeathed  to  the  ages 
that  followed  were  those  of  a  world  monarchy  and  a  world  reli- 
gion." We  have  seen  how  out  of  one  of  these  ideas,  under  the 
favoring  circumstances  of  the  earlier  mediaeval  centuries,  was 
developed  the  Empire,  and  out  of  the  other  the  Papacy.  The 
history  of  these  two  powers,  of  their  relations  to  the  rulers  and 
the  peoples  of  Europe,  and  of  their  struggle  with  each  other  for 
supremacy,  makes  up  a  large  part  of  the  history  of  the  mediaeval 
centuries.  It  is  of  these  important  matters  that  we  must  now 
try  to  get  some  sort  of  understanding. 

What  we  have  learned  about  the  ideas  and  principles  of  feu- 
dalism will  aid  us  greatly  in  our  study,  for,  as  we  shall  see,  the  whole 
long  struggle  between  these  two  world  powers  was  deeply  marked 
by  feudal  conceptions  and  practices. 

122.  The  Three  Theories  respecting  the  Relations  of  Pope  and 
Emperor.  —  After  the  revival  of  the  Empire  in  the  West  and  the 
rise  of  the  Papacy,  there  gradually  grew  up  three  different  theories 
in  regard  to  the  divinely  constituted  relation  of  the  "  world  king  " 
and  the  "  world  priest."  The  first  was  that  Pope  and  Emperor 
were  each  independently  commissioned  by  (K)d,  the  first  to  rule 
the  spirits  of  men,  the  second  to  rule  their  bodies.  E^ch  reign- 
ing thus  by  original  divine  right,  neither  is  set  above  the  other, 
but  both  are  to  cooperate  and  to  help  each  other.  The  special 
duty  of  the  temporal  power  is  to  maintain  order  in  the  world 
and  to  be  the  protector  of  the  Church.  The  Emperor  bears  the 
sword  for  the  purpose  of  executing  the  decrees  of  the  Church 
against  all  heretics  and  disturbers  of  its  peace  and  unity.    Thus 


I  12 


THE   PAPACY   AND   THE   EMPIRE 


this  theory  looked  to  a  perfect  and  beautiful  alliance  between 
Church  and  State,  a  double  sovereignty  emblemized  in  the  dual 
nature  of  Christ. 

The  second  theory,  the  one  held  by  the  imperial  party,  was 
that  the  Emperor  was  superior  to  the  Pope  in  secular  affairs. 
Arguments  from  Scripture  and  from  the  transactions  of  history 
were  not  wanting   to   support  this  view  of  the  relation   of  the 

two  world  powers.  Thus  Christ's 
payment  of  tribute  money  was 
cited  as  proof  that  he  regarded 
the  temporal  power  as  superior 
to  the  spiritual.  And  then,  did 
he  not  say,  "  Render  unto  Caesar 
the  things  which  are  Csesar's"? 
Further,  the  gifts  of  Pippin  and 
Charles  the  Great  to  the  Roman 
see  made  the  popes,  it  was  main- 
tained, the  vassals  of  the  em- 
perors. 

The  third  theory,  the  one  held 
by  the  papal  party,  maintained 
that  the  ordained  relation  of  the 
two  powers  was  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  temporal  to  the  spirit- 
ual authority,  even  in  civil  affairs. 
This  view  was  maintained  by  such 
texts  of  Scripture  as  these: 
"  But  he  that  is  spiritual  judgeth 
all  things,  yet  he  himself  is 
judged  of  no  man"  ;^  "See,  I  have  this'  day  set  thee  over  the 
nations  and  over  the  kingdoms,  to  root  out,  and  to  pull  down,  and 
to  destroy,  and  to  throw  down,  to  build,  and  to  plant."  ^  The  con- 
ception was  further  illustrated  by  such  comparisons  as  the  follow- 
ing, —  for  in  mediaeval  times  parable  and  metaphor  often  took  the 
place  of  argument :  As  God  has  set  in  the  heavens  two  Hghts, 
1  I  Corinthians  ii.  15.  2  Jeremiah  i.  10. 


Fig.  22. — The   Spiritual  and 

•   THE  Temporal  Power.    (From 

a    ninth-century   mosaic    in    the 

Lateran  at  Rome ;  after  Jaeger, 

Weltgesch  ich  te) 

St.  Peter  gives  to  Pope  Leo  III  the 
stola  and  to  Charlemagne  the  banner 
of  Rome  as  symbols  of  the  spiritual 
and  temporal  power.  The  portrait  of 
Charlemagne  here  shown  is  with  little 
doubt  the  oldest  in  existence 


THE    RESTORATION    OF   THE    PAPACY  113 

the  sun  and  the  moon,  so  has  he  estabhshed  on  earth  two  powers, 
the  spiritual  and  the  temporal ;  but  as  the  moon  is  inferior  to  the 
sun  and  receives  its  light  from  it,  so  is  the  Emperor  inferior  to 
the  Pope  and  receives  all  power  from  him.'  Again,  the  two 
authorities  were  likened  to  the  soul  and  the  body ;  as  the  former 
rules  over  the  latter,  so  is  it  ordered  that  the  spiritual  power  shall 
rule  over  and  subject  the  temporal. 

The  first  theory  was  the  impracticable  dream  of  lofty  souls  who 
forgot  that  men  are  human.  Christendom  was  virtually  divided 
into  two  hostile  camps  the  members  of  which  were  respectively 
supporters  of  the  imperial  and  the  papal  theory.  The  most  inter- 
esting and  instructive  chapters  of  mediaeval  history  after  the  tenth 
century  are  those  that  record  the  struggles  between  Pope  and 
Emperor,  springing  from  their  efforts  to  reduce  to  practice  and 
fact  these  irreconcilable  theories. 

123.  The   Restoration   of   the   Papacy The   great   struggle 

between  the  emperors  and  the  popes  began  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. The  contest  was  preluded  by  the  revival  and  strengthening 
of  both  the  Empire  and  the  Papacy.  It  will  be  recalled  how  the 
Empire,  after  the  very  idea  of  it  had  almost  faded  from  the  minds 
of  many,  was  restored  by  Otto  the  Great  (sec.  80).  A  little  more 
than  a  century  later  the  Papacy  was  also  revived  and  strengthened. 
This  needs  a  word  of  explanation. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  tenth  and  almost  all  the 
first  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  Papacy  had  been  sunk  in 
the  deepest  moral  degradation.  This  deplorable  state  of  things 
had  been  created  largely  by  the  interference  in  the  papal  elections 
—  which  were  nominally  in  the  hands  of  the  Roman  clergy  and 
people  —  by  rival  feudal  factions  at  Rome  which  set  up  and  pulled 
down  popes  at  will.  Through  such  influences  it  often  happened 
that  persons  of  scandalous  life  were,  through  violence  and  bribery, 
elevated  to  the  papal  chair.* 

8  Dante,  maintaining  the  rights  of  the  Emperor,  ruined  the  force  of  this  com- 
parison by  pointing  out  that  while  the  moon  often  eclipses  the  sun,  the  sun  never 
eclipses  the  moon. 

*  Out  of  efforts  to  improve  this  state  of  things  arose  the  Sacred  College  of  Cardi- 
nals.   This  body  was  definitely  created  by  a  decree  of  the  Lateran  Synod  of  1059, 


114  '^HE   PAPACY   AND   THE   EMPIRE 

The  Papacy  owed  very  largely  its  rescue  from  this  deep  deg- 
radation, and  its  liberation  from  this  humiliating  bondage,  to 
the  intervention  of  the  imperial  power.  Among  the  emperors 
who  did  most  to  effect  the  moral  regeneration  of  the  Roman  see 
was  the  Emperor  Henry  III  (1039-105  6).  Exercising  his  author- 
ity as  the  guardian  and  protector  of  the  Church,  he  nominated 
for  the  holy  office  a  series  of  religious-minded  and  strong  men, 
who  were  filled  with  that  spirit  of  reform  which  just  now  was 
issuing  from  the  cloisters  of  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Cluny 
(sec.  31). 

124.  Pope  Gregory  VII  (1073-1085)  and  his  Conception  of  the 
Papacy.  —  The  most  eminent  of  the  reform  popes  was  Pope 
Gregory  VII,  better  known  by  his  earlier  name  of  Hildebrand, 
the  most  noteworthy  character,  after  Charlemagne,  that  the 
Middle  Ages  produced.  In  the  year  1049  he  was  brought  from 
the  cloisters  of  Cluny  to  Rome,  where  he  became  the  maker  and 
adviser  of  popes,  and  finally  was  himself  elevated  to  the  pontifical 
throne,  which  he  held  from  1073  to  1085. 

Gregory  vehemently  rejected  the  idea  that  the  imperial  power 
was  superior  to  the  papal,  or  even  that  the  two  were  equal  and 
coordinate.  *'The  spiritual  power  was  to  stand  related  to  the 
temporal  as  the  sun  to  the  moon,  imparting  light  and  strength, 
without,  however,  destroying  it,  or  depriving  princes  of  their 
sovereignty."  -In  a  word,  Gregory's  idea  was  that  all  the  Chris- 
tian states  should  form  a  world  empire,  with  the  Pope  at  its  head 
as  God's  representative  on  earth. 

In  order  to  realize  his  grand  ideal,  Gregory,  as  soon  as  he 
became  Pope,  set  about  two  important  reforms,  —  the  enforce- 
ment of  celibacy  among  the  secular  clergy  and  the  suppression 
of  simony.  Respecting  each  of  these  matters  we  must  speak 
with  some  detail. 

which  acted  under  the  inspiration  of  Pope  Nicholas  II,  It  was  at  first  made  up  of 
the  leading  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  connected  with  churches  in  and  around 
Rome;  later  the  members  were  chosen  from  a  wider  field.  In  1585  the  number  of 
members  of  the  college  was  fixed  at  seventy.  Vacancies  in  the  body  are  filled  by  the 
Pope.  The  college  now  possesses  the  exclusive  fight  of  electing  a  pope,  although  at 
first  the  inferior  Roman  clergy  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  confirmation.  This  electoral 
board  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  institutions  of  the  Catholic  Church. 


GREGORY   VII 


115 


125.  Gregory  VII  and   the   Celibacy  of   the   Clergy When 

Gregory  came  to  the  papal  throne  one  grave  danger  threatening 
the  Church  was  the  marriage  of  the  clergy.  From  the  very  first 
there  had  prevailed  two  opposing  views  respecting  the  celibacy  of 
the  priesthood,  some  upholding  the  custom  of  clerical  marriage, 
and  others  maintaining  the  superior  sanctity  of  the  unmarried 
state.  In  the  eleventh  century  a  great  part  of  the  minor  clergy 
were  married.  One  great  injury  to  the  Church  which  resulted 
from  this  was  that  it  was  introducing  the  feudal  principle  of 
heredity.  The  priests  were  coming  to  look  upon  their  offices  and 
the  Church  lands  under  their  care  as  fiefs,  which  they  had  a  right 
to  transmit  to  their  children.  With  the  offices  of  the  Church  thus 
rendered  hereditary,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  authority  of  the 
Pope  over  the  clergy  was  being  fatally  impaired. 

Gregory  resolved  to  bring  all  the  clergy  to  the  strict  observ- 
ance of  celibate  vows.  By  thus  separating  the  priests  from  the 
attachments  of  home,  and  lifting  from  them  all  family  burdens 
and  cares,  he  aimed  to  render  their  consecration  to  the  duties  of 
their  offices  more  whole-souled  and  their  dependence  upon  the 
Church  more  complete. 

We  will  here  simply  stop  to  observe  that  the  reform,  though 
most  obstinately  opposed  by  a  large  section  of  the  clergy,  was 
finally  effected,  —  but  not  in  Gregory's  lifetime  ;  so  that  celibacy 
became  as  binding  upon  the  priest  as  upon  the  monk.  It  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  in  many  ways  the  reform  increased 
the  efficiency  of  the  Catholic  priesthood,  and  certainly  greatly 
enhanced  the  influence  and  authority  of  the  popes. 

126.  Gregory  VII  and  Simony. — Gregory's  second  reform, 
the  correction  of  simony,  had  for  one  of  its  ultimate  objects  the 
freeing  of  the  lands  and  offices  of  the  Church  from  the  control  of 
lay  lords  and  princes,  and  the  bringing  of  them  more  completely 
into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  bishop. 

The  evil  of  simony^  had  grown  up  in  the  Church  chiefly  in 
the   following  way.    As  the   feudal   system   took   possession   of 

•'•  By  simony  is  meant  the  purchase  of  an  office  in  the  Church,  the  name  of  the 
offense  coming  from  Simon  Magus,  who  offered  Peter  money  for  the  power  to  confer 
thi'  Holy  Spirit.     See  Acts  viii.  9-24. 


ii6 


THE   PAPACY  AND   THE   EMPIRE 


European  society,  the  Church,  like  individuals  and  cities,  assumed 
feudal  relations.  Thus,  as  we  have  already  seen,  abbots  and 
bishops,  as  the  heads  of  monasteries  and  churches,  for  the  sake 
of  protection,  became  the  vassals  of  powerful  barons  or  princes. 
When  once  a  prelate  had  promised  fealty  for  his  estates  or  tem- 
poralities, as  they  were  called,  these  became  henceforth  a  perma- 
nent fief  of  the  overlord  and  subject  to  all  the  incidents  of  the 
feudal  tenure.  When  a  vacancy  occurred  the  lord  assumed  the 
right  to  fill  it,  just  as  in  case  of  the  escheat  of  a  lay  fief.^  In  this 
way  the  temporal  rulers  throughout  Europe  had  come  to  exercise 
the  right  of  nominating  or  confirming  the  election  of  almost  all 
the  great  prelates  of  the  Church. 

Now,  these  lay  princes  who  had  the  patronage  of  these  Church 
offices  and  lands  handled  them  just  as  they  did  their  lay  fiefs. 

They  required  the  person  nomi- 
nated to  an  abbacy  or  to  a  bish- 
opric to  pay  for  the  appointment 
and  investiture  a  sum  propor- 
tioned to  the  income  from  the 
office.  This  was  in  strict  accord 
with  the  feudal  rule  which  allowed 
the  lord  to  demand  from  the  vas- 
sal, upon  his  investiture  with  a 
fief,  a  sum  of  money  called  a  relief 
(sec.  94).  This  rule,  thus  applied 
to  Church  lands  and  offices,  was, 
it  is  easy  to  see,  the  cause  of 
great  evil  and  corruption.  The 
ecclesiastical  vacancies  were  vir- 
tually sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 
And  then,  furthermore,  the  most 
unsuitable  persons  became  bishops 
and  abbots.  The  offices  were  given  to  favorites,  to  mere  children, 
to  persons  often  of  the  most  notoriously  evil  life. 

6  The  clergy  and  monks  still  retained  the  nominal  right  of  election,  but  too  fre- 
quently an  election  by  them  was  a  mere  matter  of  form.    For  a  typical  case  see  sec.  164. 


Fig.  23.  —  Investiture  of  a 
Bishop  by  a  King  through 
THE  Giving  of  the  Crosier, 
OR  Pastoral  Staff.  (From  a 
manuscript  of  the  tenth  century) 


EXCOMMUNICATIONS  AND   INTERDICTS        117 

Such  was  the  deplorable  state  into  which  the  Church  had  been 
brought  by  the  application  of  feudal  principles  to  ecclesiastical 
lands  and  offices.  The  maintenance  of  the  unity  of  the  Church 
and  the  preservation  of  religion  itself  demanded  that  the  control 
of  these  ecclesiastical  positions  and  estates  should  be  taken  away 
from  the  lay  rulers. 

To  remedy  the  evil  Gregory  issued  decrees  forbidding  any  one 
of  the  clergy  to  receive  the  investiture  of  a  bishopric  or  abbey  or 
church  from  the  hands  of  a  temporal  prince  or  lord.  Any  one 
who  should  dare  to  disobey  these  decrees  was  threatened  with 
the  penalties  of  the  Church. 

127.  Excommunications  and  Interdicts.  — The  principal  instru- 
ments relied  upon  by  Gregory  for  the  carrying  out  of  his  decrees 
were  the  spiritual  weapons  of  the  Church,  —  Excommunication 
and  Interdict. 

The  first  was  directed  against  individuals.  The  person  excom- 
municated was  cut  off  from  all  relations  with  his  fellow-men.  If 
a  king,  his  subjects  were  released  from  their  oath  of  allegiance. 
Any  one  providing  the  excommunicate  with  food  or  shelter  incurred 
the  penalties  of  the  Church.  Living,  the  excommunicated  person 
was  to  be  shunned  and  abhorred  as  though  tainted  with  an  infec- 
tious disease ;  and  dead,  he  was  to  be  refused  the  ordinary  rites 
of  burial. 

The  interdict  was  directed  against  a  city,  province,  or  kingdom. 
Throughout  the  region  under  this  ban  the  churches  were  closed ; 
no  bell  could  be  rung,  no  marriage  celebrated,  no  burial  ceremony 
performed.  The  sacraments  of  baptism  and  extreme  unction  alone 
could  be  administered. 

It  is  difficult  for  us  in  these  modern  skeptical  times  to  realize 
the  effect  of  these  bans  during  the  "Age  of  Faith."  They  rarely 
failed  in  bringing  the  most  contumacious  offender  to  a  speedy  and 
abject  confession,  or  in  effecting  his  undoing.  This  will  appear  in 
the  following  paragraph. 

128.  The  Investiture  Contest;  Emperor  Henry  IV's  Humiliation 
at  Canossa  (1077.)  — It  was  in  (iermany  that  Gregory  experienced 
the   most  formidable  opposition  to  his  reform  measures.    The 


Il8  THE   PAPACY  AND   THE   EMPIRE 

Emperor  elect,  King  Henry  IV  (1056-1106),  —  who  had  been 
threatened  by  the  Pope  with  excommunication  and  deposition,  — 
gathering  in  council  such  of  the  prelates  of  the  Empire  as  would 
answer  his  call  (1076),  even  dared  to  bid  him  descend  from  the 
papal  throne.  Gregory  in  turn  gathered  a  council  at  Rome  and 
deposed  and  excommunicated  the  Emperor.  "  In  the  name  of 
Almighty  God,  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  thus  ran  the  solemn 
papal  decree,  "  I  withdraw  through  thy  [St.  Peter's]  power  and 
authority,  from  Henry  the  King,  son  of  Henry  the  Emperor,  who 
has  arisen  against  thy  Church  with  unheard-of  insolence,  the  rule 
over  the  whole  kingdom  of  the  Germans  and  over  Italy.  And  I 
absolve  all  Christians  from  the  bond  of  the  oath  which  they  have 
made  or  shall  make  to  him ;  and  I  forbid  any  one  to  serve  him 
as  king."  "^ 

Henry's  deposition  encouraged  a  revolt  on  the  part  of  some  of 
his  discontented  subjects.  He  was  shunned  as  a  man  accursed  by 
Heaven.  His  authority  seemed  to  have  slipped  entirely  out  of  his 
hands,  and  his  kingdom  was  on  the  point  of  going  to  pieces.  In 
this  wretched  state  of  his  affairs  there  was  but  one  thing  for  him 
to  do,  —  to  go  to  Gregory  and  humbly  sue  for  pardon  and  rein- 
statement in  the  favor  of  the  Church. 

Henry  sought  Gregory  among  the  Apennines,  at  Canossa,  a 
stronghold  of  the  celebrated  Countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany.  But 
Gregory  refused  to  admit  him  to  his  presence.  It  was  winter,  and 
on  three  successive  days  the  king,  clothed  in  sackcloth,  stood  with 
bare  feet  in  the  snow  of  the  courtyard  of  the  castle,  waiting  for 
permission  to  kneel  at  the  feet  of  the  pontiff  and  to  receive 
forgiveness. 

This  was  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  transactions,  in  its  moral 
significance,  that  the  world  had  ever  witnessed,  —  the  Emperor 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  the  successor  of  the  Caesars  and  of 
Charlemagne,  a  rejected  penitent  at  the  door  of  the  Roman  pontiff. 

On  the  fourth  day  the  king  was  admitted  to  the  presence  of 
Gregory,  and  the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  removed 
(1077).    Henry  had  ''stooped  to  conquer,"  for  the  victory  was 

"!  Henderson,  Select  Historical  Doctitnents,  p.  T^yj. 


CONCORDAT   OF   WORMS  I  19 

really  his.  He  had  forced  absolution  from  an  unwilling  Pope, 
and  this  release  from  the  Church's  censure  meant  much  then  to 
Henry  and  his  cause. 

Henry  was  now  able  to  avenge  his  humiliation.  He  raised  an 
army  and  descended  upon  Rome.  The  Normans,  under  Robert 
Guiscard  (sec.  112),  came  to  the  Pope's  defense.  In  the  fighting 
and  confusion  which  followed,  Rome  was  reduced  almost  to  ruins. 
Gregory  was  constrained  to  seek  an  asylum  at  Salerno,  where  he 
died  in  1085.  His  last  words  were,  "  I  have  loved  righteousness 
and  hated  iniquity,  and  therefore  I  die  in  exile." 

But  the  quarrel  did  not  end  here.  It  was  taken  up  by  the  suc- 
cessors of  Gregory,  and  Henry  was  again  excommunicated.  After 
maintaining  a  long  struggle  with  the  power  of  the  Church,  and 
with  his  own  sons,  who  were  incited  to  rebel  against  him,  he 
finally  died  broken-hearted  (1106).  For  five  years  his  body  was 
denied  burial  in  consecrated  ground ;  but  at  last  the  ban  of  the 
Church  was  removed,  and  it  was  laid  to  rest  with  fitting  honors. 

129.  Concordat  of  Worms  (11 22). —  Henry's  humiliation,  though 
it  purchased  him  a  personal  victory,  gave  a  severe  blow  to  the 
prestige  of  the  imperial  power.  Nevertheless  his  successors  main- 
tained the  quarrel  with  the  popes.  The  outcome  of  the  matter, 
after  many  years  of  bitter  contention,  was  the  celebrated  Con- 
cordat of  Worms  (1122).  It  was  agreed  that  all  bishops  and 
abbots  of  the  Empire,  after  free  canonical  election,  should  receive 
the  ring  and  staff,  the  symbols  of  their  spiritual  jurisdiction,  from 
the  Pope,  but  that  the  Emperor  should  exercise  the  right  of  invest- 
iture by  the  touch  of  a  scepter,  the  emblem  of  temporal  rights 
and  authority.  This  was  a  recognition  by  both  parties  that  all 
spiritual  authority  emanates  from  the  Church  and  all  temporal 
authority  from  the  State.  It  was  a  compromise,  —  "a  rendering 
unto  Caesar  of  the  things  that  are  Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the 
things  that  are  God's." 

But  however  equal  the  compromise  may  at  first  blush  appear, 
it  was  after  all  a  moral  victory  for  the  Papacy.  The  Concordat 
rescued  the  Church  from  the  grave  danger  of  complete  secular- 
ization ;   for  the  triumph  of  the  lay  power  in  its  contention  would 


I20  THE  PAPACY   AND   THE   EMPIRE 

have  made  the  Church  a  part  of  the  constitution  of  the  feudal 
empire  and  monarchy,  just  as  the  temple  in  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome  was  a  part  of  the  constitution  of  the  city-state. 

We  must  here  drop  the  story  of  the  contentions  of  Pope  and 
Emperor  in  order  to  watch  the  peoples  of  Europe  as  at  the  time 
we  have  now  reached  they  undertake  with  surprising  unanimity 
and  enthusiasm  the  most  remarkable  enterprises  in  which  they 
were  ever  engaged,  —  the  Crusades,  or  Holy  Wars. 

It  was  the  prestige  and  strength  which  the  Papacy  had  gained 
in  its  contest  with  the  Empire  which  enabled  the  popes  to  exert 
such  an  influence  in  setting  the  Crusades  in  motion  and  in  direct- 
ing them ;  while  at  the  same  time  it  was  these  great  enterprises 
which,  reacting  upon  the  Papacy,  greatly  aided  the  popes  in 
realizing  Gregory's  ideal  of  making  the  papal  authority  supreme 
throughout  Western  Christendom. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Dante,  De  Monarchia  (trans,  by  Au- 
relia  Henry).  Dante's  argument  is  this :  first,  he  shows  the  need  of  a 
supreme  temporal  ruler ;  second,  he  proves  from  history  that  the  Roman 
Empire  "  was  willed  of  God  " ;  and  third,  he  argues  that  the  authority  of 
the  Emperor  comes  direct  from  God  and  not  from  the  Pope.  The  work 
is  a  most  instructive  illustration  of  mediaeval  ideals  and  mediaeval  reason- 
ing. Henderson,  Select  Historical  Documents,  pp.  351-409,  "Decrees 
concerning  Papal  Elections  and  Documents  relating  to  the  Controversy 
over  Investiture."     Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  chap.  xiii. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire.  This  little 
work  has  become  a  classic.  Bowden,  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Gregory  the 
Seventh.  Lea,  Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in  the  Christian  Church.  Chapter  xiv 
is  devoted  to  Gregory's  reforms.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  chap.  x.  Emerton,  Mediceval  Europe,  chaps,  vii  and  viii.  Alzog, 
Universal  Church  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  253-336  and  481-510.  Tout,  The 
Empire  and  the  Papacy.  Stephens,  Hildebrand  and  his  Times.  Vin- 
cent, The  Age  of  Hildebrand ;  earlier  chapters. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Hildebrand  and  the  monastery  of  Cluny. 
2.  The  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals.  3.  The  Interdict.  4.  The  Emperor 
Henry  IV  at  Canossa.     5.  The  Countess  Matilda. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  CRUSADES   (1096-1273) 

I.  Preparation  of  Europe  for  the  Crusades 

130.  The  Crusades  defined ;  their  Place  in  Universal  History.  — 

The  Crusades  were  great  military  expeditions  carried  on  inter- 
mittently for  two  centuries  by  the  Christian  peoples  of  Europe 
for  the  purpose  of  rescuing  from  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans 
the  holy  places  of  Palestine  and  maintaining  in  the  East  a  Latin 
kingdom.  Historians  usually  enumerate  eight  of  these  expedi- 
tions as  worthy  of  special  narration.  Of  these  eight  the  first  four 
are  often  designated  the  Principal  Crusades  and  the  remaining 
four  the  Minor  Crusades.  But  besides  these  there  were  a  chil- 
dren's crusade  and  several  other  expeditions,  which,  being  insig- 
nificant in  numbers  or  results,  are  not  usually  enumerated,  as 
well  as  several  enterprises  in  Europe  itself  which  partook  of  the 
nature  of  crusades. 

Viewed  from  the  broadest  standpoint  the  Crusades  against  the 
Moslems  were  simply  an  episode  in  that  age-long  drama  of  the 
struggle  between  the  East  and  the  West,  between  Asia  and  Europe, 
of  which  the  contest  between  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Persians 
was  the  opening  act.  Looked  at  in  connection  with  a  narrower 
cycle  of  events,  they  mark  the  culmination  of  the  long  contest 
between  the  two  great  world  religions,  Islam  and  Christianity, 
the  beginnings  of  which  we  have  already  seen,  and  which 
expresses  itself  to-day  in  the  antagonism  between  the  Ottoman 
Turks  and  the  Christian  races  of  Europe. 

We  shall  tell  first  of  the  causes  which  gave  birth  to  these 
remarkable  enterprises  ;  then  narrate  with  some  degree  of  par- 
ticularity the  most  important  events  which  characterized  the  First 


122  THE    CRUSADES 

Crusade,  passing  more  lightly  over  the  incidents  of  the  succeed- 
ing ones,  as  these  in  all  essential  features  were  simply  repetitions 
of  the  first  movement ;  and  follow  this  with  a  very  short  account 
of  the  crusades  within  the  limits  of  Europe.  Then  we  shall  close 
our  brief  survey  of  the  crusading  movements  with  a  summary  of 
their  results  for  civilization. 

131.  The  Religious  Motive  ;  Pilgrimages. — The  chief  moving 
force  of  the  Holy  Wars  was  the  religious  ideas  and  feelings  of 
the  times,  particularly  the  sentiment  respecting  holy  places  and 
pilgrimages.  In  all  ages  men  have  been  led  by  curiosity,  senti- 
ment, or  religion  to  make  pilgrimages  to  spots  which  retain  the 
memory  of  remarkable  occurrences,  or  have  been  consecrated  by 
human  suffering  or  heroism.  Especially  has  the  religious  senti- 
ment of  every  people  made  the  birthplaces  or  the  tombs  of  their 
prophets,  saints,  and  martyrs  places  of  veneration  and  pilgrimage. 
Benares,  Mecca,  and  Jerusalem  attest  the  universality  and  strength 
of  the  sentiment  among  Hindus,  Mohammedans,  and  Christians 
alike. 

Among  the  early  Christians  it  was  thought  a  pious  and  meri- 
torious act  to  undertake  a  journey  to  some  sacred  place.  Espe- 
cially was  it  thought  that  a  pilgrimage  to  the  land  whose  soil  had 
been  pressed  by  the  feet  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  to  the  Holy 
City  that  had  witnessed  his  martyrdom,  was  a  peculiarly  pious 
undertaking,  and  one  which  secured  for  the  pilgrim  the  special 
favor  and  blessing  of  Heaven. 

Pilgrims  began  to  make  visits  to  the  Holy  Land  from  the 
countries  of  Western  Europe  as  soon  as  Christianity  had  taken 
possession  of  this  part  of  the  Roman  Empire.  At  first  the  jour- 
ney was  so  difficult  and  dangerous  that  it  was  undertaken  by 
comparatively  few.  Before  the  conversion  of  the  Hungarians, 
who  held  the  land  route  between  Germany  and  the  Bosporus, 
the  pilgrim  usually  made  his  way  to  some  Mediterranean  port, 
and  sought  a  chance  passage  on  board  some  vessel  engaged  in 
the  Eastern  trade. 

The  Cluniac  revival  of  the  eleventh  century  (sec.  31),  kindling 
as  it  did  a  holy  fervor  in  multitudes  of  souls,  gave  a  great  impulse 


THE   CHURCH   AND   CHIVALRY  123 

to  this  pilgrimaging  zeal,  and  caused  the  number  of  pilgrims  to 
the  Holy  Land  greatly  to  increase.  Instead  of  solitary  travelers, 
companies  numbering  hundreds  and  even  thousands  *  might  now 
be  seen  crowding  the  roads  leading  to  Jerusalem ;  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Hungarians  had  recently  reopened  the  overland 
route  down  the  Danube. 

But  just  at  this  time  a  great  revolution  took  place  in  the  polit- 
ical affairs  of  the  East.  The  Seljuk  Turks,  a  prominent  Tartar 
tribe,  zealous  proselytes  of  Islam,  wrested  Syria  from  the  tolerant 
Saracen  caliphs.  The  Christians  were  not  long  in  realizing 
that  power  had  fallen  into  new  hands.  Pilgrims  were  insulted 
and  persecuted  in  every  way.  The  churches  in  Jerusalem  were, 
in  some  cases,  destroyed  or  turned  into  stables. 

Now,  if  it  were  a  meritorious  thing  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Sepulcher,  much  more  would  it  be  a  pious  act  to  rescue 
the  sacred  spot  from  the  profanation  of  infidels.  This  was  the 
conviction  that  changed  the  pilgrim  into  a  warrior,  —  this  the 
sentiment  that  for  two  centuries  and  more  stirred  the  Christian 
world  to  its  profoundest  depths  and  cast  the  population  of  Europe 
in  wave  after  wave  upon  Asia. 

132.  The  Growth  of  a  Martial  Spirit  in  the  Church  ;  the  Church 
and  Chivalry.  —  This  transformation  of  pilgrimages  into  crusades 
would  not  have  been  possible  had  not  the  Church  itself  in  the 
course  of  the  centuries  undergone  an  amazing  transformation. 
In  the  earliest  Christian  times  a  Quaker  spirit  niled  the  Church; 
by  the  .eleventh  century  a  martial  spirit  had  taken  complete  pos- 
session of  it.  Christ  had  commanded  his  disciples  to  put  up  the 
sword ;  now  the  head  of  the  Church  commanded  all  to  gird  on 
the  sword  and  fight  for  the  faith. 

Various  causes  and  circumstances  had  concurred  to  effect  in 
the  Church  this  astonishing  transformation.  First,  Christianity, 
while  transforming  the  barbarians,  had  been  itself  transformed 
by  them.  The  new  converts  had  carried  their  martial  spirit  into 
the  Church.    Fighters  they  had  been  and  fighters  they  remained. 

1  The  largest  company  of  which  there  is  record  numbered  7000  persons.  This 
was  led  by  an  archbishop  and  set  out  in  the  year  10^)4. 


124  THE   CRUSADES 

Transformed  by  this  alien  spirit  the  Church  modified  its  early 
Quaker  teachings,  and  came  at  last  to  approve  the  military  life, 
which  the  first  Christians  had  very  generally  condemned  as 
incompatible  with  the  teachings  of  the  Master. 

A  second  cause  of  the  transformation  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
mediaeval  way  of  thinking  about  ordeals,  especially  the  ordeal  of 
battle.  As  we  have  seen,  the  idea  underlying  the  wager  of  battle 
was  that  God  would  miraculously  intervene  and  give  victory  to 
the  right.  How  natural  then  the  belief  that  in  the  greater  matter 
of  a  battle  between  armies  God  might  be  trusted  to  give  righteous 
judgment.  This  conviction  was  reenforced  by  the  chronicles  of 
the  Old  Testament.  In  the  wars  waged  by  the  Jews  at  the  com- 
mand of  Jehovah  against  their  heathen  enemies  the  mediaeval 
Christians  found  ample  warrant  for  their  crusades  against  the 
pagan  and  infidel  enemies  of  the  Church. 

Still  a  third  influence  that  helped  to  introduce  the  mihtary 
spirit  into  the  Church  was  the  reaction  upon  it  of  the  martial 
creed  of  Islam.  For  three  centuries  and  more  before  the  First 
Crusade  the  Moslems  had  been  in  contact,  and  during  much 
of  this  time  in  actual  combat,  with  the  Christians  of  Europe. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  Church,  as  was  natural,  caught 
the  military  spirit  of  Mohammedanism  and  became  quite  as 
ready  as  its  rival  to  call  upon  its  followers  to  fight  in  defense 
or  for  the  spread  of  the  faith. 

This  military  spirit  in  Christendom  found  characteristic  expres- 
sion in  chivalry.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  relation^of  the 
Church  to  the  institution  of  knighthood  (sec.  103).  Chivalry 
passed  under  its  tuition  and  patronage.  When  at  the  close  of 
the  eleventh  century  there  went  forth  the  papal  call  for  volun- 
teers for  the  Holy  Wars,  it  fell  upon  the  willing  ears  of  myriads 
of  knights  eager  to  make  good  their  oaths  of  knighthood  and  to 
win  renown  in  combat  with  the  Moslem  infidel.  Once  the  old 
pagan  Roman  had  made  use  of  these  same  war-loving  men  of  the 
North  to  fight  the  battles  of  the  Empire ;  now  the  new  Christian 
Rome  enlists  them  beneath  her  standard  to  fight  the  battles  of 
the  Cross. 


THE  PEACE  AND  TRUCE  OF  GOD      125 

133.  The  Peace  and  the  Truce  of  God.  —  Closely  connected 
with  the  subject  of  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  also  related 
in  a  very  significant  way  to  the  Crusades,  was  the  institution 
established  by  the  Church  in  the  eleventh  century  and  known 
as  the  "  Truce  of  God." 

We  have  already  become  acquainted  in  some  measure  with 
the  anarchical  condition  of  society  under  feudalism.  The  central 
authority  of  the  state  was  everywhere  relaxed,  and  neither  the 
emperors  nor  the  kings  were  able  to  put  a  stop  to  the  marauding 
and  fighting  of  the  great  feudal  lords.  This  right  of  waging  pri- 
vate war  was  one  of  the  most  dearly  prized  privileges  of  these 
semicivilized  barons.  They  were  quite  as  unwilling  to  give  up 
this  right  as  the  nations  of  to-day  are  to  surrender  their  right  of 
public  war.  So  Europe  had  reverted  to  that  condition  of  per- 
petual warfare  between  tribes  and  clans  that  the  continent  was 
in  before  Rome  arose,  and  after  centuries  of  titanic  effort  estab- 
lished throughout  her  wide  Empire  what  was  called  the  "  Roman 
Peace "  {Pax  Romano).  Every  land  was  filled  with  fightings 
and  violence.  As  one  writer  pictures  it :  "  Every  hill  was  a 
stronghold,  every  plain  a  battlefield.  The  trader  was  robbed  on 
the  highway,  the  peasant  was  killed  at  his  plow,  the  priest  was 
slain  at  the  altar.  Neighbor  fought  against  neighbor,  baron 
against  baron,  city  against  city." 

In  the  midst  of  this  intolerable  anarchy  the  Church  lifted  up 
a  protesting  voice.  In  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century 
there  was  a  movement  in  France  which  aimed  at  the  complete 
abolition  of  war  between  Christians.  The  Church  proposed  to 
do  what  had  been  effected  for  a  time  by  the  Caesars.  It  pro- 
claimed what  was  called  the  "  Peace  of  God."  In  the  name  of 
the  God  of  peace  it  commanded  all  men  to  refrain  from  war  and 
robbery  and  violence  of  every  kind  as  contrary  to  the  spirit  and 
the  teachings  of  Christianity.  But  it  was  found  utterly  impos- 
sible to  make  men  desist  from  waging  private  wars,  even  though 
they  were  threatened  with  the  everlasting  tortures  of  hell. 

Then  the  clergy  in  Southern  France,  seeing  they  could  not 
suppress  the   evil  entirely,  concluded  it  were  wiser   to  try  to 


126  THE   CRUSADES 

regulate  it.  This  led  to  the  promulgation  of  what  was  called  the 
"Truce  of  God."  We  find  the  first  trace  of  this  in  the  year 
1041.^  The  movement  connects  itself,  as  do  almost  all  great 
moral  reforms  at  this  time,  with  the  Cluniac  revival. 

In  the  year  named  the  abbot  of  Cluny  and  several  bishops 
united  in  issuing  an  edict  in  which  all  men  were  commanded  to 
maintain  a  holy  and  unbroken  peace  during  four  days  of  the 
week,  from  Thursday  evening  to  Monday  morning,  that  is,  during 
the  days  which  were  supposed  to  be  rendered  peculiarly  sacred 
by  the  Saviour's  death,  burial,  and  resurrection.  Whosoever 
should  dare  disobey  the  decree  was  threatened  with  the  severest 
penalties  of  the  Church. 

This  movement  to  redeem  at  least  a  part  of  the  days  from 
fighting  and  violence  embraced  in  time  all  the  countries  of 
Western  Europe.  The  details  of  the  various  edicts  issued  by 
Church  councils  and  by  the  popes  varied  widely,  but  all  embraced 
the  principle  of  the  edict  of  1041. 

This  Truce  of  God  was  not,  as  we  may  easily  believe,  very 
well  observed ;  yet  it  did  at  least  something  during  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries  to  better  the  general  condition  of  things, 
to  mitigate  the  evils  of  private  warfare,  and  to  render  life  more 
tolerable  and  property  more  secure.  We  shall  see  a  little  later 
how  the  Church  used  the  restraining  authority  it  had  acquired 
in  this  field  to  make  it  possible  and  safe  for  the  feudal  barons 
and  knights,  leaving  their  fiefs  and  other  possessions  under  the 
protecting  aegis  of  the  Church,  to  go  with  their  retainers  on  the 
distant  expeditions  of  the  Crusades.     . 

134.  Norman  Restlessness  and  Crusading  Zeal.  — To  the  vari- 
ous causes  and  antecedents  of  the  Crusades  already  noticed  must 
be  added,  as  a  near  inciting  cause,  that  spirit  of  adventure  and 
unrest  with  which  almost  all  the  lands  of  Western  Europe  were 
at  just  this  time  being  filled  by  the  enterprises  of  the  Normans. 
The  conquest  of  England  by  William  the  Conqueror  and  that  of 
wSouthern  Italy  and  Sicily  by  other  Norman  leaders  were  simply 
two  of  the  most  important  of  their  undertakings.    Throughout 

2  Kluckhohn,  Geschichte  des  Gottesfriedcns,  p.  38. 


VARIOUS    MINOR    CAUSES 


127 


the  eleventh  century  the  Norman  knights,  true  to  the  old  Viking 
spirit  of  their  ancestors,  were  constantly  raiding  in  Spain,  in 
Africa,  and  in  other  Moslem  lands.  Everywhere  they  engaged 
in  battle  with  the  infidels.  Everywhere  they  stirred  up  the 
embers  of.  the  old  fierce  hate  between  Christian  and  Moslem. 
Everywhere  throughout  Western  Christendom  they  awakened, 
by  their  restless  zeal,  the  crusading  spirit,  and  thus  did  much 
to  prepare  the  way  for  the  Holy  Wars. 

135.  Various  Minor  Causes.  —  We  have  now  detailed  the  chief 
causes,  remote  and  immediate,  of  the  Crusades.  But  there  were 
other  concurring  causes  which  must  not  be  overlooked.  Many 
took  part  in  the  expeditions  from  mere  love  of  change,  excite- 
ment, and  adventure.  Some  of  the  Italian  cities  engaged  in  the 
undertakings  from  commercial  or  political  motives.  Many  knights, 
princes,  and  even  kings  headed  expeditions  with  a  view  of  secur- 
ing fiefs  in  the  East  from  lands  wrested  from  the  infidel.  Multi- 
tudes of  serfs  joined  them  to  escape  from  a  life  of  misery  that 
had  become  unbearable.  And  vast  numbers  of  the  baser  sort 
joined  them  in  order  to  secure  immunity  from  the  penalty  of 
debt  and  crime ;  for,  as  we  shall  see,  the  person  and  property  of 
the  crusader  were  taken  under  the  special  protection  of  the 
Church. 

Yet  notwithstanding  that  so  many  unworthy  motives  animated 
vast  numbers  of  those  engaging  in  the  Crusades,  we  shall  not  be 
wrong  in  thinking  that  it  was  the  religious  feeling  of  the  times, 
the  conviction  that  the  enterprise  of  rescuing  the  sacred  places 
was  a  holy  one,  which  was  the  main  motive  power,  in  the  absence 
of  which  all  the  other  causes  and  motives  enumerated  would  have 
proved  wholly  inadequate  either  to  set  in  motion  or  to  keep  in 
motion  these  remarkal>fe  and  long-continued  expeditions.  Because 
it  was  a  generous  religious  sentiment  that  organized  them,  because 
it  was  the  moving  force  of  a  grand  religious  ideal  that  maintained 
them  so  long,  they  are  rightly  called  Holy  Wars. 

136.  Circumstances  favoring  the  Crusading  Enterprises.  —  Not- 
withstanding the  number  and  strength  of  the  forces  that  concurred 
to  transform  the  population  of  the  West  into  zealous  crusaders, 


128 


THE   CRUSADES 


the  Holy  Wars  would  not  have  been  possible,  or  would  have  failed 
to  meet  with  even  the  partial  and  temporary  success  that  attended 
them,  had  it  not  been  for  several  favoring  circumstances. 

First,  just  before  this  time  the  Hungarians  had  been  converted, 
and  thus  the  overland  route  to  the  East,  which  for  centuries  had 
been  barred  by  heathen  hordes,  was  reopened.    Thus  was  the 

pathway  for  the 
earlier  Crusades 
prepared. 

Second,  the 
growth  during  the 
tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  of  the 
sea  power  of  the 
republics  of  Ven- 
ice, Genoa,  and 
Pisa,  together  with 
that  of  the  Nor- 
mans, and  the  con- 
quest by  the  latter 
of  Sicily  from  the 
Saracens  (sec. 
112),  enabled  the 
Christians  to  clear 
the  Middle  Medi- 
terranean o  f  t  h  e 
Moslem  pirate 
ships  that  had  vexed  its  waters  and  shores  ever  since  the  rise  of  the 
Mohammedan  power.  Because  of  the  crusaders'  dread  of  the  sea, 
the  water  route  to  Palestine  was  not  followed  by  the  earlier  expedi- 
tions ;  but  the  advantages  of  the  water  passage  gradually  came  to 
be  realized  and  all  the  later  expeditions  reached  their  destination 
by  ship.  From  the  beginning  of  the  movements  it  was  alone  the 
command  of  the  sea  by  the  Italian  cities  that  rendered  possible  that 
transport  service  which  was  indispensable  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  colonies  established  in  Palestine  as  a  result  of  the  First  Crusade. 


Fig.  24.  —  Reception  of  Crusaders  by  the  King 
OF  Hungary.  (From  a  fifteenth-century  manu- 
script ;  after  Laa-oix) 


THE   LEGEND   OF   PETER  THE   HERMIT         129 

Third,  just  four  years  before  the  First  Crusade  the  vast  empire 
which  had  been  established  in  Asia  by  the  Seljuk  Turks  fell  to 
jiieces  and  was  replaced  by  a  number  of  mutually  jealous  Turkish 
principalities.  This  was  a  most  fortunate  circumstance  for  the 
first  crusaders,  for  had  they  been  compelled  to  encounter  the 
undivided  forces  of  the  original  empire,  it  is  not  probable  that  any 
of  them  would  ever  have  reached  the  Holy  Land. 

Fourth,  the  cause  of  the  Christians  was  greatly  furthered  by 
the  antagonism  of  the  Arabs  and  the  Turks.  This  antagonism  — 
which  has  been  prolonged  to  our  own  day  —  almost  fatally  divided 
the  strength  of  the  Mohammedan  world. 

Finally,  the  development  within  the  Church  of  the  papal  power 
was  a  circumstance  in  the  absence  of  which  the  Crusades  could 
never  have  found  a  place  in  the  history  of  Western  Christendom. 
The  popes  used  their  preeminent  authority  to  persuade  the 
people  to  engage  in  the  wars  as  pious  undertakings.  It  was  they 
who  incited,  organized,  and  directed  with  greater  or  less  success 
the  expeditions,  and  to  them  belongs  whatever  measure  of  praise 
or  of  censure  attaches  to  the  enterprises  as  a  whole. 

137.  The  Legend  of  Peter  the  Hermit.  — There  is  a  tradition 
which  makes  one  immediate  inciting  cause  of  the  First  Crusade 
to  have  been  the  preaching  of  a  monk  named  Peter  the  Hermit, 
a  native  of  France.  This  legend  tells  how  the  monk,  moved  by 
devout  longing,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land ;  how  his 
sympathy  and  indignation  were  stirred  by  the  sight  of  the  indig- 
nities and  cruelties  to  which  the  native  and  the  pilgrim  Christians 
were  subjected  by  the  infidels ;  and  how,  armed  with  letters  from 
the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Christians  of  Europe,  he  hastened 
to  Rome,  and  there,  at  the  feet  of  Pope  Urban  H,  begged  to  be 
commissioned  to  preach  a  crusade  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Holy 
City.  The  Pope  is  represented  as  commending  warmly  the  zeal 
of  the  hermit,  and,  with  promises  of  aid,  sending  him  forth  to  stir 
up  the  people  to  engage  in  the  holy  undertaking. 

The  legend  now  exhibits  the  monk  as  going  everywhere,  and 
addressing  in  the  streets  and  in  the  open  fields  the  cro>\-ds  that 
press  about  him.    The  people  look  upon  the  monk,  clothed  in 


I30  THE    CRUSADES 

the  coarse  raiment  of  an  anchorite,  as  a  messenger  from  Heaven, 
and  even  venerate  the  ass  upon  which  he  rides.  His  wild  and 
fervid  eloquence  alternately  melts  his  auditors  to  tears,  or  lifts 
them  into  transports  of  enthusiasm. 

Such,  in  essential  features,  is  the  tradition  of  Peter  the  Hermit. 
The  first  part  of  this  account  is  now  discredited,  and  it  se^ms 
quite  certain  that  the  monk's  alleged  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  is  a 
pure  embellishment  of  the  tale  by  later  romancers.  That  the 
preaching  of  the  monk,  however,  was  of  a  most  extraordinary 
character  and  produced  a  deep  impression  upon  the  popular  mind 
is  beyond  doubt.  But  the  real  originator  of  the  First  Crusade  was 
Pope  Urban,  and  not  the  hermit,  as  the  legend  represents. 

138.  The  Council  of  Clermont  (1095).  —  While  the  religious 
feelings  of  the  Christians  of  the  West  were  growing  tenser  day  by 
day,  the  Turks  in  the  East  were  making  constant  advances,  until 
at  last  they  were  threatening  Constantinople  itself.  The  Emperor 
Alexis  Comnenus  sent  urgent  letters  to  the  Pope,  asking  for  aid 
against  the  infidels,  representing  that,  unless  help  were  extended 
immediately,  the  capital  with  all  its  holy  relics  must  soon  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  barbarians. 

Pope  Urban  called  a  great  council  of  the  Church  at  Piacenza 
in  Italy  to  consider  the  appeal,  but  nothing  was  effected  at  this 
meeting.  Later  in  the  same  year  a  new  council  was  convened 
at  Clermont  in  France,  Urban  purposely  fixing  the  place  of  meet- 
ing among  the  warm- tempered  and  martial  Franks.  Fourteen 
archbishops,  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  bishops,  four  hundred 
abbots,  and  of  others  a  multitude  that  no  man  could  number, 
crowded  to  the  council. 

After  the  meeting  had  considered  some  minor  matters  the 
question  which  was  agitating  all  hearts  was  brought  before  it. 
The  Pope  himself  was  one  of  the  chief  speakers.  He  possessed 
the  gift  of  eloquence,  so  that  the  man,  the  cause,  and  the  occasion 
all  contributed  to  the  achievement  of  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs 
of  human  oratory.  Urban  pictured  the  humiliation  and  misery  of 
the  provinces  of  Asia;  the  profanation  of  the  places  made  sacred 
by  the  presence  and  footsteps  of  the  Son  of  God ;  and  then  he 


MUSTERING   OF  THE  CRUSADERS  131 

detailed  the  conquests  of  the  Turks,  until  now,  with  almost  all 
Asia  Minor  in  their  possession,  they  were  threatening  Europe 
from  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont.  "When  Jesus  Christ  sum- 
mons you  to  his  defense,"  exclaimed  the  eloquent  pontiff,  "  let 
no  base  affection  detain  you  in  your  homes ;  whoever  will  aban- 
don his  house,  or  his  father,  or  his  mother,  or  his  wife,  or  his 
children,  or  his  inheritance,  for  the  sake  of  his  name,  shall  be 
recompensed  a  hundredfold  and  possess  life  eternal." 

Here  the  enthusiasm  of  the  vast  assembly  burst  through  every 
restraint.  With  one  voice  they  cried,  **Dieu  le  volt!  Dieu  U 
volt!  "  "  It  is  the  will  of  God  !  It  is  the  will  of  God  !  "  Thou- 
sands immediately  affixed  the  cross  ^  to  their  garments  as  a  pledge 
of  their  engagement  to  go  forth  to  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher.    The  following  summer  was  set  for  the  expedition. 

II.  The  First  Crusade  (1096- 1099) 

139.  Mustering  of  the  Crusaders.  —  It  was  the  countries  of 
France  and  Southern  Italy  that  were  most  deeply  stirred  by  the 
papal  call.  In  these  lands  the  contagion  of  the  enthusiasm  seized 
upon  almost  all  classes  alike ;  for  it  was  the  common  religious 
feeling  of  the  age  to  which  the  appeal  had  been  especially  made. 
The  Council  of  Clermont  had  proclaimed  anew  the  Truce  of  God, 
with  a  very  great  extension  of  its  prohibitions,  and  had  pronounced 
anathemas  against  any  one  who  should  invade  the  possessions  of  a 
prince  engaged  in  the  Holy  War.  By  edict  the  Pope  had  granted 
to  all  who  should  enlist  from  right  motives  "remission  of  all 
canonical  penalties,"  and  promised  to  the  truly  penitent,  in  case 
they  should  die  on  the  expedition,  "  the  joy  of  life  eternal." 

Under  such  inducements  princes  and  nobles,  bishops  and 
priests,  monks  and  anchorites,  saints  and  sinners,  rich  and  poor, 
hastened  to  enroll  themselves  beneath  the  standard  of  the  Cross. 
"  Europe,"  says  Michaud,  "  appeared  to  be  a  land  of  exile,  which 
every  one  was  eager  to  quit." 

«  Hence  the  name  "  Crusades  "  given  to  the  Holy  Wars,  from  Old  French  rmw, 
"  cross." 


132  THE   CRUSADES 

140.  The  Vanguard.  —  Before  the  regular  armies  of  the  cru- 
saders were  ready  to  move,  those  who  had  gathered  about  Peter 
the  Hermit,  becoming  impatient  of  delay,  urged  him  to  place 
himself  at  their  head  and  lead  them  at  once  to  the  Holy  Land. 
Dividing  command  of  the  mixed  multitudes  with  a  poor  knight 
called  Walter  the  Penniless,  and  followed  by  a  throng,  it  is  said, 
of  eighty  thousand  persons,"*  among  whom  were  many  women  and 
children,  the  hermit  set  out  for  Constantinople  by  the  overland 
route  through  Germany  and  Hungary.  Thousands  of  the  crusaders 
perished  miserably  of  hunger  and  exposure  on  the  march.  Those 
who  crossed  the  Bosporus  were  surprised  by  the  Turks,  and  almost 
all  were  slaughtered.  Thus  perished  the  forlorn  hope  of  the  First 
Crusade. 

141.  March  of  the  Main  Body ;  the  Capture  of  Jerusalem  (1099). 
—  Meanwhile  a  real  army  was  gathering  in  the  West.  Raymond, 
Count  of  Toulouse ;  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy ;  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine  ;  Bohemund,  Prince  of  Otranto, 
and  his  nephew,  Tancred,  the  "mirror  of  knighthood,"  were 
among  the  most  noted  of  the  leaders  of  the  different  divisions 
of  the  army.  The  expedition  is  said  to  have  numbered  about 
three  hundred  thousand  men. 

The  crusaders  traversed  Europe  by  different  routes  and  re- 
assembled at  Constantinople.  Crossing  the  Bosporus,  they  first 
captured  Nicaea,  the  Turkish  capital  in  Bithynia,  and  then  set  out 
across  Asia  Minor  for  Syria.  The  line  of  their  dreary  march 
between  Nicsea  and  Antioch  was  whitened  with  the  bones  of 
nearly  one  half  their  number.  Arriving  at  Antioch,  the  survivors 
captured  that  place,  and  then,  after  considerable  delay,  pushed 
on  towards  Jerusalem. 

When  at  length  the  Holy  City  burst  upon  their  view,  a  perfect 
delirium  of  joy  seized  the  crusaders.  They  embraced  one  another 
with  tears  of  joy,  and  even  embraced  and  kissed  the  ground  on 
which  they  stood.    As  they  moved  on,  they  took  off  their  shoes, 

4  As  Kugler  observes,  the  enormous  figures  of  the  chroniclers  can  only  be  taken 
to  mean  "  a  great  many  people,"  They  represent,  of  course,  simply  vague  guesses 
or  estimates. 


^O^rf_^' 


^aotJi-P, 


<? 


Bal 


earic 
M 


-Sardinia 


^ 


^^ 


l^CEOPE  AND  THE  OKIENT 
IN  1096 

Ontlie  tive  of  the  Crusades 

'Ll-LJ_ChrisHfilL,",n(?3{l4itin  Church)  HZJ Slohamniedau  Lands    /( 

I 1  Christian  Lands  (.Greek  Church)  I         |  Regions  still  Pagan  /' 

0  100  200  300  400  500  "■; 

'  ('* 


Scale  of  Miles 


THE  M.-N. WORKS, BUFrAtO, 


Longitude       East  10      from      Greenwich 


THE   LATIN    KINGDOM   OF  JERUSALEM  133 

and  marched  with  uncovered  head  and  bare  feet,  singing  the  words 
of  the  prophet :  "  Jerusalem,  lift  up  thine  eyes,  and  behold  the 
liberator  who  comes  to  break  thy  chains." 

The  city  was  taken  by  storm.  A  terrible  slaughter  of  the  infidels 
followed.  "And  if  you  desire  to  know  what  was  done  with  the 
enemy  who  were  found  there,"  thus  runs  a  home  letter  of  one  of 
the  crusaders,  "  know  that  in  Solomon's  Porch  and  in  his  temple 
our  men  rode  in  the  blood  of  the  Saracens  up  to  the  knees  of 
their  horses." 

142.  Founding  of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  — The  gov- 
ernment which  the  crusaders  established  for  the  city  and  country 
they  had  conquered  was  a  model  feudal  state,  called  the  Latin 
Kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  The  code  known  as  the  Assizes  of  Jeru- 
salem, which  was  a  late  compilation  of  the  rules  and  customs 
presumably  followed  by  the  judges  of  the  little  state,  forms  one  of 
the  most  interesting  collections  of  feudal  customs  in  existence. 

At  the  head  of  the  kingdom  was  placed  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
the  most  devoted  of  the  crusader  knights.  The  prince  refused 
the  title  and  vestments  of  royalty,  declaring  that  he  would  never 
wear  a  crown  of  gold  in  the  city  where  his  Lord  and  Master  had 
worn  a  crown  of  thorns.  The  only  title  he  would  accept  was  that 
of  "  Baron  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher." 

Many  of  the  crusaders,  considering  their  vows  to  deliver  the 
Holy  City  as  now  fulfilled,  soon  set  out  on  their  return  to  their 
homes,  some  making  their  way  back  by  sea  and  some  by  land. 

III.  The  Second  Crusade  (1147-1149) 

143.  Origin  of  the  Religious  Orders  of  Knighthood.  —  In  the 
interval  between  the  First  and  the  Second  Crusade,  the  two  famed 
religious  military  orders  known  as  the  Hospitalers  and  the  Tem- 
plars ^  were  formed.    A  little  later,  during  the  Third  Crusade,  still 

6  The  Hospitalers,  or  Knights  of  St.  John,  took  their  name  from  the  fact  that 
the  organization  was  first  formed  among  the  monks  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John 
at  Jerusalem;  while  the  Templars,  or  Knights  of  the  Temple,  were  so  called  on 
account  of  one  of  the  buildings  of  tlie  brotherhood  occupying  the  site  of  Sok>roon't 


I 


134  THE   CRUSADE.^ 

another  fraternity  known  as  the  Teutonic  Knights  was  established. 
The  objects  of  all  the  orders  were  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  crusaders,  the  entertainment  of  Christian  pilgrims,  the 
guarding  of  the  holy  places,  and  ceaseless  battling  for  the  Cross. 
These  fraternities  soon  acquired  a  military  fame  that  was  spread 
throughout  the  Christian  world.  They  were  joined  by  many  of  the 
most  illustrious  knights  of  the  West,  and  through  the  gifts  of  the 
pious  acquired  great  wealth,  and  became  possessed  of  numerous 
estates  and  castles  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  Asia. 

144.  The  Fall  of  Edessa  (1144);  Preaching  of  St.  Bernard; 
Failure  of  the  Crusade.  —  In  the  year  1146,  the  city  of  Edessa, 
the  outlying  bulwark  on  the  side  towards  Mesopotamia  of  the 
Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  was  taken  by  the  Turks  and  the 
entire  population  slaughtered  or  sold  into  slavery.  This  disaster 
threw  Europe  into  a  state  of  the  greatest  alarm  lest  the  little 
Christian  state  should  be  overwhelmed  and  all  the  holy  places 
should  again  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  infidels. 

The  scenes  that  marked  the  opening  of  the  First  Crusade  were 
now  repeated  in  many  of  the  countries  of  the  West.  St.  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux,  an  eloquent  monk,  was  the  second  Peter  the  Hermit 
who  went  everywhere  arousing  the  warriors  of  the  Cross  to  the 
defense  of  the  birthplace  of  their  religion.  The  contagion  of  the 
enthusiasm  seized  upon  not  merely  barons,  knights,  and  the  com- 
mon people,  which  classes  alone  participated  in  the  First  Crusade, 
but  the  greatest  sovereigns  were  now  infected  by  it.  Louis  VII, 
king  of  France,  was  led  to  undertake  the  crusade  through  remorse 
for  an  act  of  great  cruelty  of  which  he  had  been  guilty  against 
some  of  his  revolted  subjects.®  The  Emperor  Conrad  III  of  Ger- 
many was  persuaded  to  leave  the  affairs  of  his  distracted  realms 
in  the  hands  of  God  and  consecrate  himself  to  the  defense  of  the 
sepulcher  of  Christ. 

Temple.  In  the  case  of  the  Hospitalers  it  was  monks  who  added  to  their  ordinary 
monastic  vows  those  of  knighthood ;  in  the  case  of  the  Templars  it  was  knights  who 
added  to  their  military  vows  those  of  religion.  Thus  were  united  the  seemingly 
incongruous  ideals  of  the  monk  and  the  knight. 

6  The  act  which  troubled  the  king's  conscience  was  the  burning  of  1300  people  in 
a  church,  whither  they  had  fled  for  refuge. 


THE   THIRD   CRUSADE  I  35 

The  best  part  of  the  strength  of  both  the  German  and  the 
French  division  of  the  expedition  was  wasted  in  Asia  Minor. 
Mere  remnants  of  the  armies  joined  in  Palestine.  The  siege  of 
Damascus,  which  was  now  undertaken,  proved  unsuccessful,  and 
the  crusaders  returned  home,  "  having  accomplished  all  that  God 
willed  and  the  people  of  the  country  permitted." 


IV.  The  Third  Crusade  (1189-1192) 

145.  Capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin  ;  Leaders  of  the  Crusade. 

—  The  Third  Crusade  was  caused  by  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  Saladin,  the  renowned  sultan  of  Egypt.  This  event  occurred 
in  the  year  11 87.  The  intelligence  of  the  disaster  caused  the 
greatest  consternation  and  grief  throughout  Christendom.  Three 
of  the  great  sovereigns  of  Europe,  Frederick  Barbarossa  of  Ger- 
many, Philip  Augustus  of  France,  and  Richard  I  of  England, 
assumed  the  cross,  and  set  out,  each  at  the  head  of  a  large  army, 
for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  City. 

The  English  king,  Richard,  afterwards  given  the  title  of 
Cceur  de  Lion^  the  "  Lion-hearted,"  in  memory  of  his  heroic 
exploits  in  Palestine,  was  the  central  figure  among  the  Christian 
knights  of  this  crusade. 

146.  Death  of  Frederick  Barbarossa;  the  Siege  of  Acre. — 
The  German  army,  attempting  the  overland  route,  after  meeting 
with  the  usual  troubles  in  Eastern  Europe  from  the  unfriendliness 
of  the  natives,  was  decimated  in  Asia  Minor  by  the  hardships  of 
the  march  and  the  swords  of  the  Turks.  The  Emperor  Frederick 
was  drowned  while  crossing  a  swollen  stream,  and  most  of  the 
survivors  of  his  army,  disheartened  by  the  loss  of  their  leader, 
soon  returned  to  Germany. 

The  English  and  French  kings  —  the  first  sovereigns  of  these 
two  countries  who  had  ever  joined  their  arms  in  a  common  cause 

—  took  the  sea  route,  and  finally  mustered  their  forces  beneath 
the  walls  of  Acre,  which  city  the  Christians  were  then  besieging. 
After  one  of  the  longest  and  most  costly  sieges  they  ever  carried 


136  THE   CRUSADES 

on  in  Asia,  the  crusaders  at  last  forced  the  placa  to  capitulate,  in 
spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Saladin  to  render  the  garrison  relief. 

147.  Richard's  Captivity  and  Ransom.  —  For  two  years  Richard 
contended  in  vain  with  Saladin,  a  knightly  and  generous  antag- 
onist according  to  the  chroniclers,  for  possession  of  the  tomb 
of  Christ.  He  then  concluded  with  him  a  truce  of  three  years 
and  eight  months,  which  provided  that  the  Christians  during  that 
period  should  have  free  access  to  the  holy  places  and  remain  in 
undisturbed  possession  of  the  coast  from  Acre  to  Ascalon. 

Richard  now  set  out  for  home.  But  while  traversing  Germany 
in  disguise  he  was  discovered  and  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
by  order  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI,  who  was  his  political  enemy. 
Henry  cast  his  prisoner  into  a  dungeon,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
outcry  of  all  Europe  that  the  champion  of  Christianity  should 
suffer  such  treatment  at  the  hands  of  a  brother  prince,  refused  to 
release  him  without  an  enormous  ransom. 

The  English  people,  so  great  was  their  admiration  for  the  hero 
whose  prowess  had  reflected  such  luster  upon  English  knighthood, 
set  themselves  to  raise  the  sum  demanded,  even  stripping  the 
churches  of  their  plate  to  make  up  the  amount;  and  the  lion- 
hearted  crusader  was  at  last  set  free,  and  finally  reached  England, 
where  he  was  received  with  wild  acclamation. 


V.  The  Fourth  CrusAde  (i  202-1 204) 

148.  Capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  (1204). — The 
city  of  Venice  was  the  rendezvous  of  this  expedition.  It  was 
made  up  largely  of  unscrupulous  adventurers  and  the  marine  forces 
of  Venice.  It  was  originally  aimed  at  Egypt  but  struck  Constan- 
tinople. A  great  share  of  the  responsibility  for  the  diversion  of 
the  crusade  from  its  first  designation  Hes,  it  seems,  at  the  door 
of  the  Venetians,  who,  when  it  was  proposed  that  the  crusaders 
should  undertake  to  right  certain  alleged  wrongs  of  the  imperial 
family  at  the  Byzantine  capital,  seeing  in  the  proposed  adventure 
an  opportunity  to  further  their  trade  interests  in  the  Black  Sea 


THE  FOURTH   CRUSADE 


137 


regions,   took  pains   to   insure   that  the  expedition  should  be 
launched  in  that  direction. 

The  outcome  of  the  crusade  was  the  capture  and  sack  of  Con- 
stantinople and  the  setting  up  of  a  Latin  prince,  Baldwin  of 
Flanders,  as  Emperor  of  the  East  (1204).  The  Empire  was  now 
remodeled  into  a  feudal  state  like  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
established  by  the  knights  of  the  First  Crusade  (sec.  142). 
Most  of  the  Greek  islands  and  certain  of  the  shore  lands  of  the 


jj-Uhi. 


::v\^^ 


Fig.  25.  —  The  Horses  of  St.  Mark's.     (From  a  photograph) 

These  celebrated  bronze  horses  were  among  the  trophies  which  the  Venetians 
received  as  their  share  of  the  plunder  when  Constantinople  was  sacked  by 
the  crusaders.  They  were  placed  over  the  portico  of  St.  Mark's  in  Venice. 
They  were  carried  off  to  Paris  by  Napoleon  during  his  ascendancy,  but  upon 
his  downfall  were  restored  to  the  Venetians 


old  Empire  were  given  to  Venice  as  her  share  of  the  spoils.  A 
great  part  of  the  remaining  lands  was  allotted  as  fiefs  to  Frankish 
knights.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  feudal  principalities 
that  arose  on  the  ground  conquered  from  the  Greeks  was  the 
dukedom  of  Athens.  Hundreds  of  Western  knights  assembled  at 
this  capital  of  ancient  culture  and  created  there  a  brilliant  feudal 
court  which  completely  captivated  the  imagination  of  Europe.' 

'  Recall  the  "  Duke  Theseus "  in  Chaucer's  Knight's  Tale  of  Palamon  and 
Arcite  and  in  Shakespeare's  .•/  Midsummer  Nighfs  Dream. 


138  THE   CRUSADES 

The  Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople,  as  it  was  called,  lasted 
only  a  little  over  half  a  century  (i  204-1 261).  The  Greeks,  at 
the  end  of  this  period,  succeeded  in  regaining  the  throne,  which 
they  then  held  until  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks 

in  1453- 

149.  Lamentable  Results  of  the  Sack  of  Constantinople.  —  A 

most  regrettable  result  of  the  sack  of  Constantinople  by  the 
crusaders  was  the  destruction  of  the  numerous  masterpieces  of 
art  with  which  the  city  was  crowded ;  for  Constantinople  had 
been  for  nine  centuries  the  chief  place  of  safe  deposit  for  the 
priceless  art  treasures  of  the  ancient  world.  The  extent  of  the 
loss  suffered  by  art  in  the  ruthless  sack  of  the  city  will  never  be 
known.  It  would  seem  as  though  almost  all  the  bronze  and  silver 
statues  and  all  the  ornamental  metal  work  of  the  churches  and 
other  edifices  of  the  city  went  into  the  melting  pot. 

Still  another  lamentable  consequence  of  the  crusaders'  act 
was  the  weakening  of  the  military  strength  of  the  capital.  For 
a  thousand  years  Constantinople  had  been  the  great  bulwark  of 
Western  civilization  against  Asiatic  barbarism.  Its  power  of  resist- 
ance was  now  broken,  with  momentous  consequences  for  Western 
Christendom,  as  we  shall  learn  later  (Chapter  XIV). 

VI.  The  Children's  Crusades;  Minor  Crusades 

150.  The  Children's  Crusade  (12 12).  —  During  the  interval 
between  the  Fourth  and  the  Fifth  Crusade  the  religious  enthu- 
siasm that  had  so  long  agitated  the  men  of  Europe  came  to  fill 
with  unrest  the  children,  resulting  in  what  is  known  as  the 
Children's  Crusade. 

The  chief  preacher  of  this  crusade  was  a  child  about  twelve 
years  of  age,  a  French  peasant  lad,  named  Stephen,  who  became 
persuaded  that  Jesus  Christ  had  commanded  him  to  lead  a  cru- 
sade of  children  to  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  The 
children  became  wild  with  excitement  and  flocked  in  vast  crowds 
to  the  places  appointed  for  rendezvous.  Nothing  could  restrain 
them  or  thwart  their  purpose.    "  Even  bolts  and  bars,"  says  an 


I  HE    ClllLDKLN'S    CKUiSADK  I  39 

old  chronicler,  "could  not  hold  them."  The  great  majority  of 
those  who  collected  at  the  rallying  places  were  boys  under  twelve 
years  of  age,  but  there  were  also  many  girls. 

The  movement  excited  the  most  diverse  views.  Some  declared 
that  it  was  inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  quoted  such  scriptural 
texts  as  these  to  justify  the  enthusiasm  :  "  A  child  shall  lead 
them";  "Out  of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  sucklings  thou  hast 
ordained  praise."  Others,  however,  were  quite  as  confident  that 
the  whole  thing  was  the  work  of  the  devil. 

The  German  children,  whose  number  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  twenty  to  forty  thousand,  crossed  the  Alps  and  marched 
down  the  Italian  shores  looking  for  a  miraculous  pathway  through 
the  sea  to  Palestine.  Beneath  the  toil  and  hardships  of  the  jour- 
ney a  great  part  of  the  little  crusaders  died  or  fell  out  by  the 
way.  Those  reaching  Rome  were  kindly  received  by  the  Pope, 
who  persuaded  them  to  give  up  their  enterprise  and  return  to 
their  homes,  impressing  upon  their  minds,  however,  that  they 
could  not  be  released  from  the  vows  they  had  made,  which  they 
must  fulfill  when  they  became  men. 

The  French  children,  numbering  thirty  thousand,  according  to 
the  chroniclers,  set  out  from  the  place  of  rendezvous  for  Mar- 
seilles. Their  leader,  Stephen,  rode  in  great  state  in  a  chariot 
surrounded  by  an  escort  of  infantile  nobles,  who  paid  him  the 
obedience  and  homage  due  a  superior  and  sacred  being.  The 
little  pilgrims  had  no  conception  of  the  distance  to  the  Holy 
Land,  and  whenever  a  city  came  in  sight  eagerly  asked  if  it  were 
not  Jerusalem. 

Arriving  at  Marseilles,  the  children  were  bitterly  disappointed 
that  the  sea  did  not  open  and  give  them  passage  to  Palestine. 
The  greater  part,  discouraged  and  disillusioned,  now  returned 
home  ;  five  or  six  thousand,  however,  accepting  gladly  the  seem- 
ingly generous  offer  of  two  merchants  of  the  city,  who  proposed 
to  take  them  to  the  Holy  Land  free  of  charge,  crowded  into 
seven  small  ships  and  sailed  out  of  the  port  of  Marseilles.  But 
they  were  betrayed  and  sold  as  slaves  in  Alexandria  and  other 
Mohammedan  slave  markets.    A  part  of  them,  however,  escaped 


140  THE   CRUSADES 

this  fate,  having  perished  in  the  shipwreck  of  two  of  the  vessels 
that  bore  them  from  Marseilles.^ 

This  children's  expedition  marked  at  once  the  culmination 
and  the  decline  of  the  crusading  movement.  The  fervid  zeal 
that  inspired  the  first  crusaders  was  already  dying  out.  "  These 
children,"  said  the  Pope,  referring  to  the  young  crusaders, 
"  reproach  us  with  having  fallen  asleep,  whilst  they  were  flying  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Land." 

151.  The  Minor  Crusades ;  End  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
—  The  last  four  expeditions  ■ —  the  Fifth,  Sixth,  Seventh,  and 
Eighth  ®  —  undertaken  by  the  Christians  of  Europe  against  the 
infidels  of  the  East  may  be  conveniently  grouped  as  the  Minor 
Crusades.  They  were  marked  by  a  less  genuine  enthusiasm  than 
that  which  characterized  particularly  the  First  Crusade,  and 
exhibited  among  those  taking  part  in  them  the  greatest  variety 
of  objects  and  ambitions.  The  flame  of  the  Crusades  had  burned 
itself  out,  and  the  fate  of  the  little  Christian  kingdom  in  Asia, 
isolated  from  Europe  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  bitter  ene- 
mies, became  each  day  more  and  more  apparent.  Finally,  the 
last  of  the  places  (Acre)  held  by  the  Christians  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Moslems,  and  with  this  event  the  Latin  Kingdom 
of  Jerusalem  came  to  an  end  (1291).  The  second  great  com- 
bat between  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity  was  over,  and 
"  silence  reigned  along  the  shore  that  had  so  long  resounded 
with  the  world's  debate  "  (Gibbon). 

8  The  credibility  of  that  part  of  the  account  which  deals  with  the  fate  of  the 
French  children  has  been  questioned,  but  there  is  really  no  ground  for  rejecting  it. 
See  Kugler,  Geschichte  der  Kreuzzilge,  p.  307  and  note. 

9  The  Fifth  Crusade  (1216-1220)  was  led  by  the  kings  of  Hungary  and  Cyprus. 
Its  strength  was  wasted  in  Egypt,  and  it  resulted  in  nothing.  The  Sixth  Crusade 
(1227-1229),  headed  by  Frederick  II  of  Germany,  succeeded  in  securing  from  the 
Saracens  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem  and  that  of  several  other  cities  of  Palestine. 
The  Seventh  Crusade  (1249-1254)  was  under  the  lead  of  Louis  IX  of  France,  sur- 
named  the  Saint.  It  met  with  disaster  in  Egypt.  The  Eighth  Crusade  (1270-1272) 
had  for  leaders  St.  Louis  and  Prince  Edward  of  England,  afterwards  Edward  I. 
Louis  directed  his  forces  against  the  Moors  about  Tunis,  in  North  Africa.  Here  the 
king  died  of  the  plague.  Nothing  was  effected  by  this  division  of  the  expedition. 
The  division  led  by  the  English  prince  was,  however,  more  fortunate.  Edward  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  Nazareth  and  in  compelling  the  sultan  of  Egypt  to  agree  to 
a  treaty  favorable  to  the  Christians  (1272). 


CRUSADES   IN  EUROPE  141 

VII.  Crusades  in  Europe 

152.  General  Statement.  —  Notwithstanding  the  strenuous  and 
united  efforts  which  the  Christians  of  Europe  put  forth  against 
the  Mohammedans,  they  did  not  succeed  in  extending  perma- 
nently the  frontiers  of  Western  civiUzation  in  the  Orient. 

But  in  the  southwest  and  the  northeast  of  Europe  it  was  dif- 
ferent. Here  the  crusading  spirit  rescued  from  Moslem  and 
pagan  large  territories,  and  upon  these  regained  or  newly  acquired 
lands  established  a  number  of  little  Christian  principalities,  which 
later  grew  into  states,  or  came  to  form  a  portion  of  states,  which 
were  to  play  great  parts  in  the  history  of  the  following  centuries. 
The  states  whose  beginnings  are  thus  connected  with  the  cru- 
sading age  are  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Prussia.  We  will  say  just  a 
single  word  respecting  each  of  them. 

153.  Crusades  against  the  Moors  in  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  — 
Just  before  the  actual  beginning  of  the  Crusades  against  the 
Moslems  of  the  East  a  band  of  northern  knights  went  to  the  help 
of  the  Christians  against  the  Moslems  in  the  west  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula.  The  issue  of  this  chivalric  enterprise  was  the  forma- 
tion of  a  little  feudal  principality,  the  nucleus  of  the  later  king- 
dom of  Portugal.  At  the  time  of  the  Second  Crusade  some 
German  and  English  crusaders,  on  their  way  to  Palestine  by  sea, 
stopped  here  and  aided  the  native  Christians  in  the  siege  and 
capture  from  the  Mohammedans  of  the  important  city  of  Lisbon 
(1147).  This  gave  the  little  growing  state  its  future  capital. 
Thus  Portugal  was,  in  a  very  strict  sense,  a  creation  of  the 
crusading  spirit. 

Then  during  all  the  time  that  the  Crusades  proper  were  going 
on  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  the  Spanish  Christian  knights 
were  engaged  in  almost  one  uninterrupted  crusade  against  the 
Moslem  intruders.  By  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 
Christians  had  crowded  the  Moors  into  a  small  region  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula.  Upon  the  ground  thus 
regained  there  arose  a  number  of  small  Christian  states  which 
finally  coalesced  to  form   the  modern  kingdom  of  Spain.    The 


142  THE   CRUSADES 

circumstances  of  the  origin  of  this  kingdom  left  a  deep  impress 
upon  all   its   subsequent  history   (sec.   248). 

154.  Crusades  by  the  Teutonic  Knights  against  the  Pagan  Slavs 
(i  226-1283).  —  At  the  time  of  the  Crusades  all  the  Baltic  shore 
lands  lying  eastward  of  the  Vistula  and  which  to-day  form  a  part 
of  Prussia  were  held  by  pagan  Slavs.  These  people,  like  the  pagan 
Saxons  of  an  earlier  time,  resisted  strenuously  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  among  them.  Devoted  priests  who  carried  the  gos- 
pel to  them,  together  with  the  converts  they  made,  were  often 
massacred.    Finally,  a  crusade  was  preached  against  them. 

Early  in  the  thirteenth  century  (1226)  some  knights  of  the 
Teutonic  order  transferred  their  crusading  efforts  to  these  northern 
heathen  lands.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  century  the  knights 
carried  on  what  was  a  desperate  and  almost  continuous  war  of 
extermination  against  the  pagans.  Upon  the  land  wrested  from 
them  were  founded  the  important  fortress-cities  of  Konigsberg 
and  Marienburg.  The  surrounding  Slav  population  was  either 
destroyed  or  subjected,  and  the  whole  land  was  gradually  Ger- 
manized. Thus  what  was  originally  Slav  territory  was  converted 
into  a  German  land,  and  the  basis  laid  of  a  principahty  which 
later  came  to  form  an  important  part  of  modern  Prussia.^"  Thus 
the  crusading  zeal  of  the  knight  monks  contributed  to  the  creation 
of  one  of  the  strongest  of  modern  European  states. 

155.  Crusades  against  the  Albigenses  (1209-12 29).  —  During 
the  crusading  age  holy  wars  were  preached  and  waged  against 
heretics  as  well  as  against  infidels  and  pagans. 

In  the  south  of  France  was  a  sect  of  Christians  called  Albi- 
genses,^^ who  had  departed  so  far  from  the  orthodox  faith  that 
Pope  Innocent  III  declared  them  to  be  "  more  wicked  than  Sara- 
cens." He  therefore,  after  a  vain  endeavor  to  turn  them  from 
their  errors,  called  upon  the  French  king,  Philip  II,  and  his 
nobles  to  lead  a  crusade  against  the  heretics  and  their  rich  and 
powerful  patron,  Raymond  VI,  Count  of  Toulouse. 

i**  See  on  map  of  modern  Europe  how  the  German  territory  on  the  northeast  is 
thrust  out  into  the  Slavonic  mass. 

11  From  Aldi,  the  name  of  a  city  and  district  in  which  their  tenets  prevailed. 


EFFECT   UPON   THE   EASTERN   EMPIRE  143 

The  king  held  aloof  from  the  enterprise,  being  fully  occupied 
watching  his  own  enemies ;  but  a  great  number  of  his  nobles 
responded  eagerly  to  the  call  of  the  Church.  The  leader  of  the 
First  Crusade  (1209-12 13)  was  Simon  de  Montfort,  a  man  cruel, 
callous,  and  relentless  beyond  belief.  A  great  part  of  Languedoc, 
the  beautiful  country  of  the  Albigenses,  was  made  a  desert,  the 
inhabitants  being  slaughtered  and  the  cities  burned. 

In  1229  the  fury  of  a  fresh  crusade  burst  upon  the  Albigenses, 
which  resulted  in  their  prince  (Raymond  VII)  ceding  the  greater 
part  of  his  beautiful  but  ravaged  provinces  to  Louis  IX,  king  of 
France,  and  submitting  himself  to  the  Church.  The  Albigensian 
heresy  was  soon  wholly  extirpated  by  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition 
which  was  set  up  in  the  country. 

VIII.  Influence  upon  European  Civilization  of 

THE  Crusades 

156.  Their  Effect  upon  the  Eastern  Empire.  —  Among  the  most 
noteworthy  results  of  the  Crusades  we  may  place  the  presers-ation 
for  a  time  of  Constantinople.^^  The  shock  of  the  First  Crusade 
rolled  back  the  tide  of  Turkish  conquest,  and  thus  postponed  the 
fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  or  at  least  of  its  capital,  for  three  cen- 
turies and  more,  thereby  gaining  for  the  young  Christian  civiliza- 
tion of  Central  Europe  time  sufficient  to  consolidate  its  strength 
into  an  impregnable  bulwark  before  the  returning  tide  of  Moham- 
medan invasion  swept  in  again  upon  Christendom.  It  is  altogether 
probable  that,  had  the  Seljuk  Turks  been  allowed  to  cross  the 
Bosporus  in  the  twelfth  century,  they  would  have  carried  their 
conquests  much  farther  towards  the  West  than  their  kinsmen,  the 
OsmanH,  were  able  to  do  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
(Chapter  XIV). 

Furthermore,  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  the  twelfth  century 
would  have  meant  probably  the  permanent  loss  of  all  the  literary 

12  But  for  the  crime,  of  the  men  of  the  Fourth  Crusade  (sec.  148)  the  Eastern 
emperors  might  possibly  have  been  able  to  hold  the  Bosporus  indefinitely  against  the 
Ottoman  Turks. 


144 


THE   CRUSADES 


treasures  the  city  was  holding  in  safe-keeping  for  civilization ;  for 
the  West  was  not  yet  ready,  as  is  shown  by  the  vandalism  of 
the  men  of  the  Fourth  Crusade,  to  become  the  appreciative  and 
reverent  guardian  of  this  precious  bequest. 

157.  Their  Effects  upon  the  Towns  and  upon  Commerce  and 
Society.  —  The  towns  gained  many  political  advantages  at  the 
expense  of  the  crusading  barons  and  princes.  Ready  money  in 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  was  largely  in  the  hands  of 
the  burgher  class,  and  in  return  for  the  contributions  and  loans 
they  made  to  their  overlords  or  suzerains  they  received  charters 
conferring  special  and  valuable  privi- 
leges. Thus,  while  power  and  wealth 
were  slipping  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
nobility,  the  cities  and  towns  were 
growing  in  political  importance  and 
making  great  gains  in  the  matter  of 
municipal  freedom. 

The  Holy  Wars  further  promoted  the 
prosperity  of  the  towns  by  giving  a  great 
impulse  to  commercial  enterprise.  Dur- 
ing this  period  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Genoa 
acquired  great  wealth  and  reputation 
through  the  fostering  of  their  trade  by 
the  needs  of  the  crusaders  and  the 
opening  up  of  the  East.  The  Mediter- 
ranean was  whitened  with  the  sails  of 
their  transport  ships,  which  were  constantly  plying  between  the 
various  ports  of  Europe  and  the  towns  of  the  Syrian  coast.  Also, 
various  arts,  manufactures,  and  inventions  (among  these  the  wind- 
mill ^^  and  probably  the  mariner's  compass)  before  unknown  in 
Europe  were  introduced  from  Asia.  This  enrichment  of  the  civili- 
zation of  the  West  with  the  "spoils  of  the  East"  we  may  allow 
to  be  emblemized  by  the  famous  bronze  horses  that  the  crusaders 


.^/iJ3^^-- 


FiG.  26.  —  A  Medieval 
Windmill.  (From  an 
engraving  of  an  abbey  and 
its  precincts,  dating  from 
about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century) 


18  Windmills  were  chiefly  utilized  in  the  Netherlands,  where  they  were  used  to 
pump  the  water  from  the  oversoaked  lands,  and  thus  became  the  means  of  creating 
the  most  important  part  of  what  is  now  the  kingdom  of  Holland. 


THEIK    POLITICAL  EFFECTS  I45 

carried  off  from  Constantinople  and  set  up  before  St.  Mark's 
Cathedral  in  Venice  (Fig.  25). 

The  effects  of  the  Crusades  upon  the  social  life  of  the  Western 
nations  were  marked  and  important.  Giving  opportunity  for 
romantic  adventure,  they  aided  powerfully  in  the  development  of 
that  institution  of  knighthood  which,  as  we  have  seen,  nourished 
many  of  the  noblest  virtues  and  most  exalted  sentiments  of 
modern  society  (sec.  109).  And  under  this  head  must  be  placed 
the  general  refining  influence  that  contact  with  the  more  cultured 
nations  of  the  East  had  upon  the  semibarbarous  folk  of  the  West. 
These  influences,  which  we  designate  the  social,  were  felt  of 
course  in  the  country  as  well  as  in  the  town,  but  their  more  per- 
manent impress  was  probably  left  upon  the  life  of  the  urban 
communities. 

158.  Their  Political  Effects. — The  Crusades,  as  we  have 
noticed  in  another  connection  (sec.  99),  helped  to  break  down 
the  power  of  the  feudal  aristocracy  and  give  prominence  to  the 
kings  and  the  people.  Many  of  the  nobles  who  set  out  on  the 
expeditions  never  returned,  and  their  estates,  through  failure  of 
heirs,  escheated  to  the  crown;  while  many  more  wasted  their 
fortunes  in  meeting  the  expenses  of  their  undertaking.  Thus  the 
nobility  were  greatly  weakened  in  numbers  and  influence,  and 
the  power  and  patronage  of  the  kings  correspondingly  increased. 
This  process  of  th'fe  disintegration  of  feudalism  and  the  growth  of 
monarchy  is  to  be  traced  most  distinctly  in  France,  the  cradle 
and  center  of  the  crusading  movement. 

The  laying  of  the  foundations  of  the  later  states  of  Portugal, 
Spain,  and  Prussia  should  also  be  noticed  here  as  showing  how 
the  Crusades  helped  to  create  the  map  of  modern  Europe. 

159.  Their  Effects  upon  the  Native  Literatures  and  the  Intellec- 
tual Life  of  Europe.  —  In  no  realm  were  the  effects  of  the  Crusades 
more  positive  than  in  the  field  of  literature.  From  the  East  was 
brought  in  a  vast  amount  of  fresh  literary  material  consisting  of 
the  traditions  of  great  events  like  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  of  great 
heroes,  such  as  Solomon  and  Alexander  the  Great.  These  legends, 
exaggerated  and  distorted  and  curiously  mingled  with  the  folk- 


146  THE   CRUSADES 

lore  of  the  Western  peoples,  came  now  to  form  the  basis  of  a  vast 
literature  consisting  of  romances,  epic  poems,  and  pious  tales, 
infinite  in  variety  and  form.  In  this  way  the  native  literatures  of 
Europe  were  enriched  and  their  growth  greatly  stimulated. 

Furthermore,  the  knowledge  of  geography  and  of  the  science 
and  learning  of  the  East  gained  by  the  crusaders  through  their 
expeditions  greatly  stimulated  the  Latin  intellect  and  helped  to 
awaken  in  Western  Europe  that  mental  activity  which  resulted 
finally  in  the  great  intellectual  outburst  known  as  the  Renaissance 
(Chapter  XVIII). 

160.  Their  Influence  on  Geographical  Discovery.  —  Lastly,  the 
incentive  given  to  geographical  exploration  led  various  travelers, 
such  as  the  celebrated  Venetian  Marco  Polo,  to  range  over  the 
most  remote  countries  of  Asia.  Nor  did  the  matter  end  here. 
Even  that  spirit  of  maritime  enterprise  and  adventure  which 
rendered  illustrious  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  inspiring  the 
voyages  of  Columbus,  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  Magellan,  may  be 
traced  back  to  that  lively  interest  in  geographical  matters,  that 
curiosity  respecting  the  remote  regions  of  the  earth,  awakened  by 
the  expeditions  of  the  crusaders.-^* 

These  various  growths  and  movements,  commercial,  social,  polit- 
ical, intellectual,  and  geographical,  in  European  society,  which, 
though  not  originated  by  the  Crusades,  were  nevertheless  given  a 
fresh  impulse  by  them,  we  shall  trace  out  in  following  chapters. 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Chronicles  of  the  Crusades  (Bohn). 
Read  the  chronicle  by  Geoffrey,  who  writes  as  an  eye-witness  of  scenes 
of  the  Third  Crusade.  Archer,  Crusade  of  Richard  I  (English  History 
by  Contemporary  Writers).  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i,  No.  4, 
"Letters  of  the  Crusaders";  also  vol.  iii,  No.  i,  "The  Fourth  Crusade" 
(both  ed.  by  Dana  Carleton  Munro).  Henderson,  Select  Historical 
Documents,  p.  208,  "  Decree  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV  concerning  a  Truce 

14  Colonel  Henry  Yule,  speaking  of  the  influence  of  the  travels  and  writings  of 
Marco  Polo,  says :  "  The  spur  which  his  book  eventually  gave  to  geographical  studies, 
and  the  beacon  which  it  hung  out  at  the  eastern  extremities  of  the  earth,  helped  to 
guide  the  aims  ...  of  the  greater  son  of  the  rival  republic.  His  work  was  at  least  a 
link  in  the  providential  chain  which  at  last  dragged  the  New  World  to  light."  — 
Introduction  to  The  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo  (London,  1875). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


«47 


of  God  (1085)."  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  chap.  xv. 
MUNRO  and  Sellery,  Mediicval  Civilization,  pp.  257-268. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Sybel,  The  History  and  Literature  of  the  Cru- 
sades. Yox  the  mature  reader.  Burr,  The  Year  jooo  and  the  Antece- 
dents of  the  Crusades  (in  Atn.  Hist.  Rev.  for  April,  1901,  vol.  vi,  No.  3). 
Shows  the  unhistorical  character  of  the  tradition  of  the  "  millennial  terror." 
Archer  and  Kingsford,  The  Crusades.  Cox,  The  Crusades.  B^mont 
and  MoNOD,  Mediceval  Europe,  chap.  xxii.  Emerton,  Mediceval  Europe, 
chap.  xi.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  chap.  xi.  MiCHAUD, 
History  of  the  Crusades.  Very  interesting,  but  in  part  discredited  through 
a  new  appraisement  of  the  trustworthiness  of  the  sources  for  the  Crusades. 
Pears,  The  Eall  of  Constantinople.  The  best  account  of  the  Fourth  Cru- 
sade. Gray,  The  Children's  Crusade.  Oman,  Byzantine  Empire,  chaps, 
xxi  and  xxii.  Lecky,  History  of  European  Morals,  vol.  ii,  pp.  248-254; 
for  the  development  of  the  military  spirit  in  the  Church.  Gibbon,  The 
Decline  and  Eall,  chaps.  Iviii-lxi.  CuTTS,  Scenes  and  Characters  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  pp.  157-194,  "The  Pilgrims  of  the  Middle  Ages."  Lane- 
Poole,  Saladin,  and  the  Fall  of  the  Kingdo?n  of  ferusalem.  MuNRO  and 
Sellery,  Mediaval  Civilization,  pp.  248-256  and  269-276. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  Palmer.  2.  The  Truce  of  God. 
3.  Letters  of  the  crusaders.  4.  St.  Bernard  and  the  Second  Crusade. 
5.  Incidents  of  the  Fourth  Crusade.  6.  The  Children's  Crusade.  7.  St. 
Louis,  king  of  France,  as  a  crusader. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

SUPREMACY   OF   THE  PAPACY;   DECLINE   OF  ITS   TEMPORAL 

POWER 

16 1.  Preliminary  Survey:  the  Papacy  at  its  Height.  —  In  an 

earlier  chapter  on  the  Empire  and  the  Papacy  we  related  the  begin- 
nings of  the  contention  for  supremacy  between  Pope  and  Emperor. 
In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  first  speak  of  the  Papacy  at  the 
height  of  its  power,  and  then  tell  how,  as  the  popes,  with  the  Em- 
pire ruined,  seemed  about  to  realize  their  ideal  of  a  universal  eccle- 
siastical and  secular  monarchy,  its  temporal  power  was  shattered 
by  a  new  opposing  force,  —  the  rising  nations. 

The  temporary  success  of  the  papal  party,  and  the  virtual 
establishment  for  a  time  of  a  theocracy  over  Western  Christen- 
dom, was  due  more  than  to  aught  else  to  the  fortunate  succession 
in  the  papal  chair  of  great  men  all  animated  by  the  steady  pur- 
pose of  making  supreme  the  authority  of  the  Roman  see.  We 
have  already  noticed  the  work  of  some  of  these  makers  of  the 
Papacy,  notably  that  of  Pope  Gregory  VII.  Gregory  had  many 
worthy  successors.  The  most  eminent  of  these  were  Alexander 
III  (1159-1181)  and  Innocent  III  (1198-1216),  under  whom 
the  power  of  the  Papacy  was  at  its  height. 

In  the  paragraphs  immediately  following  we  shall  glance  at  some 
of  the  events  which  signahzed  the  pontificates  of  these  represen- 
tatives of  the  papal  supremacy.  The  events  we  shall  touch  upon 
are  those  which  record  the  triumph  of  the  Papacy  first  over  the 
Empire  and  then  over  the  kings  of  France  and  England. 

162.  Pope  Alexander  III  and  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa.  — 
A  little  after  the  settlement  known  as  the  Concordat  of  Worms 
(sec.  129)  the  first  of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  came  to  the 
German  throne,  and  then  began  a  sharp  contention,  lasting,  with 

148 


THK    PEACE  OF   VENICE  I49 

intervals  of  strained  peace,  for  more  than  a  century,  between 
the  emperors  of  this  proud  family  and  the  successive  occupants 
of  the  papal  chair.  This  contest  was  practically  the  continuation, 
although  under  changed  conditions  of  course,  of  the  struggle 
begun  long  before  to  decide  which  should  be  supreme,  the 
** world  priest"  or  the  "world  king." 

The  contention  filled  Germany  and  Italy,  all  the  lands  over 
which  the  emperors  claimed  supremacy,  with  turmoil  and  vio- 
lence. The  story  of  the  struggle,  given  with  any  detail,  would 
fill  many  volumes.  In  the  present  connection  we  can  do  no 
more  than  simply  note  the  issue  of  the  quarrel  in  so  far  as  it 
concerned  Pope  Alexander  III  and  one  of  the  most  noted  of 
the  Hohenstaufen,  Frederick  Barbarossa. 

In  his  struggle  with  the  Emperor,  the  Pope  had  as  allies  the 
Eastern  Emperor,  the  king  of  Sicily,  and,  above  all  others  in 
importance  to  him,  the  Lombard  cities,  who  were  rebellious 
towards  Frederick  because  of  his  assertion  and  harsh  exercise 
of  imperial  rights  over  them.  After  maintaifting  the  contest  for 
many  years  Frederick,  vanquished  and  humiliated,  was  constrained 
to  seek  reconciliation  with  the  Pope.  Then  followed  the  Peace 
of  Venice  (1177)  with  its  dramatic  incidents.  In  front  of  St. 
Mark's  Cathedral,  in  the  presence  of  a  vast  throng,  Frederick, 
overwhelmed  by  a  sudden  emotion  of  awe  and  reverence,  cast 
olf  his  mantle  and  flung  himself  at  the  feet  of  the  venerable 
pontiff,  who  raised  him  from  the  ground  and  gave  him  the  kiss 
of  peace.  That  was  for  the  imperial  power  its  second  Canossa. 
Precisely  one  hundred  years  had  passed  since  the  humiliation  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  IV,^ 

163.  Pope  Innocent  III  and  Philip  Augustus  of  France.  —  When 
one  of  the  most  powerful  and  self-reliant  of  all  the  emperors  after 
Charlemagne  was  forced  thus  to  bow  before  the  papal  throne, 
we  are  not  surprised  to  find  the  kings  of  the  different  countries 
of  Europe  subjecting  themselves  obediently  to  the  same  all- 
pervading  authority.    French  and  English  history,  of  the  period 

1  See  sec.  128.     For  further  notice  of  Frederick  Barbarossa's  reign,  see  sees.  188 

and  255. 


I50  SUPREMACY   OF   THE   PAPACY 

covered  by  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III,  both  afford  a  striking 
illustration  6i  the  subject  relation  which  the  sovereigns  of  Europe 
had  come  to  sustain  to  the  papal  see. 

The  French  throne  was  at  this  time  held  by  PhiHp  Augustus 
(i  180-1223).  On  some  pretext  Philip  had  put  away  his  wife 
and  entered  into  another  marriage  alliance.  Pope  Innocent  III, 
as  the  censor  of  the  morals  of  kings  as  well  as  of  the  morals  of 
their  subjects,  commanded  him  to  take  back  his  discarded  queen, 
and  upon  his  refusal  to  do  so,  laid  France  under  an  interdict. 
PhiHp  was  finally  constrained  to  yield  obedience  to  the  Pope. 
This  triumph  of  the  papal  see  over  so  strong  and  imperious  a 
sovereign  has  been  pronounced  "  the  proudest  trophy  in  the 
scutcheon  of  Rome." 

164.  Pope  Innocent  III  and  King  John  of  England.  —  The  story 
of  Innocent's  triumph  over  King  John  (11 99-1 2 16)  of  England 
is  familiar.  The  see  of  Canterbury  falling  vacant,  John  ordered 
the  monks  who  had  the  right  of  election  to  give  the  place  to  a 
favorite  of  his.  Th«y  obeyed  ;  but  the  Pope  immediately  declared 
the  election  void,  and  caused  the  vacancy  to  be  filled  with  one 
of  his  own  friends,  Stephen  Langton.  John  declared  that  the 
Pope's  archbishop  should  never  enter  England  as  primate,  and 
proceeded  to  confiscate  the  estates  of  the  see.  Innocent  now 
laid  all  England  under  an  interdict,  excommunicated  John,  and 
incited  the  French  king,  Philip  Augustus,  to  undertake  a  crusade 
against  the  contumacious  rebel. 

The  outcome  of  the  matter  was  that  John  was  compelled  to 
yield  to  the  power  of  the  Church.  He  gave  back  the  lands  he  had 
confiscated,  acknowledged  Langton  to  be  the  rightful  primate  of 
England,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  give  England  and  Ireland  to 
the  Pope,  receiving  them  back  as  a  perpetual  fief  (i  2 1 3).  In  token 
of  his  vassalage  he  agreed  to  pay  to  the  papal  see  the  annual  sum 
of  one  thousand  marks  sterling.  This  tribute  money  was  actually 
paid,  though  irregularly,  until  the  reign  of  Edward  III  (sec.  169). 

165.  The  Mendicant  Orders,  or  Begging  Friars.^  —  The  imme- 
diate successors  of  Innocent  III  found  a  strong  support  for  their 

2  From  fraires,  frlres^  "  brethren." 


THE   MENDICANT   ORDERS  15I 

authority  in  two  new  monastic  orders  known  as  the  Dominican 
and  the  Franciscan.  They  were  so  named  after  their  respec- 
tive founders,  St.  Dominic  (11 70-1221)  of  Old  Castile  and  St. 
Francis  (about  1 182-1226)  of  Assisi,  in  Italy.  The  principles 
on  which  these  fraternities  were  established  were  very  different 
from  those  which  had  shaped  all  previous  monastic  orders. 
Speaking  in  general  terms,  until  now  the  monk  had  sought 
cloistral  solitude  primarily  in  order  to  escape  from  the  world, 
and  through  penance  and  prayer  and  contemplation  to  work 
out  his  own  salvation.  In  the  new  orders  the  members  instead 
of  withdrawing  from  the  world  were  to  remain  in  it  and  give 
themselves  wholly  to  the  work  of  securing  the  salvation  of  others. 

Again,  the  orders  were  also  as  orders  to  renounce  all  earthly 
possessions,  and,  "  espousing  Poverty  as  a  bride,"  to  rely  entirely 
for  support  upon  the  daily  and  voluntary  alms  of  the  pious.* 
Hitherto,  while  the  individual  members  of  a  monastic  order  must 
espouse  extreme  poverty,  the  house  or  fraternity  might  possess 
any  amount  of  communal  wealth.  This  had  led  to  indolence 
and  laxity  of  discipline,  and  the  espousal  of  poverty  by  the  new 
brotherhood  was  a  protest  against  the  luxurious  habits  of  the  old 
orders. 

There  was  at  first  a  wide  difference  between  the  two  fraternities. 
St.  Francis  and  the  disciples  whom  his  boundless  self-sacrificing 
charity  drew  about  him  devoted  themselves,  in  imitation  of  Christ 
and  the  apostles,  to  preaching  the  gospel  to  the  poor  and  outcast, 
and  to  visiting  those  who  were  sick  and  in  prison.  St.  Dominic 
made  his  appeal  to  the  higher  and  cultured  class.  He  conceived 
his  mission  to  be  the  combating  of  heresy,  with  which  the  intel- 
lectual ferment  of  the  times  had  begun  to  fill  Christendom. 

These  different  tendencies  of  the  two  great  founders  are  tersely 
expressed  in  the  respective  titles  given  them  :  St.  Francis  was 
called  the  "Father  of  the  poor";  St.  Dominic,  the  "Hammer 

*  The  Mendicant  Friars  soon  came  to  interpret  their  vow  of  poverty  more  liberally, 
and  believed  that  they  met  its  obligations  when  they  put  the  title  of  the  property 
they  acquired  in  the  hands  of  tl»e  Pope,  while  they  themselves  simply  enjoyed  the 
use  of  it.  The  new  fraternities  grew  in  time  to  be  among  the  richest  of  the  monastic 
orders. 


152  SUPREMACY   OF  THE   PAPACY 

of  the  heretics."  But  notwithstanding  that  the  differing  genius 
of  the  two  saints  left  at  first  a  distinct  impress  upon  their  respec- 
tive orders,  still  each  fraternity  in  time  borrowed  much  from  the 
other  and  the  two  finally  became  very  much  alike. 

The  new  fraternities  grew  and  spread  with  marvelous  rapidity, 
and  in  less  than  a  generation  they  had  quite  overshadowed  all 
the  old  monastic  orders  of  the  Church.  The  popes  conferred 
upon  them  many  and  special  privileges,  and  gradually  freed 
them  from  all  episcopal  control.  They  in  turn  became  the 
stanchest  friends  and  supporters  of  the  Roman  see.  They 
formed  a  regular,  well-drilled,  obedient  papal  soldiery,  occupy- 
ing every  point  of  vantage  in  Western  Christendom.  They  were 
to  the  Papacy  of  the  thirteenth  century  what  the  Benedictines 
had  been  to  Pope  Gregory  VII,  or  what  the  later  order  of  the 
Jesuits  was  to  be  to  the  papal  Church  of  the  period  of  the 
Reformation. 

1 66.  The  Papacy  brings  the  Empire  to  Virtual  Ruin. — We 
have  just  seen  how  the  imperial  power  in  the  person  of  one  of 
the  greatest  of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  was  humbled  by  the 
papal  authority.  We  have  now  to  witness  the  utter  ruin  of  this 
proud  house  and  the  downfall  of  the  Empire  as  a  real  international 
force  in  European  affairs. 

The  Empire  fell  at  the  very  moment  of  the  culmination  of  its 
glory,  if  not  of  its  power,  under  the  Hohenstaufen  Frederick  II 
(i  2 1 2—1 2 50),  whom  the  historian  Freeman  ventures  to  pronounce 
"  the  most  gifted  of  the  sons  of  men."  No  Emperor  before  him 
had  conceived  a  loftier  ideal  of  the  world  empire,  nor  had  any 
of  his  predecessors,  after  the  great  Charles,  by  virtue  of  personal 
qualities  imparted  to  the  imperial  office  such  glamour  and 
brilliancy. 

But  there  were  many  elements  of  weakness  in  the  Empire,  — 
selfish  ambitions  among  the  German  princes,  rival  aspirants  for 
the  imperial  crown,  national  and  municipal  sentiment  in  Italy, 
and  the  jealousy  of  outside  rulers.  All  these  elements  of  discon- 
tent and  opposition  were  utilized  by  the  popes  to  effect  the 
undoing  of  the  Emperor.    Throughout  his  long  reign,  laboring 


Lands  of  the 
HOLY  R03IAN  EMPIRE 

under  the  Franconlan  Kmperoni 
1084.11]{5  ^ 

0        60       100     150      200      vr.o     -*- 


THE  REVOLT   OF  THE   NATIONS  153 

much  of  the  time  under  all  the  disabilities  of  an  excommuni- 
cate and  with  his  authority  in  every  part  of  his  extended  domin- 
ions undermined  by  the  hostile  activity  of  the  papal  agents,  the 
Mendicant  Friars,  Frederick  fought  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
dignity  and  supremacy  of  the  imperial  power.  He  died  in  1250 
with  the  heavy  consciousness  of  failure.  Pursued  by  the  hostility 
of  the  popes,  his  posterity  was  extirpated  root  and  branch. 

After  Frederick  II  the  Empire  was  never  again  a  real  world 
power.  But  the  emperors  in  maintaining  so  long  the  struggle 
with  the  Papacy  had  given  time  for  a  new  power  to  arise,  which 
was  destined  to  avenge  them  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Papacy  as 
an  international  lay  authority.  This  new  power  was  the  awakening 
nations. 

167.  The  Revolt  of  the  Nations. — The  fourteenth  century 
marks  the  turning  point  in  the  history  of  the  temporal  power 
of  the  Papacy.  In  the  course  of  that  century  the  lay  rulers  in 
several  of  the  leading  countries  of  Europe,  supported  by  their 
subjects,  succeeded  in  regaining  their  lost  independence.  France, 
Germany,  and  England  successively  revolted  against  the  Roman 
see  —  the  expression  is  not  too  strong  —  and  formally  denied  the 
right  of  the  Pope  to  interfere  in  their  political  or  governmental 
affairs. 

But  it  should  be  carefully  noted  that  the  leaders  of  this  revolt 
against  the  secular  domination  of  the  Papacy  did  not  think  of 
challenging  the  spiritual  authority  of  the  Pope  as  the  supreme 
head  of  the  Church.  Their  attitude  was  wholly  like  that  of  the 
Italians  of  our  own  day,  who,  while  dispossessing  the  Pope  of  the 
last  remnant  of  his  temporal  sovereignty,  abate  nothing  of  their 
veneration  for  him  as  the  Vicar  of  God  in  all  things  moral  and 
spiritual. 

168.  Pope  Boniface  VIII  and  Philip  the  Fair  of  France.  —  It  was 
during  the  pontificate  of  Boniface  VIII  (i 294-1 303)  that  the 
secular  authority  of  the  popes  received  a  severe  blow  and  began 
rapidly  to  decline.  Boniface  held  Gregory  VII's  exalted  views  of 
the  prerogatives  of  the  papal  office.  Taking  as  his  warrant  these 
words  of  Scripture,  ♦*  Behold  I  have  set  thee  over  kingdoms  and 


154  SUPREMACY   OF  THE   PAPACY 

empires,"  *  he  assumed  an  attitude  towards  the  lay  rulers  which 
was  certain  to  bring  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities  into 
angry  and  violent  collision.  In  the  year  1296  he  issued  a  bull  in 
which,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  he  forbade  all  ecclesias- 
tical persons,  without  papal  permission,  to  pay  taxes  in  any  form 
levied  by  lay  rulers.  All  civil  rulers  of  whatsoever  name,  —  baron, 
duke,  prince,  king,  or  emperor,  —  who  should  presume  to  impose 
upon  ecclesiastics  taxes  of  any  kind,  were  also  to  incur  the  same 
sentence.^ 

Philip  of  France  regarded  the  papal  claims  as  an  encroachment 
upon  the  civil  authority.  The  contention  between  him  and  the 
Pope  speedily  grew  into  a  bitter  and  undignified  quarrel.  In  one 
of  his  letters  to  Boniface,  Philip  addressed  the  pontiif  in  words  of 
unseemly  and  studied  rudeness.  Philip  was  bold  because  he  knew 
that  his  people  were  with  him.  The  popular  feeling  was  given 
expression  in  a  famous  States-General  which  the  king  summoned 
in  1302,  and  in  another  called  together  the  next  year.  The  three 
estates  of  the  realm,  —  the  nobility,  the  clergy,  and  the  commons, 
—  declared  that  the  Pope  had  no  authority  in  France  in  political 
matters;  that  the  French  king  had  no  superior  save  God.  For 
the  maintenance  of  the  ancient  liberties  of  the  French  nation 
they  pledged  to  Philip  their  fortunes  and  their  lives. 

The  end  was  soon  reached.  At  Anagni,  in  Italy,  a  band  of 
soldiers  in  the  French  pay,  with  every  indignity,  accompanied  by 
blows,  made  Boniface  a  prisoner.  After  three  days  he  was  set 
free  by  friends  and  returned  to  Rome,  only,  however,  to  be  there 
made  the  victim  of  fresh  insults.  In  a  few  days  he  died,  broken- 
hearted, it  is  said,  at  the  age  of  eighty-seven  (1303). 

By  all  historians  of  the  rise  and  decUne  of  the  temporal  power 
of  the  popes,  the  scene  at  Anagni  is  placed  for  historical  instruc- 
tion alongside  that  enacted  more  than  two  centuries  earlier  at 
Canossa  (sec.  128).  The  contrasted  scenes  cannot  fail  to  im- 
press one  deeply  with  the  vast  vicissitudes  in  the  fortunes  of  the 
mediaeval  Papacy. 

4  Jer.  i.  10. 

5  This  is  the  celebrated  bull  known  as  Clericis  Laicos.  See  Henderson's  Select 
Historical  Documents,  p.  432. 


THE   POPES  AT  AVKrNON  I  55 

169.  Removal  of  the  Papal  Seat  to  Avignon  (1309-137 6)  ; 
Revolt  of  Germany  and  England.  —  In  1309,  through  the  concur- 
rence of  various  influences,  the  papal  seat  was  removed  from 
Rome  to  Avignon,  in  Provence,  adjoining  the  frontier  of  France. 
Here  it  remained  for  a  space  of  nearly  seventy  years,  an  era 
known  in  Church  history  as  the  "  Babylonian  Captivity."  While 
it  was  established  here  all  the  popes  were  Frenchmen  and  their 
policies  were  largely  dictated  by  the  French  kings.  Thus  the 
Papacy  lost  that  character  of  universality  which  had  been  the 
basis  of  its  influence  and  strength.  Under  these  circumstances 
it  was  but  natural  that  outside  of  France  there  should  be  stirred 
up  a  more  and  more  angry  protest  against  the  interference  of  the 
popes  in  civil  matters.  The  measures  taken  at  this  time  by  the 
national  assemblies  of  Germany  and  England,  in  both  of  which 
countries  a  national  sentiment  was  springing  up,  show  how  com- 
pletely the  Papacy  had  lost  prestige  as  an  international  power. 

In  1338  the  German  princes  with  whom  rested  the  right 
of  electing  the  German  king,  in  opposing  the  papal  claims, 
declared  that  the  German  Emperor  derived  all  his  powers  from 
God  through  them  and  not  from  the  Pope.  The  German  Diet 
indorsed  this  declaration,  and  the  principle  that  the  German 
Emperor,  as  to  his  election  and  the  exercise  of  his  functions,  is 
independent  of  the  papal  see  became  from  that  time  forward  a 
part  of  the  German  constitution. 

A  little  later  (in  1366),  during  the  reign  of  Edward  III,  the 
English  Parliament,  acting  in  a  like  spirit  and  temper,  put  an  end 
to  EngUsh  vassalage  to  Rome  by  formally  refusing  to  pay  the 
tribute  pledged  by  King  John,®  and  by  repudiating  wholly  the 
claims  of  the  popes  upon  England  as  a  fief  of  the  holy  see. 

170.  The  Great  Schism  (1378-1417). — The  stirring  of  the 
national  sentiment  in  several  of  the  countries  of  Europe  was  not 
the  only  disastrous  result  to  the  Papacy  of  the  Ribylonian  exile. 
The  removal  of  the  papal  court  from  Rome  awakened  great  dis- 
content in  Italy.  Rome  without  the  Pope  was  a  widowed  city. 
It  was  torn  by  rival  factions,  its  buildings  were  falling  into  ruins, 

«See  sec.  164.     The  payment  of  this  tribute  had  fallen  into  arrears. 


156  SUPREMACY    OF   THE   PAPACY 

and  cattle  *'  were  grazing  even  to  the  foot  of  the  altar  "  in  the 
churches  of  St.  Peter  and  the  Lateran. 

The  return  of  the  popes  to  Rome  was  imperatively  necessary 
if  they  were  to  retain  any  authority  in  Italy.  Finally,  Pope  Greg- 
ory XI  was  persuaded  to  break  away  from  the  influence  of  the 
French  king  and  transfer  the  papal  seat  once  more  to  the  Eternal 
City.  This  was  in  1377.  The  following  year  Gregory  died,  and 
the  college  of  cardinals  elected  as  his  successor  an  Italian  prelate, 
who  took  the  name  of  Urban  VI.  The  new  Pope  unfortunately 
was  of  a  harsh  and  imperious  disposition.  His  discourteous  treat- 
ment of  the  French  cardinals  angered  them,  and  they,  denying 
the  validity  of  his  election,  set  up  an  antipope,  who  under  the 
name  of  Clement  VII  estabHshed  his  court  at  Avignon.  Such  was 
the  beginning  of  the  Great  Schism  (1378). 

The  spectacle  of  two  rival  popes,  each  claiming  to  be  the  right- 
ful successor  of  St.  Peter  and  each  denouncing  the  other,  nat- 
urally gave  the  reverence  which  the  world  had  so  generally  held 
for  the  Roman  see  a  rude  shock,  and  one  from  which  it  never 
fully  recovered. 

171.  The  Church  Councils  of  Pisa  (1409)  and  Constance  (1414- 
141 8).  —  For  the  lifetime  of  a  generation  all  Western  Christen- 
dom was  deeply  agitated  by  the  bitter  and  unseemly  quarrel.  No 
peaceful  solution  of  the  difficulty  seemed  possible.  Some  even 
favored  a  resort  to  force.  The  faculties  of  the  University  of  Paris 
invited  suggestions  as  to  the  best  means  of  ending  the  schism. 
They  received  ten  thousand  written  opinions.  The  drift  of  these 
was  in  favor  of  an  ecumenical  council.  Finally,  in  1409,  a  council 
of  the  Church  assembled  at  Pisa  for  the  purpose  of  composing 
the  unfortunate  feud.  This  council  deposed  both  popes  and  elected 
Alexander  V  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church.  But  matters 
instead  of  being  mended  hereby  were  only  made  worse  ;  for  neither 
of  the  deposed  pontiffs  would  lay  down  his  authority  in  obedience 
to  the  demands  of  the  council,  and  consequently  there  were  now 
three  popes  instead  of  two. 

In  14 14  another  council  was  called  at  Constance  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  growing  dispute.    One  of  the  claimants  resigned  and 


A  SPIRITUAL  THEOCRACY  157 

the  other  two  were  deposed.  A  new  pope  was  then  elected,  the 
choice  of  the  assembly  falling  upon  an  Italian  cardinal,  who  became 
Pope  Martin  V  (i  41 7).  In  his  person  the  Catholic  world  was  again 
united  under  a  single  spiritual  head.  The  schism  was  outwardly 
healed,  but  the  wound  had  been  too  deep  not  to  leave  permanent 
scars  upon  the  Church. 

The  Roman  pontiffs,  although  the  battles  of  the  lost  cause 
were  fought  over  again  and  again  in  different  countries,  were 
never  able,  after  the  events  of  the  fourteenth  century,  to  exer- 
cise such  authority  over  the  kings  of  Europe,  or  exact  from 
them  such  obedience  in  civil  affairs,  as  had  been  possible  for 
the  popes  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  The  splendid 
ideal  of  Hildebrand,  though  so  nearly  realized,  had  at  last,  as  to 
one  half  of  what  he  purposed,  proved  an  utter  failure. 

172.  The  Papacy  remains  a  Spiritual  Theocracy.  —  We  say 
that  the  Roman  pontiffs  failed  as  to  one  half  of  their  purpose ; 
for  while  they  failed  to  make  good  their  supremacy  in  temporal 
affairs,  they  did  succeed  in  establishing  and  perpetuating  an 
absolute  spiritual  dominion,  their  plenary  authority  in  all  mat- 
ters of  faith  being  to-day  acknowledged  by  more  than  one  half 
of  all  those  who  bear  the  name  of  Christian. 

The  Council  of  Constance,  indeed,  decreed  that  the  Pope  is 
subject  to  an  ecumenical  council,  and  that  a  decision  of  the  Roman 
see  may  be  appealed  from  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church  gathered 
in  one  of  these  great  assemblies,  which  were  to  be  convened  at 
least  every  ten  years.  But  Martin  V,  the  Pope  elected  by  this 
same  council,  in  opposition  to  its  edicts,  issued  a  bull  declaring 
"  it  unlawful  for  any  one  either  to  appeal  from  the  judgment  of 
the  apostolic  see  or  to  reject  its  decisions  in  matters  of  faith." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Council  of  Basel,  —  the  third  and  last  of 
the  great  reforming  councils  of  the  fifteenth  century,  —  which 
assembled  in  143 1,  setting  itself  against  the  principle  of  papal 
autocracy,  declared  any  one  appealing  from  a  general  council  of 
the  Church  to  the  Pope  to  be  guilty  of  heresy. 

The  papal  party,  the  party  of  absolutism,  carried  the  day.  Only 
one  ecumenical  council  has  been  held  since  the  Council  of  Trent, 


158  SUPREMACY   OF   THE   PAPACY 

which  was  called  in  1545  to  pronounce  upon  the  doctrines  of 
Luther;  and  this  assembly  (the  Vatican  Council,  1869-1870)  pro- 
mulgated the  decisive  edict  of  papal  infallibility. 

And  thus  the  Papacy,  though  its  temporal  power  has  been 
entirely  taken  from  it,  and  its  spiritual  authority  rejected  in  gen- 
eral by  the  northern  nations,  still  remains,  as  Macaulay  says,  *'  not 
in  decay,  not  a  mere  antique,  but  full  of  life  and  youthful  vigor." 
The  Pope  is  to-day,  in  the  view  of  more  than  half  of  Christendom, 
the  infallible  head  of  a  Church  that,  in  the  famous  words  of  the 
brilliant  writer  just  quoted,  "was  great  and  respected  before 
the  Saxon  had  set  foot  on  Britain,  before  the  Frank  had  passed  the 
Rhine,  when  Grecian  eloquence  still  flourished  in  Antioch,  when 
idols  were  still  worshiped  in  the  temple  of  Mecca.  And  she  may 
still  exist  in  undiminished  vigour  when  some  traveler  from  New 
Zealand  shall,  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  soHtude,  take  his  stand  on  a 
broken  arch  of  London  Bridge  to  sketch  the  ruins  of  St.  Paul's." 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Henderson,  Select  Historical  Docu- 
ments, p.  430,  "  John's  Concession  of  England  to  the  Pope  "  ;  p.  432,  "  The 
Bull  '  Clericis  Laicos  '  "  ;  p.  435,  "  The  Bull  '  Unam  Sanctam.'  "  Robin- 
son, Readings  in  European  History,  chap.  xxi.  For  the  subject  of  Mendi- 
cant Friars :  The  Mirror  of  Perfection  (ed.  by  Paul  Sabatier  and  trans, 
from  the  Latin  by  Sebastian  Evans).  This  is  the  life  of  St.  Francis  written  by 
a  companion  and  disciple.  It  is  a  wonderful  story  simply  and  lovingly  told. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Efupire,  chap,  xi,  "The 
Emperors  in  Italy :  Frederick  Barbarossa,"  and  chap,  xiii,  "  Fall  of  the 
Hohenstaufen."  Pastor,  The  History  of  the  Popes,  vol.  i  (Catholic). 
Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  sections  of  chaps,  ix  and  x.  Thatcher 
and  ScHWiLL,  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  chap.  xxi.  Barry,  The  Papal 
Monarchy,  chaps,  xviii-xxv.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
chap.  X  (last  part)  and  chap.  xvi.  Alzog,  Universal  Church  History, 
vol.  ii,  pp.  573-586,  for  Innocent  III  and  his  relations  to  the  princes  of 
Europe;  and  pp.  614-630,  for  Boniface  VIII  and  Philip  the  Fair.  Bal- 
zani,  The  Popes  and  the  Hohenstaufen.  FiSHER,  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,  pp.  240-264.  Tout,  The  Empi^-e  and  the  Papacy,  chaps,  xi,  xiv, 
xvi,  and  xxi.  Freeman,  Historical  Essays  (First  Series),  "  Frederick  II." 
Sabatier,  Life  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi ;  a  book  of  genius  and  spiritual 
insight.  Jessopp,  The  Coming  of  the  Friars.  Creighton,  History  of 
the  Papacy,  vol.  i,  **  The  Great  Schism ;  The  Council  of  Constance." 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Incidents  of  the  Peace  of  Venice  (11 77). 
2.  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.     3.   St.  Dominic.     4.  The  popes  at  Avignon, 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  MONGOLS  AND  THE  OTTOMAN  TURKS 

I.  The  Mongols 

173.  The  Three  Invasions.  —  We  have  witnessed  two  inva- 
sions of  civilized  Europe,  one  by  the  Germanic  tribes  from  the 
north  and  another  by  the  Saracens  from  the  south,  and  have 
noted  the  effects  of  each  upon  the  course  of  general  history. 
Our  attention  is  now  drawn  to  a  third  invasion,  this  time  from 
the  east,  by  nomadic  races  of  Asia,  —  the  Mongols  and  the 
Ottoman  Turks.^ 

The  ultimate  results  for  European  civiHzation  of  the  Germanic 
invasion  were,  as  we  have  seen,  most  salutary  and  happy,  because 
of  the  fresh  mental  vigor,  the  firm  moral  qualities,  and  the  political 
capacity  of  the  invaders.  The  consequences,  direct  and  indirect, 
of  the  Arabian  invasion  were  mixed,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to 
make  an  appraisement  of  its  net  effects.  The  results  of  the  Tura- 
nian irruption,  on  the  other  hand,  were  almost  wholly  disastrous, 
as  we  shall  learn,  to  European  civilization.  The  growth  of  the 
promising  Russian  nation  was  checked,  while  all  the  countries 
and  races  of  Southeastern  Europe  were  subjected  for  centuries  to 
the  degrading  domination  of  a  race  alien  in  blood,  in  social  insti- 
tutions, in  moral  ideals,  and  in  religious  belief.  Indeed,  some  of 
the  European  lands  thus  inundated  have  remained  submerged 
beneath  Asiatic  barbarism  up  to  the  present  day. 

This  comparatively  late  invasion  of  Europe  by  Asiatic  nomads  is 
noteworthy  especially  for  the  reason  that  it  was  the  most  successful 

1  The  Mongols  and  Turks  belong  to  that  great  family  of  predominantly  nomadic 
or  pastoral  tribes  and  nations  variously  designated  as  the  Scythic,  the  Turanian, 
or  the  Ural-Altaic,  and  having  the  steppes  of  Central  and  Northern  Asia  as  their 
chief  original  seat. 


l6o     THE   MONGOLS  AND  THE  OTTOMAN  TURKS 

of  all  the  attacks  of  Asia  upon  Europe  during  historic  times,  and 
the  last  conquest  of  European  territory  by  an  Asiatic  race. 

174.  The  Conquests  of  the  Mongols.  —  It  was  about  the  time 
of  the  opening  of  the  Crusades  when  the  Mongols,  cruel  and 
untamed  nomads  bred  on  the  steppes  of  Central  and  Eastern 


Fig.  27.  —  Hut-Wagon  of  the  Medieval  Tartars.     (From  Yule's 
Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo) 

"  The  wandering  Scyths  who  dwell 
In  latticed  huts  high-poised  on  easy  wheels." 

JEsdn-LVS,  Prom.  Vinct. ,  lo^-xo;  quoted  by  Yule 

Asia,  that  nursery  of  conquering  races,  began  to  set  up  a  new 
dominion  among  the  various  tribes  of  Mongolia.  Their  first  great 
chieftain  was  Jenghiz  Khan  (i  206-1 227),  the  most  terrible 
scourge  that  ever  afflicted  the  human  race.  At  the  head  of  innu- 
merable hordes  composed  largely  of  Turkish  tribes,  callous  and 
pitiless  in  their  slaughterings  as  though  their  victims  belonged  to 
another  species  than  themselves,  Jenghiz  traversed  with  sword 
and  torch  a  great  part  of  Asia.  He  conquered  all  the  northern 
part  of  China,  and  then  turning  westward  overran  Turkestan  and 
Persia.  Cities  disappeared  as  he  advanced ;  populous  plains 
were  transformed  into  silent  deserts.  Before  death  overtook  him 
he  had  extended  his  authority  to  the  Dnieper  in  Russia  and  to 
the  valley  of  the  Indus.    Even  in  death  he  claimed  his  victims : 


THE   CONQUESTS    OF   THE    MONtiOLS 


l6l 


at  his  tomb  forty  maidens  were  slain  that  their  spirits  might  go 
to  serve  him  in  the  other  world. 

The  vast  domains  of  Jenghiz  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  son 
Oktai  (d.  1 241),  a  worthy  successor  of  the  great  conqueror.  He 
pushed  outwards  still  further  the  boundaries  of  the  empire  in  the 
east  as  well  as  in  the  west  of  Asia,  and  made  a  threatening  inva- 
sion into  Europe.  This  western  expedition  was  led  by  the  cele- 
brated Batu.  A  large  part  of  Russia,  Poland,  and  Hungary  were 
overnm  and  devastated.    The  cities  of  Moscow,  Kiev,  Pesth,  and 


The  Mongol  Empire  under  Jenghis  Khan  and  his  Immediate 
Successors  (thirteenth  century) 

The  shaded  area  shows  the  countries  either  under  the  direct  rule  of  the 
Mongols  or  tributary  to  them 

many  others  were  burned  and  their  inhabitants  slain.  In  the 
space  of  two  or  three  terrible  years  (i  238-1241)  almost  half  of 
Europe  was  pitilessly  ravaged.  The  inhabitants  of  the  other  half 
seemed  to  be  stunned.  They  made  no  concerted  efforts  to  check 
the   progress  of  the  invaders.    They  apparently  regarded  the 


l62     THE   MONGOLS  AND  THE  OTTOMAN  TURKS 

visitation  as  though  it  were  some  destructive  convulsion  of  nature 
for  which  there  was  no  help  or  remedy.  Fortunately,  just  at  this 
critical  moment  Oktai  died.  Batu  was  recalled  to  Asia,  and  the 
civilization  of  Western  Europe  escaped  the  threatened  destruction. 

One  of  the  most  noted  of  the  successors  of  Oktai  was  Kublai 
Khan  (12 5 9-1 2 94),  who  made  Cambalu,  the  modern  Peking,  his 
royal  seat,  and  there  received  ambassadors  and  visitors  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  It  was  at  the  court  of  this  prince  that  the 
celebrated  Italian  traveler  Marco  Polo  resided  many  years  and 
gained  that  valuable  and  quickening  knowledge  of  the  Far  East 
which  he  communicated  to  Europe  in  his  remarkable  work  of 
travels  and  observations. 

Upon  the  death  of  Kublai  Khan  the  immoderately  extended 
and  loosely  knit  empire  fell  into  disorder  and  separated  into 
many  petty  states.  It  was  restored  by  Timur  or  Tamerlane 
(=  Timurlenk,  "Timur  the  lame,"  1369-1405),  a  remote  rela- 
tive of  Jenghiz  Khan.  He  made  Samarkand  in  Central  Asia  his 
capital  and  seems  to  have  deliberately  set  about  reducing  the 
whole  earth  to  obedience.  He  is  said  to  have  declared  that 
"  since  God  is  one  and  hath  no  partner,  therefore  the  vicegerent 
over  the  lands  of  the  Lord  must  be  one."  His  dominions '  came 
to  embrace  a  great  part  of  Asia. 

Timur's  immense  empire  crumbled  to  pieces  after  his  death. 
His  descendant  Baber  invaded  India  (1525)  and  estabhshed 
there  what  became  known  as  the  Kingdom  of  the  Great  Moguls. 
This  Mongol  state  lasted  over  two  hundred  years, — until  destroyed 
by  the  English  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  magnificence  of 
the  court  of  the  Great  Moguls  at  Delhi  and  Agra  is  one  of  the 
most  splendid  traditions  of  the  East.  These  foreign  rulers  gave 
India  some  of  her  finest  architectural  monuments.  The  mauso- 
leum at  Agra,  known  as  the  Tqf  Mahal,  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful structures  in  the  world. ^ 

2  Wherever  we  find  an  upspringing  of  art  and  architecture  under  the  Mongols  we 
shall  not  be  wrong  in  attributing  it  to  the  influence  upon  them  of  the  civilizations 
with  which  they  came  in  contact  in  China,  Persia,  India,  and  Western  Asia.  Their 
architects  and  artisans  were  generally  furnished  by  the  conquered  races  or  by  the 
cities  of  Western  Europe. 


RESULTS   OF  THE   MONGOL  OUTBREAK         163 

175.  Historical  Results  of  the  Mongol  Outbreak.  —  Asia  has 
never  recovered  from  the  terrible  devastation  wrought  by  the 
Mongol  conquerors.  Many  districts  swarming  with  life  were 
swept  clean  of  their  population  by  these  destroyers  of  the  race 
and  have  remained  to  this  day  desolate  as  the  tomb.  But  it  is 
the  relation  of  the  Mongol  eruption  to  the  history  of  the  West 
that  chiefly  concerns  us  at  present.  This  revolution  had  signifi- 
cance for  European  history,  as  we  have  already  intimated,  almost 


'f 


&l- 


Fig.  28.  — The  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra.     (From  a  photograph) 

This  magnificent  monument  was  erected  by  the  Mogul  emperor  Shah  Jehan 
(1628-1658),  for  a  favorite  wife  who  died  in  1631 


solely  on  account  of  the  Mongols  having  laid  the  yoke  of  their 
power  for  a  long  time  —  for  about  three  centuries  —  upon  the 
Eastern  Slavs.  This  was  some  such  calamity  for  Russia  as  the 
later  conquests  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  were  for  the  lands  of  South- 
eastern Europe.  This  Tartar  domination,  as  we  shall  learn,  left 
deep  and  permanent  traces  upon  the  Russian  character  and  upon 
Russian  history  (sec.  265). 

But  there  was  some  good  issuing  out  of  so  much  evil.  As  a 
consequence  of  the  establishment  of  the  extended  empire  of  the 
Mongols  there  was  better  communication  on  the  land  side  between 


l64     THE  MONGOLS  AND  THE   OTTOMAN  TURKS 

Europe  and  Eastern  Asia  than  had  ever  existed  before  or  was 
destined  to  exist  again  until  the  construction  in  our  own  day  of 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railroad.  The  way  was  long  and  wearisome 
but  comparatively  safe,  and  consequently  it  was  traversed  back 
and  forth  by  embassies  between  the  European  courts  and  the 
Mongol  potentates,  and  by  missionary-monks,  artisans,  merchants, 
and  explorers.  Marco  Polo  is  the  type  and  symbol  of  it  all. 
Through  this  means  there  were  brought  into  Europe  from  the 
Far  East  various  arts,  ideas,  and  inventions  which  undoubtedly 
contributed  to  the  revival  of  culture  in  the  West  and  to  the 
inauguration  of  a  new  age  for  the  European  peoples. 

II.  The  Ottoman  Turks 

176.  The  Beginnings  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  —  The  latest, 
most  permanent,  and  most  important  historically  of  all  the  Tura- 
nian sovereignties  was  that  established  by  the  Ottoman  Turks. 
The  first  appearance  of  this  folk  upon  the  arena  of  history  was 
dramatic,  and  prophetic  of  their  conquering  career.  About  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  a  chieftain,  accompanied  by  a 
band  of  several  hundred  horsemen,  was  riding  over  the  hills  of 
Anatolia  (Asia  Minor)  in  the  neighborhood  of  Angora.  Unex- 
pectedly the  wanderers  came  upon  a  battle  in  full  progress, — 
battles  were  to  be  found  almost  anywhere  in  those  days  in  those 
parts.  The  cavaliers,  through  sheer  love  of  a  fight,  for  they  were 
totally  ignorant  alike  of  who  the  combatants  were  and  why  they 
thus  fought  together,  dashed  into  the  thickest  of  the  battle, 
chivalrously  taking  the  part  of  the  weaker  and  yielding  side  and 
quickly  turning  the  fight  in  its  favor.  It  developed  that  the 
"beneficiaries  of  their  chivalrous  act"  were  Seljuk  Turks  form- 
ing the  army  of  the  sultan  of  Iconium.  The  grateful  sultan 
invited  the  strangers  to  abide  among  his  people  and  offered  them 
lands  for  their  flocks.  They  accepted  the  invitation,  and  the 
settlement  thus  formed  became  the  nucleus  of  the  great  Ottoman 
Empire.^ 

8  Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks ^  chap.  i. 


THE  JANIZARIES  165 

The  name  of  the  hero  of  this  story  was  Ertoghrul.  The  empire, 
the  germ  of  which  he  planted,  bears  however  not  his  name  but 
that  of  his  son  Othman,*  for  the  reason  that  the  son  was  the  first 
to  assume  in  the  new  land  the  rank  of  an  independent  ruler. 

Gradually  the  Ottoman  princes  subjected  to  their  rule  the 
various  surrounding  tribes  which  the  Mongolian  conquests  had 
crowded  westward  into  Asia  Minor,  and  at  the  same  time  seized 
upon  province  after  province  of  the  Asiatic  possessions  of  the 
Byzantine  emperors.  During  the  reign  of  Amurath  I  (1360-1389) 
a  large  part  of  the  regions  that  came  to  be  known  as  Turkey  in 
Europe  fell  into  their  hands. 

177.  The  Janizaries.  — The  conquests  of  the  Turks  were 
greatly  aided  by  a  remarkably  efficient  body  of  soldiers  known 
as  the  Janizaries,  which  was  organized  early  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  This  select  corps  was  composed  at  first  of  the  fairest 
children  of  Christian  captives.  When  war  ceased  to  furnish 
recruits,  the  sultans  levied  a  tribute  of  children  on  their  Chris- 
tian subjects.  At  one  time  this  tribute  amounted  to  two  thousand 
boys  yearly.  This  method  of  recruiting  the  corps  was  maintained 
for  about  three  hundred  years.  The  boys,  who  were  generally 
received  at  the  age  of  about  eight,  were  brought  up  in  the  Moham- 
medan faith  and  carefully  trained  in  military  service.  These  "  infant 
proselytes  of  war  "  formed  a  military  body  that  was  one  of  the 
chief  instruments  in  the  creation  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

178 .  The  Ottoman  Advance  checked  by  the  Mongols. — Amurath  I 
was  followed  by  Bajazet  I  (i 347-1 403),  the  rapid  ad\'ance  of 
whose  conquests  spread  the  greatest  alarm  throughout  Central 
and  Western  Europe.  The  warriors  of  Hungary,  Poland,  and 
France  gathered  to  arrest  the  menacing  progress  of  the  bar- 
barians; but  the  allied  army,  numbering  a  hundred  thousand 
men,  was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  sabers  of  the  Turks  on  the  fatal 
field  of  Nicopolis,  in  Bulgaria  (1396).  Thousands  of  the  knights 
and  common  soldiers  who  were  made  prisoners  were  barbarously 
and  deliberately  massacred  by  their  captors. 

*  Othman  I  (128S-1326),  or  Osman.  whence  not  only  "  Ottoman,'' bat  "Oiroanlii," 
the  favorite  name  which  the  Turks  apply  to  themselves. 


l66     THE  MONGOLS  AND   THE   OTTOMAN  TURKS 

The  unfortunate  issue  of  this  terrible  battle  threw  all  the  West 
into  a  perfect  panic  of  terror.  Bajazet  vowed  that  his  horse  "  should 
eat  oats  on  the  high  altar  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome,"  and  there 
seemed  no  power  in  Christendom  to  prevent  the  sacrilege.  Before 
proceeding  to  fulfill  this  threat,  Bajazet  turned  back  to  capture 
Constantinople,  which  he  beheved  in  the  present  despondent 
state  of  its  inhabitants  would  make  little  or  no  resistance. 

Now  just  at  this  time  Tamerlane  was  leading  his  hordes  on  their 
career  of  conquest.  He  directed  them  against  the  Turks  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  Bajazet  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Constantinople 
and  hasten  across  the  Bosporus  to  check  the  advance  of  these 
new  enemies.  The  Turks  and  Mongols  met  upon  the  plains  of 
Angora,  where  the  former  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat  (1402). 
This  checked  for  a  time  the  conquests  of  the  Ottomans  and  saved 
Constantinople  to  Christendom  for  another  period  of  fifty  years. 

179.  The  Fall  of  Constantinople  (1453).  —  The  Ottomans, 
however,  gradually  recovered  from  the  blow  given  them  by  the 
Mongols.  By  the  year  142 1  they  were  strong  enough  to  make 
another  attempt  upon  Constantinople.  The  city  was  this  time 
saved  by  the  strength  of  its  defenses.  Another  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury passed.  Then  finally,  in  the  year  1453,  Mohammed  II  the 
Great  (1451-1480)  laid  siege  to  the  capital  with  a  vast  army  and 
fleet.  The  walls  of  the  city  were  manned  by  a  mere  handful  of 
men.  After  a  short  investment  the  place  was  taken  by  storm. 
The  heroic  Emperor,  Constantine  Palaeologus,  refusing  to  live  "  an 
Emperor  without  an  Empire,"  fell  sword  in  hand.  Of  the  hun- 
dred thousand  inhabitants  of  the  capital  forty  thousand  are  said 
to  have  been  slain  and  fifty  thousand  made  slaves.  The  Cross, 
which  since  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great  had  surmounted 
the  dome  of  St.  Sophia,  was  replaced  by  the  Crescent. 

Thus  fell  New  Rome  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians  of  the 
East  almost  an  exact  millennium  after  Old  Rome  had  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  barbarians  of  the  West.  Its  fall  was  one  of 
the  most  harrowing  and  fate-laden  events  in  history.  As  Moham- 
med, like  Scipio  at  Carthage,  gazed  upon  the  ruined  city  and 
the  empty  palace  of  Constantine,  he  is  said,  impressed  by  the 


THE   OTTOMANS   CHECKED 


167 


mutability  of  fortune,  to  have  repeated  musingly  the  lines  of  the 
Persian  poet  Firdusi :  *'The  spider's  web  is  the  curtain  in  Caesar's 
palace ;  the  owl  is  the  sentinel  on  the  watchtower  of  Afrasiab."  * 
180.  The  Ottomans  checked  by  the  Hungarians  and  the  Knights 
of  Rhodes. — The  consternation  which  the  fall  of  New  Rome 
created  throughout  Christendom  was  like  the  dismay  which  filled 
the  world  upon  the  downfall  of  Old  Rome  in  the  fifth  century 


rSjrncuM 


4.  ••• -'^r^ 


^^"■"'"   ,.^ 


The  Empire  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  about  1464 


Europe  now  lay  open  to  the  invaders.  The  warriors  of  Hungary, 
however,  made  a  valiant  stand  against  them  and  succeeded  in 
checking  their  advance  upon  the  continent,  while  the  Hospitalers 
(sec.  143),  now  established  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  held  them  in 
restraint  in  the  Mediterranean.  Before  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  conquering  energy  of  the  Ottomans  had  about  spent 
itself,  and  their  empire  had  attained  its  greatest  extent. 

The  Turks  have  ever  remained  quite  insensible  to  the  influences 
of  European  civilization,  and  their  rule  has  been  a  perfect  blight 
and  curse  to  the  Christian  races  subjected  to  their  authority.   They 

*  Afrasiab  is  the  name  of  a  personage  who  figures  in  the  historical  legends  of  Per^a. 


l68     THE  MONGOLS  AND  THE   OTTOMAN  TURKS 

have  always  been  looked  upon  as  intruders  in  Europe,  and  their 
presence  there  has  led  to  several  of  the  most  sanguinary  wars  of 
modern  times.  Gradually  they  are  being  pushed  out  from  their 
European  possessions,  and  the  time  is  probably  not  remote  when 
they  will  be  driven  back  across  the  Bosporus,  just  as  the  Moslem 
Moors  were  expelled  long  ago  from  the  opposite  corner  of  the 
continent  by  the  Christian  chivalry  of  Spain. 


Fig.  29.  —  Ruins  of  the  Great  Mosque  at  Samarkand 
(From  Shoemaker,  The  Heart  of  the  Orient) 

This  stupendous  structure  dates  from  the  time  of  Tamerlane 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  The  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo,  2  vols, 
(trans,  by  Henry  Yule).  The  best  part  of  these  volumes  is  condensed  in 
Noah  Brooks,  The  Story  of  Marco  Polo.  Marco  Polo  resided  seventeen 
years  at  the  court  of  Kublai  Khan  at  Cambalu,  the  modem  Peking.  He 
saw  the  Mongol  court  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  brilliancy  and  gave  Europe 
a  vivid  description  of  what  he  observed  and  heard  in  an  account  which 
our  growing  knowledge  of  the  Farther  East  is  giving  a  constantly  higher 
reputation  for  accuracy  and  honesty. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Howorth,  History  of  the  Mongols  from  the  Ninth 
to  the  Nineteenth  Century.  The  best  and  most  comprehensive  work  on 
the  subject.  Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.,  chaps,  i-vi.  Gib- 
bon, The  Decline  and  Fall,  chaps.  Ixiv-lxviii.  Mijatovich,  Constantine, 
the  Last  Emperor  of  the  Greeks  ;  or  the  Conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks  {A.D.  I4S3).  The  best  account  in  English.  Poole,  The  Story  of 
Turkey,  chaps,  i-vii.  Oman,  The  Story  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  chaps. 
XXV  and  xxvi.     Freeman,  The  Ottoman  Power  in  Europe,  chaps,  i-iv. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. —  i.  Marco  Polo  at  the  Mongol  court. 
2.  Timur  the  Lame.  3.  The  Mongols  in  Russia.  4.  The  Janizaries. 
5.  The  siege  and  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE   GROWTH  OF  THE   TOWNS 

i8i.  The  Barbarians  and  the  Roman  Cities.  — The  old  Roman 
towns,  as  points  of  attack  and  defense,  suffered  much  during  the 
period  of  the  barbarian  invasions.  When  the  storm  had  passed, 
many  of  the  once  strong-walled  towns  lay  "  rings  of  ruins  "  on 
the  wasted  plains.  Rome,  during  the  Gothic  wars,  was  for  a 
time  without  a  living  soul  within  its  walls.  In  Britain  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  Roman  towns  seem  to  have  been  virtually 
wiped  out  of  existence  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  invaders.  In  South- 
ern France,  in  Italy,  and  in  Spain  the  cities  on  the  whole  suf- 
fered less ;  yet  in  none  of  the  countries  where  they  had  sprung 
up  and  flourished  under  the  shelter  of  the  Roman  rule  did  they 
wholly  escape  hurt  and  harm. 

But  it  was  not  alone  the  violence  of  the  destroyers  of  the 
Empire  that  brought  so  many  cities  to  ruin.  What  chiefly  caused 
their  depopulation  and  decay  was  the  preference  of  the  barba- 
rians for  the  open  country  to  the  city.  As  we  have  already 
learned,  they  had  no  liking  for  life  within  city  walls.  Hence  it 
was  inevitable  that  under  the  influence  of  the  invasion,  city  life, 
speaking  generally,  should  give  place  to  country  life.  Up  to  the 
eleventh  century  the  population  of  Europe  was  essentially  a  rural 
population  like  that  of  Russia  to-day. 

182.  Rapid  Development  of  the  Cities  in  the  Tenth  and  Eleventh 
Centuries.  —  But  just  as  soon  as  the  invaders  had  settled  down 
and  civilization  had  begun  to  revive,  the  old  Roman  towns  began 
gradually  to  assume  somewhat  of  their  former  importance,  and 
new  ones  to  spring  up  in  those  provinces  where  they  had  been 
swept  away,  and  in  the  countries  outside  of  the  limits  of  the 
ancient  Empire. 

169 


I/O 


THE   GROWTH   OF   THE   TOWNS 


During  the  tenth  century  Western  Europe,  it  will  be  recalled, 
was  terribly  troubled  by  the  Northmen,  the  Hungarians,  and  the 
Saracens  (sec.  96).  There  being  no  strong  central  government, 
the  cities,  thrown  upon  their  own  resources  for  defense,  some- 
times with  and  sometimes  without  royal  or  imperial  sanction, 
armed  their  militia,  perfected  their  municipal  organization,  and 
above  all  else  surrounded  themselves  with  walls.  Strong  walls  were 
the  only  sure  protection  in  those  evil  times.    Thus  Europe  became 


Fig.  30.  —  The  Amphitheater  at  Arles  in  Medieval  Times 
(From  Smith,  The  Troubadours  at  Home) 

^'  The  amphitheater  was  made  a  fortress,  packed  with  houses,  in  the  eighth 
century,  on  account  of  Saracen  incursions  " 


thickset  with  strong-walled  cities,  the  counterpart  of  the  castles 
of  the  feudal  lords,  which  were  the  defense  of  the  country-side. 
183.  The  Towns  enter  the  Feudal  System;  their  Revolt. — 
When  feudalism  took  possession  of  Europe  the  cities  became  a 
part  of  the  system.  They  became  vassals  and  suzerains.  As 
vassals,  they  were  of  course  subjected  to  all  the  incidents  of 
feudal  ownership.^    They  Owed  allegiance  to  their  suzerain,  were 

1  At  first  each  householder  in  a  town  was  a  tenant  of  the  lord  of  the  fief,  and  was 
individually  liable  to  him  for  rents  or  military  service ;  but  later  many  of  the  towns  as 
towns,  that  is,  as  corporate  bodies,  became  responsible  for  the  rents  and  services  due 
the  lord.  It  was  not  until  the  towns  came  to  act  in  their  corporate  capacity  that 
they  became  an  important  factor  in  the  political  system. 


TOWNS    ENTER   THE   FEUDAL   SYSTEM 


71 


he  baron,  prince,  prelate,  king,  or  emperor,  and  must  pay  him 
feudal  tribute  and  aid  him  in  his  war  enterprises. 

As  the  cities,  through  their  manufactures  and  trade,  were  the 
most  wealthy  members  of  the  feudal  system,  the  lords  naturally 
looked  to  them  for  money  when  in  need.  Their  demands  and 
exactions  at  last  became  unendurable,  and  a  long  struggle  broke 
out  betA\'een  them  and  the  burghers,  which  resulted  in  what  is 
known  as  the  enfranchisement  of  the  towns. 

It  was  in  the  eleventh  century  that  this  revolt  of  the  cities 
against  the  feudal  lords  became  general.  The  burghers  by  this 
time  had  made  their  walls  strong  and  had  learned  to  fight, — 
if  indeed  they  had  ever  forgotten  that  art.  They  became  bold 
enough  to  defy 
their  lord,  —to 
shut  their  gates  in 
the  face  of  his  tax- 
gatherer,  and  even 
in  the  face  of  the 
lord  himself,  even 
though  he  were 
king  or  emperor, 
when  he  came  to 
parley  with  them. 
The  contest -lasted 
two  centuries  and 
more. . 

The  advantage 
in  the  end  rested 
with  the  burghers. 
In  process  of  time 
the  greater  number  of  the  towns  of  the  countries  of  Western 
Europe  either  bought  with  money,  which  was  the  usual  mode  of 
enfranchisement  of  English  and  German  cities,  or  wrested  by  force 
of  arms  charters  from  their  lords  or  suzerains.  Many  lords,  how- 
ever, of  their  own  free  will  gave  charters  to  the  towns  within  their 
fiefs,  granting  them  various  exemptions  and  privileges,  for  the 


Fig.  31.  —  A  Count  and  his  Wife  granting  a 
Charter  to  a  City.  (From  a  fifteenth-century 
manuscript ;  after  Lacroix) 


172  THE   GROWTH    OF   THE   TOWNS 

reason  that  this  fostered  their  growth  and  prosperity  and  made 
them  more  profitable  vassals  and  tenants. 

In  many  cases  the  charters  simply  defined  the  ancient  customs 
and  privileges  of  the  favored  towns  and  guaranteed  them  against 
unreasonable  and  arbitrary  demands  on  the  part  of  their  lord. 
Even  this,  however,  was  a  great  gain ;  and  as,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  their  charters,  the  cities  grew  in  wealth  and  population, 
many  of  them  in  some  countries  became  at  last  strong  enough 
to  cast  off  all  actual  dependence  upon  lord  or  king,  became  in 
effect  independent  states,  —  little  commonwealths.  Especially 
was  this  true  in  the  case  of  the  Italian  cities,  and  in  a  less 
marked  degree  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  German  towns. 
Respecting  the  fortunes  of  the  cities  in  these  two  countries 
we  shall  speak  with  some  detail  in  later  paragraphs. 

184.  The  Industrial  Life  of  the  Towns;  the  Gilds. — The 
towns  were  the  workshops  of  the  later  Middle  Ages.  The  most 
noteworthy  characteristics  of  their  industrial  life  are  connected 
with  certain  corporations  or  fraternities  known  as  gilds.  There 
were  two  chief  classes  of  these,  the  gild  merchant  and  the  craft 
gilds.  The  gild  merchant  appears  in  the  towns  as  soon  as  their 
commercial  life  becomes  in  any  way  active,  that  is  to  say,  about 
the  eleventh  century.  The  members  of  the  fraternity,  speaking 
generally,  were  the  chief  landowners  and  traders  of  the  place,  and 
in  many  towns  the  city  government  was  more  or  less  completely 
in  their  hands. 

Later,  as  trade  developed,  the  craftsmen  began  to  form  sepa- 
rate fellowships  on  the  model  of  the  earlier  society.  We  hear 
of  unions  of  the  shoemakers,  the  bakers,  the  weavers,  the  spin- 
ners, the  dyers,  the  millers,  and  so  on  to  the  end.  In  some  cities 
there  were  upwards  of  fifty  of  these  associations. 

No  sooner  had  these  plebeian  societies  grown  strong  than,  in 
many  of  the  Continental  cities,  they  entered  into  a  bitter  struggle 
with  the  patrician  gild  merchant  for  a  share  in  the  municipal 
government  or  for  participation  in  its  trade  monopoly.  This 
conflict,  in  some  of  its  features,  reminds  us  of  that  between 
patrician   and   plebeian   in    ancient   Rome.     It   lasted  for  two 


THE   HANSEATIC   LEAGUE  1 73 

centuries  and  more,  —  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  mark 
the  height  of  the  struggle  on  the  Continent,  —  and  during  all 
this  time  filled  the  towns  with  strenuous  confusion.  The  outcome, 
speaking  in  general  terms,  was  the  triumph  of  the  craftsmen. 

The  internal  history  of  the  towns  during  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  is  very  largely  the  story  of  the  gilds  in  their 
manifold  activities.  This  story,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
even  in  outline  in  our  short  space.  We  must  content  ourselves 
with  having  merely  indicated  the  place  of  these  interesting 
fraternities  in  the  life  of  the  mediaeval  towns. 

185.  The  Hanseatic  League.  —  When,  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  the  towns  of  Ngrthern  Europe  began  to  extend 
their  commercial  connections,  the  greatest  drawback  to  their 
trade  was  the  insecurity  and  disorder  that  everywhere  prevailed. 
The  trader  who  intrusted  his  goods  to  the  overland  routes  was 
in  danger  of  losing  them  at  the  hands  of  the  robber  nobles,  who 
watched  all  the  lines  of  travel  and  either  robbed  the  merchant 
outright  or  levied  an  iniquitous  toll  upon  his  goods.  Nor  was 
the  way  by  sea  beset  with  less  peril.  Piratical  crafts  scoured  the 
waters  and  made  booty  of  any  luckless  merchantman  they  might 
overpower  or  lure  to  wreck  upon  the  dangerous  shores. 

Finally,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  some  of 
the  German  cities,  among  which  Liibeck  and  Hamburg  were 
prominent,  began  to  form  temporary  alliances  for  protecting 
their  merchants  against  pirates  and  robbers.  These  transient 
leagues  finally  led  to  the  formation  of  the  celebrated  Hanseatic  * 
League,  whose  firm  organization  as  a  political  power  dates  from 
near  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  confederation 
came  to  embrace  eighty  or  more  —  the  number  is  uncertain  —  of 
the  principal  towns  of  North  Germany.  The  league  organized 
armies,  equipped  navies,  and  exercised  all  the  powers  of  sover- 
eignty.   It  was  "  mediaeval  Germany  on  the  sea." 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  trading  operations  of  its  members,  the 
league  maintained  in  different  foreign  cities  factories,  magazines, 
inns,  and  chapels.  These  stations  were  somewhat  like  the 
2  From  the  old  German  hansa,  a  "  confederation  "  or  "  union." 


174 


THE   GROWTH    OF   THE   TOWNS 


settlements  established  to-day  by  Europeans  in  the  countries  of  the 
Far  East.  The  most  noted  centers  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
confederation  were  the  cities  of  Bruges,  London,  Bergen,  Wisby, 
and  Novgorod.  The  league  thus  became  a  vast  monopoly,  which 
endeavored  to  control  in  the  interests  of  its  own  members  the 
entire  commerce  of  Northern  Europe. 

i86.  Causes  of   the   Dissolution   of   the  League.  —  Numerous 
causes  concurred  to  undermine  the  prosperity  of  the  Hansa  towns 


The  Hansa  Towns  and  their  Chief  Foreign  Settlements 


and  to  bring  about  the  dissolution  of  the  league.  Most  promi- 
nent among  these  was  the  development  of  the  manufactures  and 
trade  of  the  peoples  whom  the  German  merchants  had  for  a  time 
commercially  subjected.  The  native  traders  now  naturally  became 
jealous  of  these  foreigners,  and  the  sovereigns  of  the  land  in 
which  they  had  been  allowed  to  establish  settlements  found  it  to 
their  interest  to  annul  the  privileges  formerly  granted  them  and 
to  encourage  home  industry  and  trade. 

Another  agency  of  disruption  was  the  great  maritime  dis- 
coveries of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  which  trans- 
ferred the  centers  of  commercial  activity  as  well  from  the  Baltic 


EARLY    GROWTH    Ob    THE    ITALIAN   CITIES      1 75 

as  from  the  Mediterranean  ports  to  the  harbors  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  Finally,  the  Reformation  and  the  accompanying  reli- 
gious wars  in  Germany,  which  brought  many  of  the  Hansa  towns 
to  utter  ruin,  completed  the  dissolution  of  the  league. 

187.  Causes  of  the  Early  Growth  of  the  Italian  Cities But  it 

was  in  Italy  that  the  mediaeval  municipalities  had  their  most 
remarkable  development  and  acquired  the  greatest  power  and 
influence.  A  variety  of  circumstances  and  causes  concurred  in 
promoting  their  early  and  rapid  growth. 

First,  these  cities  were  the  heirs  of  the  great  Roman  past  in  a 
truer  sense  than  were  any  of  the  towns  outside  of  Italy.  If  in 
most  of  them  no  part  of  the  actual  machinery  of  the  ancient 
municipal  government  was  any  longer  in  existence,  still  the 
inspiring  memories  and  traditions  of  old-time  liberties  had  not 
yet  been  forgotten. 

Second,  their  political  development  was  favored  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  unity  of  the  peninsula  by  the  Lombards  (sec.  13). 
There  being  no  strong  central  authority,  the  cities  came  naturally 
to  assume  large  governmental  responsibilities  and  to  stand  to 
one  another  in  the  relation  of  independent  states. 

Third,  the  weak  development  of  feudalism  in  the  peninsula  fav- 
ored the  growth  of  the  municipalities.  The  cities,  instead  of  being 
brought  in  vassalage  to  the  barons  as  happened  almost  everywhere 
else,  brought  the  barons  themselves  into  subjection.  The  lords, 
either  through  choice  or  by  compulsion,  became  citizens  of  the 
towns.  This  absorption  of  the  feudal  nobility  into  the  citizenship 
of  the  towns  greatly  strengthened  them  and  contributed  largely 
to  the  development  of  that  diversity  of  life  and  that  extraordinary 
energy  of  character  which  distinguished  the  inhabitants  of  these 
city-republics. 

Fourth,  the  long  struggle  between  the  Papacy  and  the  Empire 
tended  greatly  to  enhance  the  liberties  of  the  Italian  cities.  The 
Pope  and  Emperor  were  constantly  bidding  against  each  other  for 
the  help  of  the  cities,  —  a  situation  which  they  took  advantage 
of  to  make  themselves  practically  independent  of  all  superior 
control. 


1/6  THE   GROWTH    OF   THE  TOWNS 

But  the  main  direct  cause  of  the  material  prosperity  and 
indirectly  of  the  political  power  of  the  most  important  of  the 
Italian  coast  cities  was  their  trade  with  the  East,  and  the  enor- 
mous impulse  it  received  from  the  Crusades.  Particularly  did  the 
merchants  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa  become  immensely  rich 
through  the  vast  transport  business  thrown  into  their  hands  by 
the  crusading  movement. 

The  poHtical  history  of  these  Italian  cities  is  very  intricate  and 
uninteresting;  but  their  social,  artistic,  and  commercial  records 
form  the  most  brilliant  pages  of  the  annals  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
There  are,  however,  three  important  matters  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  their  general  political  history :  (i)  the 
formation  of  the  Lombard  League ;  (2)  the  dissensions  of  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries;  and  (3)  the  rise  of  despots  in 
the  cities.  We  shall  speak  of  each  of  these  matters  under  a  sepa- 
rate head,  and  then  shall  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the  more 
interesting  and  instructive  circumstances  in  the  separate  com- 
mercial or  intellectual  life  of  the  representative  states  of  Venice, 
Genoa,  and  Florence. 

188.  The  Lombard  League. — As  we  have  previously  noticed, 
a  great  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  Italian  cities  was  reached  when 
Frederick  Barbarossa  became  Emperor  (sec.  162).  Frederick 
held  very  lofty  views  of  the  Empire  and  its  providential  place  in 
the  government  of  the  world,  so  that  not  merely  a  very  natural 
ambition  but  conceptions  of  duty  caused  him  to  maintain  unyield- 
ingly the  imperial  rights.  He  was  influenced  doubtless  by  the 
civil  lawyers  who  just  now  were  engaging  with  great  enthusiasm 
in  the  study  of  the  old  Roman  law.  Now  this  law  had  made  the 
authority  of  the  Emperor  over  the  cities  of  the  Empire  virtually 
absolute.  It  was  very  natural  then  that  Frederick,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  jurists,  should  have  persuaded  himself  that  the 
Italian  cities  had  been  making  encroachments  upon  the  imperial 
authority,  and  that  it  would  be  right  for  him  to  resume  the  power 
which  his  immediate  predecessors  had  allowed  to  slip  out  of  their 
hands.  He  would  rule  as  had  Justinian,  Charlemagne,  and  Otto  I. 
With   Frederick  entertaining  such  conceptions  of  the  imperial 


THE    LOMBARD    LEAGUE  1 77 

prerogatives,  a  struggle  between  him  and  the  Italian  cities  was  in- 
evitable. To  them  his  claims  meant  tyranny  ;  to  him  theirs  meant 
license  and  anarchy.  Consequently,  when  Frederick  attempted  to 
place  his  own  judges  in  the  towns,  to  take  away  from  them  the 
right  of  waging  private  war,  and  to  place  other  restrictions  upon 
them,  there  came  an  armed  conflict  which  lasted  for  thirty  years. 
We  may  say  of  this  war  between  the  Emperor  and  his  city  vassals, 
as  has  been  said  of  our  late  Civil  War,  that  it  was  fought  to  get 
a  definition  of  a  constitution,  —  the  unwritten  constitution  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Frederick  repeatedly  descended  into  Italy  with  an  army  to 
enforce  his  authority,  and  captured  and  burned  several  of  the 
cities  of  Lombardy.  At  last  the  powerful  city  of  Milan,  which 
had  heroically  withstood  his  arms,  fell  into  his  hands.  He  scat- 
tered its  inhabitants  in  villages,  after  the  old  Greek  fashion  of 
destroying  a  city,  and  razed  to  the  ground  its  walls  and  buildings 
(1162). 

A  confederation  known  as  the  Lombard  League  was  now  formed 
by  the  exiled  Milanese  and  a  large  number  of  the  cities  of  North- 
ern Italy  for  the  purpose  of  avenging  the  wrongs  of  Milan  and 
resisting  the  Emperor's  pretensions.  The  banded  cities  stood  firm 
for  their  cherished  liberties.  Finally,  on  the  field  of  Legnano,  in 
1 176,  the  Milanese  and  their  allies,  rallying  around  the  sacred 
carroccio^  inflicted  upon  the  imperial  army  an  overwhelming 
defeat.  A  truce  of  six  years  was  the  prelude  to  the  Peace  of  Con- 
stance (1183).  By  this  agreement  the  Emperor's  authority  over 
the  cities  was  reduced  virtually  to  a  titular  and  idle  suzerainty,* 
while  their  right  to  manage  their  own  internal  affairs  and  to  wage 
private  war  was  acknowledged. 

8  In  the  eleventh  century  Heribert,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  invented  for  that  city  an 
ensign  consisting  of  a  pole  bearing  the  crucifix  and  raised  on  a  chariot,  —  hence  called 
the  carroccio.  The  car  was  drawn  by  four  yokes  of  oxen  and  was,  like  the  ancient 
Ark  of  the  Israelites,  of  which  it  was  a  sort  of  imitation,  the  rallying  point  of  the 
army  on  the  battlefield.  Many  of  the  other  cities  followed  the  example  of  Milan,  and 
under  these  curious  standards,  "  the  sign  and  symbol  of  all  they  held  dear,"  the 
Italian  cities  marched  in  their  short  but  brilliant  career  of  freedom. 

4  The  Emperor  retained  the  right  to  place  representatives  in  the  cities  and  to 
receive  food,  forage,  and  lodging  for  his  army  when  he  might  chance  to  visit  Italy. 


178  THE   GROWTH    OF  THE   TOWNS 

189.  Dissensions  among  the  Italian  Cities ;  the  Age  of  Liberty. 

— The  cities  had  preserved  or  rather  recovered  their  hberties. 
They  had  secured  at  Constance  confirmation  particularly  of  the 
cherished  right  of  private  war.  This  was  a  fatal  privilege.  They 
misused  it  and  brought  upon  themselves  no  end  of  trouble  and 
suffering.  For  a  century  and  more  they  waged  ever-renewed, 
bitter,  and  sanguinary  wars  upon  one  another. 

The  causes  of  dissension  were  many  and  near  at  hand.  "The 
cities  fought,"  says  Symonds,  ''for  command  of  seaports,  passes, 
rivers,  roads,  and  all  the  avenues  of  wealth  and  plenty."  But 
besides  the  numerous  causes  of  strife  between  the  different  re- 
publics, there  were  elements  of  discord  within  the  walls  of  each 
individual  city.  The  struggle  between  the  Papacy  and  the  Empire, 
in  which  the  Italians  perforce  took  part,  divided  the  population  of 
each  town  into  two  parties,  —  the  Ghibellines,  who  adhered  to  the 
Emperor,  and  the  Guelphs,^  who  espoused  the  cause  of  his  enemy, 
the  Pope.  The  history  of  civil  dissensions  might  be  searched  in 
vain  for  a  parallel  to  the  bitterness  and  vindictiveness  with  which 
the  struggle  between  these  parties  was  carried  on  for  centuries. 

Still  another  very  fruitful  source  of  disorder  and  violence  in  the 
cities  was  the  presence  there  of  the  feudal  lords  (sec.  187).  In 
other  lands  these  quarrelsome  folk  fought  out  their  feuds  in  the 
open  country ;  in  Italy,  in  the  streets  of  the  cities. 

Nevertheless,  though  fraught  with  so  many  evils,  "  Liberty,"  as 
declares  Herodotus  in  speaking  of  democratic  Athens, "  Liberty  is 
a  brave  thing."  The  strenuous  freedom  of  the  Italian  cities  fos- 
tered great  talents  and  great  virtues  in  their  citizens.  The  eminent 
Florentine  historian  Guicciardini  attributes  the  prosperity  and 
brilliant  culture  of  the  Italian  cities  during  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  to  the  local  independence  they  then  enjoyed. 

190.  The  Rise  of  Despots.  —  The  constant  wars  of  the  Italian 
cities  with  each  other  and  the  incessant  strife  of  parties  within 

6  These  names,  which  were  of  German  origin,  became  at  last  mere  party  shib- 
boleths. Speaking  in  a  very  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Ghibellines  repre- 
sented the  intrusive  Teutonic  element  and  favored  a  feudal,  aristocratic  organization 
of  society,  while  the  Guelphs  represented  the  old  Roman  population  and  were 
supporters  of  liberal  democratic  institutions. 


THE  RISE   OF   DESPOTS  179 

each  community  led  to  the  same  issue  as  that  to  which  tended 
the  endless  contentions  and  divisions  of  the  (ireek  cities  in  ancient 
times.  Their  democratic  institutions  were  overthrown,  internecine 
war  and  strife  having  resulted  in  anarchy,  and  anarchy  having  led, 
as  always,  to  tyranny. 

By  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  almost  all  the  republics  of 
Northern  and  Central  Italy  down  to  the  papal  states,  save  Venice, 
Genoa,  and  the  cities  of  Tuscany,  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
domestic  tyrants,  many  of  whom  by  their  crimes  and  their  intol- 
erable tyranny  rendered  themselves  as  odious  as  the  worst  of  the 
tyrants  who  usurped  supreme  power  in  the  free  cities  of  ancient 
Hellas.  They  possessed,  many  of  them,  a  remarkable  **  energy  for 
crime."  Their  strenuous  wickedness  filled  the  land  with  violence 
and  terror. 

One  thing  which  enabled  these  usurpers  to  seize  the  supreme 
power  in  the  cities  was  the  decay  of  the  military  spirit  in  their 
inhabitants.  The  burghers  became  immersed  in  business  and  dele- 
gated the  defense  of  their  cities  to  mercenaries.  The  captains  of 
these  hirelings  were  known  as  condottieri.  Some  of  them  were 
foreign  adventurers ;  all  were  soldiers  of  fortune.  They  found  it 
easy  to  overthrow  the  liberties  of  the  cities  which  they  had  been 
hired  to  defend. 

We  shall  now  relate  some  circumstances,  for  the  most  part  of 
a  commercial  or  social  character,  which  concern  som^  of  the 
most  renowned  of  the  Italian  city-states. 

191.  Venice.  —  Venice,  the  most  famous  of  the  Italian  cities, 
had  its  beginnings  in  the  fifth  century  in  the  rude  huts  of  some 
refugees  who  fled  out  into  the  marshes  of  the  Adriatic  to  escape 
the  fury  of  the  Huns  of  Attila.  Here,  secure  from  the  pursuit  of 
the  barbarians,  who  were  unprovided  with  boats,  they  gradually 
built  up,  on  some  low  islets,  a  number  of  little  villages,  which 
finally,  towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  coalesced  to  form 
a  single  city,  at  whose  head  was  placed  a  ruler  bearing  the  title 
of  Duke,  or  Doge,  a  name  destined  to  acquire  a  wide  renown. 

Conquests  and  negotiations  gradually  extended  century  after 
century  the  possessions  of  the  island  republic,  until  she  finally 


1 80 


THE   GROWTH    OF   THE   TOWNS 


came  to  control  the  coast  and  waters  of  the  Eastern  Mediter- 
ranean in  much  the  same  way  that  Carthage  had  mastery  of  the 
Western  Mediterranean  at  the  time  of  the  First  Punic  War.  Even 
before  the  Crusades  her  trade  with  the  East  was  very  extensive, 
and  by  those  expeditions  was  expanded  into  enormous  dimensions. 
The  sea  between  Italy  and  the  ports  of  Egypt  and  Syria  was 
whitened  with  the  sails  of  her  transports  and  war  galleys.  It  will 
be  recalled  that  she  took  part  in  the  Fourth  Crusade,  which 
resulted  in  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latin  Christians 
(sec.  148).    As  her  share  of  the  divided  lands  of  the  Eastern 

Empire  she  received 
the  Peloponnesus,  most 
of  the  Greek  islands,  and 
the  shore  lands  of  the 
Hellespont,  —  a  goodly 
empire  of  the  sea. 

Venice  was  at  the 
height  of  her  power  dur- 
ing the  thirteenth,  four- 
teenth, and  fifteenth 
centuries.  Her  suprem- 
acy on  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea,  which  was  as 
complete  as  is  England's  on  the  ocean  to-day,  was  celebrated  each 
year  by  the  unique  ceremony  of  "Wedding  the  Adriatic  "  by  the 
dropping  of  a  ring  into  the  sea.  The  origin  of  this  custom  was  as  fol- 
lows. In  the  year  1 1 7  7  Pope  Alexander  HI,  out  of  gratitude  to  the 
Venetians  for  services  rendered  him  in  his  quarrel  with  the  Emperor 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  gave  a  ring  to  the  Doge  with  these  words : 
"Take  this  as  a  token  of  dominion  over  the  sea,  and  wed  her 
every  year,  you  and  your  successors  forever,  in  order  that  all  may 
know  that  the  sea  belongs  to  Venice  and  is  subject  to  her  as  a  bride 
is  subject  to  her  husj)and."  This  annual  celebration  of  the  cere- 
mony was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  spectacles  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  maritime  power  and  ascendancy  of  Venice  was  embodied 
in  her  famous  Arsenal.    This  consisted  of  a  series  of  wharves, 


Fig.  32.  —  State  Barge  of  Venice  used 
IN  THE  Ceremony  of  "Wedding  the 
Adriatic."  (From  a  model  preserved  in 
the  Venetian  Arsenal ;  after  Lacroix) 


VKiNiCK    AND    (^rKNOA 


l8l 


dockyards,  and  vast  magazines  filled  with  marine  war-engines  and 
military  stores  of  every  kind.  In  the  city's  palmiest  day  sixteen 
thousand  shipbuilders,  workmen,  and  guards  were  employed  here. 
The  Arsenal  was  one  of  the  sights  of  Europe  and  is  still  an  object 
of  interest  to  the  curious  traveler.  Dante  introduced  in  his 
Inferno^  a  celebrated  description  of  the  place,  doubtless  from 
personal  knowledge  of  it. 

The  decline  of  Venice  dates  from  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
conquests  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks 
during  this  century 
deprived  her  of 
much  of  the  terri- 
tory she  held  east 
of  the  Adriatic, 
and  finally  the  dis- 
covery of  the  New 
World  by  Colum- 
bus and  of  an  un- 
broken water  route 
to  India  by  Vasco 
da  Gama  gave  a 
deathblow  to  her 
From 


(From  a 


Fig.  33.  — a  Canal  in  Venice. 
photograph) 

commerce.     "" 

this  time  on  the  trade  with  the  East  was  to  be  conducted  from 

the  Atlantic  ports  instead  of  from  those  in  the  Mediterranean. 

192.  Genoa.  — Genoa,  on  the  old  Ligurian  coast,  was  after 
Venice  the  most  powerful  of  the  Italian  maritime  cities.  She  early 
crushed  her  near  competitor  Pisa,^  and  then  entered  into  a  fierce 
competition  with  Venice  for  the  control  of  the  trade  of  the  Orient. 

The  period  of  Genoa's  greatest  prosperity  dates  from  the 
recapture  of  Constantinople  from  the  Latins  by  the  Greeks  in 

•  Canto  xxi,  7-19. 

7  Pisa  is  located  a  little  to  the  south  of  Genoa,  on  the  same  coast.  The  first 
battle  between  the  navies  of  the  two  republics  was  fought  in  1070.  Thenceforward 
for  two  centuries  the  rival  cities  were  engaged  in  an  almost  continuous  war,  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  complete  destruction  of  the  power  of  Pisa. 


1 82  THE   GROWTH    OF   THE   TOWNS 

1 26 1.  Through  jealousy  of  the  Venetians,  the  Genoese  assisted 
the  Greeks  in  the  recovery  of  Constantinople  and  in  return 
were  given  various  commercial  privileges  in  places  along  the 
Bosporus.  Very  soon  they  established  stations  upon  the  shores 
of  the  Euxine  and  began  to  carry  on  a  lucrative  trade  with 
Eastern  Asia  by  way  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian. 

The  jealousy  with  which  the  Venetians  regarded  the  prosperity 
of  the  Genoese  led  to  oft-renewed  war  between  the  two  rival 
republics.  For  nearly  two  centuries  their  hostile  fleets  contended, 
as  did  the  navies  of  Rome  and  Carthage,  for  the  supremacy  of 
the  sea.  In  the  year  1380  Venice  inflicted  upon  her  rival  a  ter- 
rible naval  defeat  which  crippled  her  permanently. 

The  final  blow  to  Genoa's  prosperity,  however,  was  given  by 
the  irruption  into  Europe  of  the  Mongols  and  the  Ottoman 
Turks,  and  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  latter  in  1453 
(sec.  179).  The  Genoese  traders  were  now  driven  from  the 
Black  Sea,  and  their  traflic  with  Eastern  Asia  was  completely 
broken  up ;  for  the  Venetians  had  control  of  the  ports  of  Egypt 
and  Syria  and  the  southern  routes  to  India  and  the  countries 
beyond,  —  that  is,  the  routes  by  way  of  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Red  Sea. 

193.  Florence.  — Florence,  "  the  most  illustrious  and  fortunate 
of  Italian  republics,"  although  from  her  inland  location  upon  the 
Arno  shut  out  from  engaging  in  those  naval  enterprises  that  con- 
ferred wealth  and  importance  upon  the  coast  cities  of  Venice, 
Genoa,  and  Pisa,  became,  notwithstanding,  through  the  skill, 
industry,  enterprise,  and  genius  of  her  citizens,  the  great  manu- 
facturing, financial,  literary,  and  art  center  of  the  later  mediae- 
val centuries.  The  list  of  her  illustrious  citizens,  of  her  poets, 
statesmen,  historians,  architects,  sculptors,  and  painters  is  more 
extended  than  that  of  any  other  city  of  mediaeval  times;  and 
indeed,  as  respects  the  number  of  her  great  men,  Florence  is  per- 
haps unrivaled  by  any  city  of  the  ancient  or  modern  world  save 
Athens.  In  her  long  roll  of  fame  we  find  the  names  of  Dante, 
Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Machiavelli,  Michael  Angelo,  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  Galileo,  Amerigo  Vespucci,  and  the  Medici. 


•..: 


THEIR   SERVICES   TO   CIVILIZATION  183 

About  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  Florence  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  celebrated  Medici,*  a  Florentine  family  that  had 
grown  rich  and  powerful  through  mercantile  enterprises.  These 
usurpers  of  liberty  were  fortunately  enlightened  despots  and  made 
their  rule  generally  acceptable  to  the  Florentines  through  a  mu- 
nificent patronage  extended  to  artists  and  scholars,  an  unstinted 
liberality  in  the  prosecution  of  magnificent  public  works,  and  the 
glory  they  shed  upon  Florence  by  the  maintenance  of  a  brilliant 
court. 

194.  Services  to  Civilization  of  the  Mediaeval  Towns.  —  Modern 
civilization  inherited  much  from  each  of  the  three  great  centers 
of  mediaeval  life,  —  the  monastery,  the  castle,  and  the  town.  We 
have  noticed  what  came  out  of  cloister  and  o^ baronial  hall,  what 
the  monk  and  what  the  baron  contributed  to  civilization.*  We 
must  now  see  what  came  out  of  the  town,  what  contribution 
the  burgher  made  to  European  life  and  culture. 

In  the  first  place,  the  mediaeval  cities  bequeathed  to  modem 
times  certain  valuable  economic  ideals  and  principles.  It  was  in 
the  heart  of  these  communities,  as  within  the  early  Benedictine 
monasteries,  that  labor,  almost  for  the  first  time  in  history,  if  we 
except  the  teachings  and  practices  of  the  Hebrews,  was  emanci- 
pated and  the  stigma  put  upon  it  by  slavery  and  serfdom 
removed.^**  In  the  cities  of  ancient  Greece  and  Italy,  speaking 
generally,  trading,  save  in  a  large  way,  and  all  manual  employ- 
ments were  given  over  into  servile  hands ;  a  citizen  engaging  in 
business  was  in  some  cases  punished  by  being  deprived  of  his 
citizenship,  since  he  was  regarded  as  having  dishonored  himself, 
or,  in  the  words  of  Plato,  as  having  **  thrown  dirt  on  his  father's 
house.""    In  the  mediaeval  towns,  on  the  contrary,  it  was  a  very 

8  The  two  most  distinguished  names  of  the  house  are  those  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici 
(i 389-1464),  who  was  called  the  "  Friend  of  the  People  and  the  Father  of  his  Coun- 
try," and  Lorenzo,  his  grandson  (1448- 1492),  who  had  bestowed  upon  him  the  title 
of  "  The  Magnificent."  ^  See  sees.  32  and  lor. 

i<>  Serfdom  was  early  extinguished  in  the  towns,  which  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  agencies,  both  through  direct  action  and  indirect  influence,  in  the  abolition 
of  rural  serfdom. 

11 "  He  who  in  any  way  shares  in  the  illiberality  of  retail  trades  may  be  indicted  by 
any  one  who  likes  for  dishonoring  his  race,  before  those  who  are  judged  to  be  first  in 


i84 


THE   GROWTH    OF   THE   TOWNS 


general  rule  that  only  the  members  of  the  merchant  and  craft 
gilds  could  have  lot  and  part  in  the  municipal  government. 
This  meant  that  here  labor  had  ceased  to  be  servile  and  was 
coming  to  be  looked  upon,  at  least  by  the  laborers  themselves, 
as    honorable.     This    new   feeHng    regarding    labor    the    towns 


Fig.  34.  —  The  Cologne  Cathedral.    (From  a  photograph) 

This  edifice  was  begun  in  the  eleventh  century,  but  was  not  finished  until  our 
own  day  (1880).  It  is  one  of  the  most  imposing  monuments  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  the  world 


transmitted  to  the  Modern  Age.  This  was  one  of  the  most 
precious  elements  of  their  great  bequest. 

In  the  second  place,  the  towns  were  the  cradle  of  modern  com- 
merce, that  is  of  trade  on  a  large  scale  between  widely  separated 
cities  and  lands.    It  was  through  the  activity  and  enterprise  of 

virtue;  and  if  he  appear  to  throw  dirt  upon  his  father's  house  by  an  unworthy  occu- 
pation, let  him  be  imprisoned  for  a  year  and  abstain  from,  that  sort  of  thing." — 
Laws,  xi.  919  (Jowett's  trans.).  So  also  Aristotle.  Speaking  of  the  state  which  is  best 
governed,  he  says :  "  The  citizens  .  .  .  must  not  lead  the  life  of  mechanics  or  trades- 
men, for  such  life  is  ignoble  and  inimical  to  virtue."  —  Politics,  vii.  9  (Jowett's  trans.). 


THEIR  SERVICES  TO  CIVILIZATION 


185 


the  mediaeval  merchant  and  trader  that  was  laid  the  basis  of  that 
vast  system  of  international  exchange  and  traffic  which  forms  so 
characteristic  a  feature  of  modem  European  civilization. 

In  the  third  place,  the  mediaeval  cities,  along  with  the  monas- 
teries, were  the  foster  home  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  paint- 
ing. These  things,  as  has  been  well  said,  are  "  the  beautiful 
flowers  of  free  city  life."  The  old  picturesque 
high-gabled  houses,  the  sculptured  gild  halls, 
the  artistic  gateways,  the  superb  palaces,  and 
the  imposing  cathedrals  found  in  so  many 
of  the  cities  of  Eu- 
rope to-day  bear  wit- 
ness to  the  important 
place  which  the 
mediaeval  towns  hold 
in  the  history  of 
architecture  and  art.^^ 

In  the  fourth  place, 
the  towns  were  the 
birthplace  of  modem 
political  liberty. 
They  became  such 
through  giving  so- 
ciety a  new  order  at 
a  time  when  political 
society  was  made  up 
of  orders.  In  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  there  were 
only  two  classes,  or 


Fig.  35.  —  Town  Hall  of  Lou  vain 

(After  Lubke) 

This  magnificent  Gothic  edifice  dates  from  the 

fifteenth  century 


orders,  in  the  state  which  had  participation  in  the  government, 
—  the  nobility  and  the  clergy.    The  inhabitants  of  the  towns 

12  The  enthusiasm  for  church  building  was  most  marked  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries.  The  style  of  architecture  first  employed  was  the  Romanesque, 
characterized  by  the  rounded  arch  and  the  dome;  but  towards  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  this  was  superseded  by  th^  Gothic,  distinguished  by  the  pointed 
arch,  the  slender  spire,  and  rich  ornamentation. 


l86  THE   GROWTH   OF  THE   TOWNS 

grew  into  a  new  order  destined  to  a  great  political  future,  the 
so-called  Third  Estate,  or  Commons}^  During  the  course  of 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  the  representatives  of 
the  towns  came  to  sit  along  with  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  in  the 
national  diets  or  parliaments  of  the  different  countries.^'*  What 
this  meant  for  the  development  of  modern  parliamentary  govern- 
ment we  shall  learn  later. 

In  the  fifth  place,  it  was  the  most  typical  of  the  free  cities, 
those  of  Italy,  which  gave  to  the  world  the  Renaissance,  that 
great  essentially  intellectual  movement  which  marked  the  latter 
part  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  relation  of  the  Italian  cities  to  this 
mental  awakening  will  be  made  the  subject  of  a  section  further  on 
(sec.  279). 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Lee,  Source-Book,  §  56,  "  Charter  of 
the  City  of  London  (from  Henry  I)."  Colby,  Selections,  p.  70,  "  A  Town 
Charter."  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  ii,  No.  I,  "  English  Towns  and 
Gilds"  (ed.  by  Edward  P.  Cheyney).  Ettropean  History  Studies  (Univ.  of 
Nebraska),  vol.  ii,  Nos.  8  and  9,  "  The  Rise  of  Cities  "  and  "  The  Trades  of 
Paris."    Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  chap,  xviii  (last  part). 

Secondary  Works.  —  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  Lect. 
vii,  "  Rise  of  the  Free  Cities."  Green,  Town  Life  in  the  Eifteenth  Cen- 
tury. Gross,  The  Gild  Merchant.  The  best  authority  on  the  subject  it 
covers.  Zimmern,  The  Hansa  Tozuns.  Symonds,  Age  of  the  Despots, 
chaps,  iii  and  iv.  Hazlitt,  The  Venetian  Repiiblic.  The  standard 
authority  in  English.  Weil,  Venice,  chaps,  i-xii.  Duffy,  The  Tuscan 
Republics  {Florence,  Siena,  Pisa,  and  Lucca)  tvith  Genoa.  Emerton, 
MedicBval  Europe,  chap,  xv  (last  part).  Adams,  Civilization  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  chap,  xii,  "The  Growth  of  Commerce  and  its  Results." 
Cheyney,  An  Lntroduction  to  the  Lndustrial  and  Social  History  of  Eng- 
land, chaps,  iii  and  iv.  Munro  and  Sellery,  Mediaeval  Civilization, 
pp.  358-365.  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Makers  of  Venice.  In  the  "Mediaeval 
Towns"  series  there  are  separate  volumes  on  Florence,  Nuremberg, 
Bruges,  etc.,  which  contain  chapters  of  interest. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  Gilds.  2.  Frederick  Barbarossa 
and  Milan.  3,  The  carroccio.  4.  A  typical  Italian  despot.  See  Symond's 
Age  of  the  Despots.  5.  The  Wedding  of  the  Adriatic.  6.  The  Venetian 
Arsenal.     7.  St.  Mark's  at  Venice.     8.  Cathedral  building. 

18  In  England  the  men  of  the  rural  districts,  that  is  of  the  counties,  formed  from 
the  first,  or  almost  from  the  first,  a  part  of  this  order.  In  other  countries,  however, 
it  was  not  until  a  later  time  that  the  rural  class  came  to  reenforce  the  new  estate. 

14  See  sees.  211  and  236. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  UNIVERSITIES    AND   THE   SCHOOLMEN 

195.  Introductory.  —  "History's  true  object  of  study,"  says 
Fustel  de  Coulanges,  "  is  the  human  mind ;  it  should  aspire  to 
know  what  this  mind  has  believed,  thought,  and  felt  in  the  dif- 
ferent ages  of  the  life  of  the  human  race." 

What  we  have  narrated  in  preceding  chapters  respecting  medi- 
aeval institutions  and  enterprises  will  have  revealed  to  the 
thoughtful  reader  something  at  least  of  both  the  mind  and  the 
heart  of  the  men  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Nothing,  however,  mirrors 
more  perfectly  the  purely  intellectual  life  of  those  centuries  than 
the  universities  which  the  age-spirit  called  into  existence.  For 
this  reason  we  propose  in  the  present  chapter  to  say  something 
of  these  institutions  and  of  what  was  taught  in  them. 

196.  The  Rise  and  Early  Growth  of  the  Universities.  —  It  will 
be  recalled  that  a  significant  feature  of  the  work  of  Charlemagne 
was  the  establishment  of  schools  in  connection  with  the  cathe- 
drals and  monasteries  of  his  realm  (sec.  76).  From  the  opening 
of  the  ninth  till  well  on  into  the  eleventh  century  the  lamp  of 
learning  was  fed  in  these  episcopal  and  monastic  schools, 
although  throughout  the  tenth  century  the  flame  burned  very 
low.  Closely  associated  with  these  Church  seminaries  we  find  the 
names  of  many  of  the  most  influential  men  of  the  earlier 
mediaeval  centuries. 

But  towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh  and  the  opening  of  the 
twelfth  century  a  new  intellectual  movement,  which  was  destined 
to  affect  profoundly  these  schools,  began  to  stir  Western  Christen- 
dom. This  mental  revival  was  caused  by  many  agencies,  particu- 
larly by  the  quickening  influence  of  the  Graeco-Arabian  culture  in 
Spain  and  the  Orient,  with  which  the  Christian  West  was  just 
now  being  brought  into  closer  contact  through  the  Crusades. 

187 


1 88      THE  UNIVERSITIES  AND   THE   SCHOOLMEN 

As  a  consequence  of  this  newly  awakened  intellectual  life  there 
arose  a  demand  for  more  advanced  and  specialized  instruction 
than  that  given  in  the  cloister  schools,  and  especially  for  a  freer 
and  more  secular  system  of  education,  one  that  should  prepare  a 
person  for  entering  upon  a  professional  career  as  a  physician, 
lawyer,  or  statesman.^ 

It  was  in  response  to  these  new  demands  that  the  universities 
came  into  existence.  Their  early  history  is  very  obscure  for  the 
reason  that  the  most  ancient  ones,  as  Laurie  says,"  grew  and  were 
not  founded."  Some  of  these  were  mere  expansions  of  cathedral  or 
monastery  schools;  others  developed  out  of  lay  schools  which 
had  grown  up  in  commercial  towns,  especially  in  the  Italian 
cities,  and  in  which  the  instruction  given  was  almost  wholly 
secular  in  character  and  practical  in  aim. 

The  popes  patronized  the  rising  schools,  "  beheving  that  all 
learning  tended  to  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  the 
Church";  -emperors  and  kings  granted  them  charters  confirm- 
ing their  already  acquired  privileges,  or  granting  them  fresh 
immunities,  in  the  expectation  that  they  would  prove  a  bulwark 
of  the  imperial  or  royal  authority ;  cities  fostered  their  growth  for 
the  sake  of  the  distinction  they  conferred  and  the  residents  and 
trade  they  attracted. 

It  was  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  and  the  opening  of  the 
thirteenth  century  when  the  earliest  universities  were  formally 
recognized  by  royal  and  papal  charters.  Three  of  the  most  ancient 
universities  were  the  University  of  Salerno,  noted  for  its  teachers 
in  medicine ;  the  University  of  Bologna,  frequented  for  its  instruc- 
tion in  law ;  and  the  University  of  Paris,  revered  for  the  authority 
of  its  doctors  in  theology.  Bologna  and  Paris  served  as  models 
in  organization  and  government  for  the  most  of  the  later  univer- 
sities.   The  University  of  Paris  gave  constitution  and  rules  to  so 

1  The  number  of  faculties  in  the  mediaeval  university  was  not  fixed.  A  usual 
number  was  four,  —  the  Faculty  of  Theology,  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  the  Faculty 
of  Law,  and  the  Faculty  of  Arts  (or  Philosophy).  The  course  in  arts  embraced  what 
is  to-day  covered  by  the  courses  in  letters  and  science,  and  served  as  a  preparation 
for  entrance  upon  one  of  the  three  specialized  professional  courses,  though  most  of 
the  students  never  went  beyond  it. 


UNIVERSITY   ORGANIZATION  189 

many  as  to  earn  the  designation  of  *'  the  Mother  of  Universities 
and  the  Sinai  of  the  Middle  Ages." 

197.  University  Organization  :  the  "  Nations,"  or  Gilds.  — 
Many  features  of  the  mediaeval  university  can  be  understood 
only  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  in  the  mediaeval  town  the  alien 
was  almost  as  wholly  without  rights,  both  political  and  civil,  as 
was  the  alien  in  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  and  that  in  case  of  most 
of  the  universities,  not  only  the  students,  but  the  masters  as  well, 
were  almost  all  noncitizens  of  the  towns  in  which  they  gathered. 
Consequently,  for  the  sake  of  comradeship,  for  mutual  assistance 
and  "  the  avenging  of  injuries,"  the  students,  either  alone  or  in 
connection  with  their  teachers,  organized  themselves,  according 
to  the  countries  whence  they  came,  into  associations  or  gilds, 
which  came  to  be  known  as  "  Nations."  At  Paris  there  were  four 
of  these  groups,  at  Bologna  thirty-six. 

It  was  these  gilds  which  exercised  or  enjoyed  the  special  rights 
and  privileges  to  which  we  referred  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
These  privileges  very  generally  included  exemption  from  taxation, 
from  military  service,  and  freedom  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
ordinary  courts.  The  early  universities  thus  became  in  a  large 
measure  self-governed  and  self-judged  communities,  in  a  word, 
*'  literary  republics,"  holding  some  such  relation  to  the  civil 
authorities  of  the  cities  in  which  they  were  situated  as  many 
of  these  cities  themselves,  in  the  age  of  independent  city  life, 
held  to  the  state. 

198.  Students  and  Student  Life. — The  number  of  students  in 
attendance  at  the  mediaeval  universities  was  large.  Contempo- 
raries tell  of  crowds  of  fifteen,  twenty,  and  even  thirty  thousand 
at  the  most  popular  institutions.  These  numbers  have  been  called 
in  question,  and  it  will  be  safe  to  consider  them,  like  other  med- 
iaeval figures,  merely  as  "metaphors  for  immensity."  But  that 
the  attendance  was  numerous  is  certain,  for  in  those  times  all 
who  were  eager  to  acquire  knowledge  —  and  the  intellectual 
ferment  was  general  —  must  needs  seek  some  seat  of  learning, 
since  the  scarcity  and  great  cost  of  manuscript  books  put  home 
study  out  of  the  (juestion.     Then,  again,  many  of  the  pupils 


190 


THE  UNIVERSITIES  AND  THE  SCHOOLMEN 


attending  the  nonprofessional  courses  were  mere  boys  of  twelve 
or  thereabouts,  —  the  high-school  pupils  of  to-day ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  student  body  embraced  many  mature  men,  among 
whom  were  to  be  counted  canons,  deans,  archdeacons,  and  other 
dignitaries. 

Student  life  in  the  earlier  university  period,  before  the  dormi- 
tory and  college  system  was  introduced,  was  unregulated  and 
shamefully  disorderly.    The  age  was  rough  and  lawless,  and  the 


Fig.  36.  —  University  Audience  in  the  Fifteenth  Century 
(From  Geiger's  Renaissance  und  Humanismus) 

student  class  were  no  better  than  their  age ;  indeed,  in  some 
respects  they  seem  to  have  been  worse.  For  the  student  body 
included  many  rich  young  profligates,  who  found  the  universities 
the  most  agreeable  places  for  idling  away  their  time,  as  well  as 
many  wild  and  reckless  characters  who  were  constantly  engaging 
in  tavern  brawls,  terrorizing  the  townsmen  at  night,  even  waylay- 
ing travelers  on  the  public  roads,  and  committing  "  many  other 
enormities  hateful  to  God," 


METHODS  OF   INSTRUCTION  191 

Between  the  students  composing  the  different  "  Nations"  there 
existed  much  race  prejudice  and  animosity,  which  sometimes 
broke  out  in  unseemly  riots  in  the  lecture  room.  The  most 
serious  feuds,  however,  arose  between  the  students  and  the  towns- 
men. "  Town  and  gown  "  disagreements  and  fights  were  common 
and  not  unfrequently  resulted  in  the  migration  to  another  city  of 
the  whole,  or  practically  the  whole,  body  of  students  and  masters. 

199.  Branches  of  Study  and  Methods  of  Instruction.  — The  ad- 
vanced studies  given  greatest  prominence  in  the  universities  were 
the  three  professional  branches  of  theology,  medicine,  and  law. 
The  natural  sciences  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed,  although 
in  alchemy  lay  hidden  the  germ  of  chemistry  and  in  astrology  that 
of  astronomy.  The  Ptolemaic  theory,  which  made  the  earth  the 
stationary  center  of  the  revolving  celestial  spheres,  gave  color  and 
form  to  all  conceptions  of  the  structure  of  the  universe. 

The  method  of  instruction  in  all  the  university  departments 
was  the  same.  It  was  a  servile  study  of  texts,  which  were  regarded 
with  a  veneration  bordering  on  superstition  and  were  minutely 
analyzed  and  commented  upon.  Thus  in  theology  it  was  a  study 
of  the  Bible  and  particularly  of  the  writings  of  the  Church  Fathers 
and  doctors ;  in  medicine,  an  explanation  of  the  works  of  Hippoc- 
rates and  Galen  with  their  Arabian  commentators;  in  natural 
science,  a  study  of  the  physics  of  Aristotle ;  in  civil  law,  a  com- 
mentary on  the  works  of  the  Corpus  yuris  of  Justinian,  and  in 
canon  law,  on  the  decisions  and  edicts  of  popes  and  councils. 
Not  even  in  the  physical  sciences  was  there  any  serious  appeal  to 
experience,  to  observation,  to  experiment.  In  anatomy,  discus- 
sions took  the  place  of  dissections.^  Books  were  considered  better 
authority  than  nature  herself.  "  Aristotle,"  says  Ueberweg,  "  was 
regarded  as  the  founders  of  religions  are  wont  to  be  considered." 
One  venturing  to  criticise  this  "  Master  of  those  who  know  "  was 
looked  upon  as  presumptuous  and  irreverent. 

This  mode  of  study  resulted  in  part  from  an  imitation  of 
the  method  followed  in  theology,  which  was  perforce  a  study  of 

2  At  Bologna,  where  anatomical  study  was  most  advanced,  each  student  witnessed 
only  one  dissection  during  the  year. 


192     THE  UNIVERSITIES  AND  THE  SCHOOLMEN 

texts  held  as  authoritative  or  infallible  ;  and  in  part  from  the  lack 
of  books,  which  made  dictation  by  the  teacher  and  note  taking 
and  memorizing  by  the  student  the  only  practicable  mode  of 
carrying  on  the  work  of  the  lecture  room. 

The  ordinary  classes  met  in  private  rooms  or  hired  apartments. 
Mass  meetings  of  the  "  Nations  "  and  other  large  assemblages 
were  held  in  some  convenient  cathedral  or  convent  church  bor- 
rowed for  the  occasion.  The  university  itself  had  at  first  neithei 
dormitories  nor  halls.^ 

200.  Scholasticism ;  the  Province  of  the  Schoolmen.  —  Springing 
up  within  the  early  ecclesiastical  schools  and  developed  within  the 
later  universities,  there  came  into  existence  a  method  of  philoso- 
phizing which,  from  the  place  of  its  origin,  was  called  Scho- 
lasticism, while  its  representatives  were  called  Schoolmen,  or 
Scholastics. 

The  chief  task  of  the  Schoolmen  was  the  reducing  of  Christian 
doctrines  to  scientific  form,  the  harmonizing  of  revelation  and 
reason,  of  faith  and  science.  They  thought  it  possible  to  build  up 
a  science  of  theology  which,  like  the  science  of  geometry,  should 
consist  of  indisputable  theorems  and  corollaries  resting  upon  a 
foundation  of  axioms  and  exact  definitions.  Their  aim  was  to  give 
every  Christian  doctrine  a  demonstration  so  complete  and  absolute 
as  to  compel  the  belief  of  everybody,  —  skeptics,  pagans,  and 
Saracens. 

We  should  note  that  the  typical  Schoolmen  did  not  question 
the  truth  or  soundness  of  the  doctrines  and  teachings  of  the 
Church.  They  did  not  ask.  Are  these  things  so?  but  simply, 
How  and  why  are  they  so?  Surely  there  must  be  a  reason  for 
everything,  they  insisted,  and  God  has  given  us  our  reasoning 
faculty  that  we  might  search  out  reasons  and  causes. 

201.  The  Earlier  Schoolmen  ;  Abelard.  — John  Scotus  Erigena, 
an  Irish  teacher  and  philosopher,  is  sometimes  called  the  first  of 

8  It  was  this  poverty  of  the  university  which  rendered  so  easy  those  migrations 
or  secessions  of  dissatisfied  students  and  masters  of  which  we  hear  so  frequently. 
Nothing  prevented  them,  if  they  felt  themselves  wronged  by  the  local  authorities, 
from  fleeing  from  one  city  to  another.  Several  of  the  younger  universities  originated 
in  such  movements. 


THE   EARLIER   SCHOOLMEN  193 

the  Schoolmen ;  but  more  generally  this  place  is  given  to  St. 
Anselm  (i 033-1 109),  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Bee  in  Normandy 
and  later  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  England.*  The  maxim  of 
this  typical  Schoolman  was  :  "  I  believe  in  order  that  I  may 
understand." 

But  by  far  the  most  eminent  of  the  early  Schoolmen  was  Peter 
Abelard  (1079-1142).  Such  a  teacher  the  world  had  probably 
not  produced  since  Socrates  enchained  the  youth  of  Athens. 
At  Paris  over  five  thousand  pupils  are  said  to  have  thronged  his 
lecture  room.  Driven  by  the  shame  of  a  public  scandal  and  by 
persecution  to  seek  retirement,  he  hid  himself  first  in  a  monas- 
tery and  later  in  a  solitude  near  the  city  of  Troyes.  But  his 
admirers  followed  him  into  the  wilds  in  such  multitudes  that  a 
veritable  university  sprang  up  around  him  in  his  desert  retreat. 

Abelard  carried  to  an  extreme  the  tendency  of  the  Schoolmen 
to  rationalize  everything.  "  A  doctrine  is  believed,"  he  taught, 
"  not  because  God  has  said  it,  but  because  we  are  convinced  by 
reason  that  it  is  so."  He  declared  doubt  to  be  the  starting  point 
in  the  quest  of  knowledge,  and,  apparently  with  the  object  of 
producing  this  desirable  state  of  mind  in  his  disciples,  wrote  a 
book  entitled  Su  et  Non  ("  So  and  Not  So  "),  which  was  a  col- 
lection of  mutually  contradictory  opinions  of  the  Church  Fathers 
on  every  conceivable  theological  question. 

The  Church  conservatives  became  frightened.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  preacher  of  the  Second  Crusade,  entered  the  lists 
against  the  presumptuous  champion  of  the  human  reason.  Ber- 
nard's principle  was  that  man  acquires  a  knowledge  of  divine  things 
by  way  of  the  heart  and  not  by  way  of  the  intellect.  **  God  is 
known,"  he  finely  said,  "  in  proportion  as  he  is  loved."  He 
charged  Abelard  with  pride  of  intellect :  "  There  is  nothing  in 
heaven  or  on  earth,"  he  said,  "  that  he  does  not  claim  to  know." 
He  complained  that  no  place  was  left  for  faith ;  the  human 
reason  usurped  everything. 

4  With  St.  Anselm  begins  practically  the  great  Scholastic  controversy  of  the 
Nominalists  and  Realists  which  never  wholly  ceased  in  the  mediaeval  schools.  For 
an  account  of  this  prolonged  discussion  the  student  must  have  recourse  to  works 
on  philosophy. 


194      THE  UNIVERSITIES  AND  THE   SCHOOLMEN 

The  temper  of  the  times  was  against  Abelard.  Certain  of  his 
opinions  were  condemned  by  two  Church  councils,  and  he  was 
forced  to  burn  part  of  his  writings.  This  was  one  of  the  most 
noteworthy  collisions  between  ecclesiastical  authority  and  freedom 
of  thought  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

Abelard 's  brilliant  reputation  as  a  philosopher  was  tarnished 
by  grave  faults  of  character.  Intrusted  with  the  education  of  a 
fascinating  and  mentally  gifted  maiden,  H^loi'se  by  name,  Abelard 
betrayed  the  confidence  reposed  in  him.  A  secret  marriage 
bound  in  a  tragic  fate  the  lives  of  teacher  and  pupil.  The  "  tale 
of  Abelard  and  Hdoise "  forms  one  of  the  most  romantic  yet 
saddest  traditions  of  the  twelfth  century. 

202 .  Scholasticism  in  the  Thirteenth  Century ;  Albert  the  Great 
and  Thomas  Aquinas.  —  The  thirteenth  century  witnessed  a  fresh 
development  of  Scholasticism.  The  impulse  to  this  renewed 
intellectual  activity  came  to  the  Christian  West,  like  many  simi- 
lar incitements,  from  ancient  Greece.  It  came  at  this  time 
through  various  channels,  but  mainly  through  the  Arabian  schools 
in  Spain. 

Before  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century 
all  the  works  of  Aristotle  were  for  the  first  time  brought  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Schoolmen.  Before  this  it  was  chiefly  his  logic 
which  was  known  to  them;  but  now  all  his  other  works  were 
translated  into  Latin,  at  first  from  Arabic  or  Hebrew  versions, 
and  then  later  directly  from  the  Greek  text. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  stimulating  influence  of 
these  fresh  philosophical  and  scientific  acquisitions  upon  the 
Christian  thinkers  of  the  West.  The  great  age  of  Scholasticism 
now  opened.  The  universities  of  Paris  and  Oxford  were  the  chief 
centers  of  the  new  movement ;  the  Mendicant  Orders  furnished 
its  most  illustrious  representatives. 

From  the  Dominican  Order  came  Albertus  Magnus,  or  *'  Albert 
the  Great "  (i  193-1280),  who  was  called  "  the  second  Aristotle," 
and  Thomas  Aquinas  (1225  or  1227-1274),  known  as  "the 
Angelic  Doctor."  As  philosophers  these  Schoolmen  stand  to 
each  other  in  some  such  relation  as  did  Plato  and  Aristotle,  nor 


SCIENTIP^IC   SIDE   OF   SCHOLASTICISM  195 

are  their  names  unworthy  of  being  linked  with  the  names  of  those 
great  thinkers  of  ancient  Greece.  The  reputation  of  Aquinas  as 
the  greatest  Scholastic  and  theologian  of  the  Middle  Ages  rests 
largely  upon  his  prodigious  work  entitled  Summa  Theologice^  or 
''Sum  of  Theology."^  The  work  is  regarded  as  the  standard  of 
orthodoxy  in  the  Catholic  Church. 

From  the  Franciscan  Order  came  Duns  Scotus  (d.  1308),  a 
British  monk,  whose  keen  analytical  intellect  caused  him  to  be 
called  "  the  Subtle  Doctor."  "  The  mind  of  Duns  Scotus,"  says 
Dean  Milman,  "  might  seem  a  wonderful  reasoning  machine ; 
whatever  was  thrown  into  it  came  out  in  syllogisms." 

203.  The  Scientific  Side  of  Scholasticism  ;  Roger  Bacon The 

typical  Schoolman  was  a  logician,  and  speculative  subjects  con- 
nected with  theology  were  his  supreme  interest;  yet  there  were 
sorne  Schoolmen  who  devoted  themselves  largely  to  physical 
science,  and  sought  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  nature,  not  alone 
through  books,  but  by  direct  personal  observation  and  study  of 
nature  herself.  The  impulse  to  this  study  of  the  natural  sciences 
was  communicated  to  Christian  scholars  mainly  through  their 
contact  with  Greek  and  Arabian  learning. 

The  most  noteworthy  representative  of  the  scientific  activity  of 
the  Scholastic  age  was  the  English  Franciscan  friar,  Roger  Bacon 
(d.  1294),  called  "the  Wonderful  Doctor,"  on  account  of  his 
marvelous  knowledge  of  mechanics,  optics,  chemistry,  and  other 
sciences.  He  understood  the  composition  of  gunpowder,  or  a 
similar  explosive,  and  seemingly  the  nature  of  steam ;  for  in  one 
of  his"  works  Jie  says  that  "  wagons  and  ships  could  be  built  which 
would  propyl  themselves  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow,  without 
^^I;(orses  and  without  sails."  His  contemporaries  believed 'him  to 
"":  be  in  league  with  the  devil.  He  suffered  persecution  and  was 
imprisoned  for  fourteen  years. 

6  This  was  not  the  first  attempt  of  the  kind.  In  the  twelfth  century  Peter  of 
Lombard  (d.  1164)  wrote  his  famous  Four  Books  of  Sentences^  which  earned  for  him 
the  title  of  '*  the  Master  of  Sentences."  This  work,  which  served  in  some  sort  as  a 
basis^rShe  Summa  by  Aquinas,  consisted  mainly  of  a  collection  of  short  quota- 
tions'f?^h  the  writings  of  the  Church  Fathers  and  doctors.  It  was  one  of  the  most 
popular  text-books  ever  written.  It  held  its  place  in  the  schools  as  a  manual  of 
theology  for  more  than  three  hundred  years. 


196      THE  UNIVERSITIES  AND  THE  SCHOOLMEN 

Roger  Bacon's  greatest  bequest  to  posterity  was  a  book  called 
Opus  Majus,  in  which  is  anticipated  in  a  wonderful  way  those 
principles  of  modern  inductive  science  laid  down  by  Francis 
Bacon  in  the  seventeenth  century.  ''  The  advance  of  sound  his- 
torical judgment,"  says  Andrew  D.  White,  "  seems  likely  to  bring 
the  fame  of  the  two  who  bear  the  name  of  Bacon  nearly  to 
equality." 

204.  The  Last  of  the  Schoolmen.  —  The  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries  witnessed  the  decline  of  Scholasticism.  Scholas- 
tic debate  in  the  hands  of  unworthy  successors  of  the  great 
philosophers  of  the  thirteenth  century  fell  away  for  the  most 
part  into  barren  disputations  over  idle  and  impossible  questions. 
The  representatives  of  this  degenerate  Scholasticism  became  the 
objects  of  the  unmeasured  scorn  and  ridicule  of  the  men  of  the 
New  Learning  brought  in  by  that  revival  of  classical  culture 
which  marked  the  later  mediaeval  age.  The  low  estimation  in 
which  the  Schoolmen  of  this  period  came  to  be  held  is  disclosed 
in  the  history  of  our  word  dunce.  Originally  applied  as  an 
appellation  of  honor  to  a  disciple  of  the  great  Duns  or  to  any 
learned  person,  the  term  at  this  time,  being  ironically  applied  to 
the  stupid  Scholastic  opposed  to  classical  studies,  came  to  acquire 
its  present  meaning  of  a  preposterous  dolt. 

205.  The  Services  of  the  Schoolmen  to  Intellectual  Progress.  — 
The  Schoolmen  fill  a  large  place  in  the  history  of  the  intellectual 
development  of  the  race.  They  rendered  in  this  relation  two 
distinct  and  important  services. 

In  the  first  place,  by  their  ceaseless  debates  and  argumenta- 
tion they  stimulated  to  activity  the  mediaeval  intellect  and  dis- 
ciplined it  in  the  processes  of  exact  reasoning.  They  made 
the  universities  of  the  time  real  mental  gymnasia  in  which  the 
European  mind  was  trained  and  prepared  for  its  later  and, 
happily,  more  fruitful  work. 

In  the  second  place,  the  Schoolmen  rendered  a  great  serv- 
ice to  the  cause  of  intellectual  freedom.  This  assertion  at  first 
blush  may  appear  paradoxical,  when  one  recalls  that  the  submis- 
sion of  reason  to  Church  authority  was  one  of  the  fundamental 


HIHLIOGKAPHY  197 

maxims  of  the  orthodox  Schoolmen.  But  the  place  they  gave 
the  human  reason  and  the  constant  appeal  they  made  to  it  was 
preparing  the  way  for  the  full  and  plain  assertion  of  the  principle 
of  the  freedom  of  thought.  "  Scholasticism  as  a  whole,"  says 
Professor  Seth,  "  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  history  of  the 
growth  and  gradual  emancipation  of  reason  which  was  completed 
in  the  movements  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation." 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  ii,  No.  3, 
"The  Mediaeval  Student"  (ed.  by  Dana  Carleton  Munro).  Henderson, 
Select  Historical  Documents,  pp.  262-266,  "  The  Foundation  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  a.d.  1386."  Dante,  Divina  Commedia  (trans,  by 
Longfellow).  There  is  much  of  the  spirit,  the  form,  and  the  substance  of 
Scholasticism  in  this  great  mediaeval  poem,  for,  after  Aristotle,  the  School- 
men Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas  were  Dante's  masters  in 
philosophy  and  science.  An  admirable  bit  of  Scholastic  reasoning  and 
exposition  will  be  found  in  canto  vii  of  the  Faradiso,  where  Beatrice  dis- 
courses on  "  the  Incarnation,  the  Immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  Resur- 
rection of  the  body." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Rashdall,  The  Universities  of  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Laurie,  The  Rise  and  Early  Constitution  of  Universities. 
CoMPAYR^,  Abelard,  and  the  Origin  and  Early  History  of  Universities. 
Jessopp,  The  Coming  of  the  Friars,  chap,  vi,  "The  Building  up  of  a  Uni- 
versity." Church,  Saint  Anselm.  Alzog,  Universal  Church  History, 
vol.  ii,  pp.  728-784.  Fisher,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  pp.  208- 
226.  Still6,  Studies  in  Mediceval  History,  chap.  xiii.  Emerton,  Mediceval 
Europe,  chap.  xiii.  MoRlsoN,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Saint  Bernard,  and 
Storrs,  Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  In  each  of  these  works  will  be  found  an 
interesting  account  of  Bernard's  controversy  with  Abelard.  Gallienne, 
Old  Love  Stories  Retold,  "  Abelard  and  Heloise."  Mullinger,  A  History  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  chaps,  i-iii.  Munro  and  Sellery,  Mediceval 
Civilization,  pp.  348-357.  Consult  also  articles  on  "Universities"  and 
"Scholasticism"  in  the  Encyc.  Brit. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. —  i.  The  "Nations"  at  the  universities. 
2.  Student  life.  3.  "  Town  and  gown."  4.  Abelard  and  St.  Bernard. 
5.  Albertus  Magnus.     6.  Thomas  Aquinas.     7,  Roger  Bacon. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

GROWTH   OF   THE    NATIONS:    FORMATION   OF  NATIONAL 
GOVERNMENTS  AND  LITERATURES 

206.  Introductory.  —  The  most  important  political  movement 
that  marked  the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  fusion, 
in  several  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  of  the  petty  feudal  prin- 
cipalities and  half-independent  cities  and  communes  into  great 
nations  with  strong  centralized  governments.  This  movement  was 
accompanied  by,  or  rather  consisted  in,  the  decline  of  feudalism 
as  a  governmental  system,  the  loss  by  the  cities  of  their  freedom, 
and  the  growth  of  the  power  of  the  kings. 

Many  things  contributed  to  this  consolidation  of  peoples  and 
governments,  different  circumstances  favoring  the  movement 
in  the  different  countries.  In  some  countries,  however,  condi- 
tions were  opposed  to  the  centralizing  tendency,  and  in  these 
the  Modern  Age  was  reached  without  nationality  having  been 
found.  But  in  England,  in  France,  and  in  Spain  circumstances 
all  seemed  to  tend  towards  unity,  and  by  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  there  were  established  in  these  countries  strong 
despotic  monarchies.  Yet  even  among  those  peoples  where 
national  governments  did  not  appear,  some  progress  was  made 
towards  unity  through  the  formation  of  national  languages  and 
literatures,  and  the  development  of  common  feelings  and  aspira- 
tions, so  that  these  races  or  peoples  were  manifestly  only  await- 
ing the  opportunities  of  a  happier  period  for  the  maturing  of 
their  national  life. 

This  rise  of  monarchy  and  decline  of  feudalism,  this  substitu- 
tion of  strong  centralized  governments  in  place  of  the  feeble, 
irregular,  and  conflicting  rule  of  the  feudal  nobles  or  of  other  local 
authorities  was  a  very  great  gain  to  the  cause  of  law  and  good 
order.    It  paved  the  way  for  modern  progress  and  civilization. 

198 


ENGLAND  I99 

In  these  changes  the  political  liberties  of  all  classes,  of  the 
cities  as  well  as  of  the  nobility,  were,  it  is  true,  subverted.  But 
though  Liberty  was  lost,  Nationality  was  found.  And  the  people 
may  be  trusted  to  win  back  freedom,  as  we  shall  see.  Those 
sturdy  burghers  —  the  merchants,  artisans,  lawyers  of  the  cities 
—  who,  in  the  eleventh  century,  showed  themselves  stronger 
than  lords^  will  in  time,  with  the  help  of  the  yeomanry,  prove 
themselves  stronger  than  kings.  Europe  shall  be  not  only  orderly, 
but  free.  Out  of  despotic  monarchy  will  rise  constitutional, 
representative  government. 


I.  England 

207.  General  Statement.  —  In  earlier  chapters  we  told  of  the 
origin  of  the  English  people  and  traced  their  growth  under 
Saxon,  Danish,  and  Norman  rulers.  In  the  present  section  we 
shall  tell  very  briefly  the  story  of  their  fortunes  under  the  Plan- 
tagenet^  house  and  its  branches,  thus  carrying  on  our  narrative 
to  the  accession  of  the  Tudors  in  1485,  from  which  event  dates 
the  beginning  of  the  modern  history  of  England. 

The  chief  events  of  the  period  which  we  shall  notice  were  the 
martyrdom  of  Thomas  Becket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
loss  of  the  English  possessions  in  France,  the  wresting  of  Mag?ia 
Carta  from  King  John,  the  formation  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
the  conquest  of  Wales,  the  wars  with  Scotland,  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  with  France,  and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

1  The  name  Plantagenet  came  from  the  peculiar  badge,  a  sprig  of  broom  plant 
{plante  de  gentt),  adopted  by  one  of  the  early  members  of  the  house.  Following  is 
a  table  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  family. 

Henry  II 11 54-1 189  HOUSE  of  LANCASTER 

Richard  I 1189-1 199  Henry  IV 1399-1413 

John 1199-1216  Henry  V 1413-1422 

Henry  III 1216-1272  Henry  VI 1422-1461 

Edward  I 1272-1307  house  of  York 

Edward  II 1307-1327  Edward  IV 1461-1483 

Edward  III i327-»377  Edward  V 1483 

Richard  II I377-I399  Richard  III 1483-1485 


200  GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 

208.  The  Martyrdom  of  Thomas  Becket  (11 7 2).  —  The  most 
impressive  event  in  the  reign  of  the  first  Plantagenet  was  a 
tragedy,  —  the  murder  of  Thomas  Becket,  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  This  event  possesses  great  historical  interest  for  the 
reason  that  it  grew  out  of  those  contentions  between  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  authorities  which,  as  we  have  seen,  make  up 
a  large  part  of  mediaeval  history. 

The  circumstances  leading  up  to  the  tragedy  were  these.  In 
the  early  years  of  Henry's  reign  Thomas  had  been  a  favorite 
courtier,  and  chancellor  of  the  realm.  Thinking  that  he  would 
serve  him  well  as  primate,  Henry  made  him  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. As  archbishop,  Thomas  came  into  conflict  with  the 
king  on  several  matters  involving  the  relations  of  the  clergy  to 
the  civil  power,  the  most  important  of  which  was  a  question 
regarding  the  trial  of  clerks  by  the  secular  courts.  At  this  time 
in  England  the  clergy  were  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
ordinary  courts  of  justice.^  Since  the  Church  courts  could  inflict 
no  severer  penalty  than  imprisonment,  it  often  happened  that 
clerks  guilty  of  the  most  heinous  crimes,  even  of  murder,  were 
punished  inadequately,  or  even  not  at  all.  Moreover,  the  judges 
of  these  courts  were  said  to  be  over-lenient  in  dealing  with 
accused  members  of  their  own  order. 

Henry  resolved  that  the  clergy,  like  laymen,  should  be  subject 
to  the  civil  courts.  To  this  end  he  caused  to  be  drawn  up  the 
so-called  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (i  164),  a  collection  of  a  cer- 
tain part  of  the  customs,  liberties,  and  dignities  of  his  ancestors," 
which  among  other  things  provided  that  persons  in  orders  accused 
of  crime  should  be  tried  by  the  king's  judges,  if  these  judges  deemed 
the  cases  to  be  such  as  should  come  before  them,  and  that  no  case 
should  be  appealed  from  the  courts  of  the  archbishops  to  the  Pope 
without  the  king's  consent. 

2  Charlemagne  had  recognized  the  principle,  held  from  early  times  by  the  Church, 
that  ecclesiastics  should  be  amenable  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  by  freeing 
the  whole  body  of  the  clergy  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  temporal  courts,  in  criminal 
as  well  as  in  civil  cases.  Gradually  the  bishops  acquired  the  right  to  try  all  cases 
relating  to  marriage,  trusts,  perjury,  simony,  or  concerning  widows,  orphans,  or 
crusaders,  on  the  ground  that  such  cases  had  to  do  with  religion. 


2 

O 
O 

a. 


MARTYRDOM   OF  THOMAS   BECKET 


201 


Thomas,  after  some  hesitation,  swore  to  observe  the  Consti- 
tutions, but  soon  he  repented  having  done  so,  and  sought  and 
obtained  from  the  Pope  release  from  his  oath.  He  maintained 
that  the  ordinances  took  away  from  the  Church  undoubted  rights 
and  privileges.  His  course  led  to  a  long  and  violent  quarrel  with 
the  king.  Finally,  Henry  dropped  an  impatient  expression,  which 
four  of  his  courtier  knights  interpreted  as  a  wish  that  Thomas 
should  be  put  out  of  the  way.  These 
men  sought  out  the  archbishop  in  the 
cathedral  at  Canterbury  and  murdered 
him  on  the  steps  of  the  altar. 

The  people  ever  regarded  Thomas 
as  a  martyr  and  his  tomb  in  the  cathe- 
dral became  a  place  of  pilgrimage. 
Three  hundred  years  later  the  poet 
Chaucer  made  the  journey  thither 
of  a  goodly  company  of  pilgrims  the 
groundwork  of  his  celebrated  Can- 
terbury Tales  (sec.  228). 

The  attitude  of  the  people  after  the 
murder  of  Thomas  compelled  Henry 
to  give  up  the  idea  of  enforcing  the 
provisions  of  the  Constitutions  of  Clar- 
endon. Moreover,  he  was  constrained 
to  do  penance  for  his  participation  in  the  crime  by  submitting  to 
a  flogging  by  the  monks  of  Canterbury  at  the  martyr's  tomb. 

209.  Loss  of  the  English  Possessions  in  France  (i 202-1 204). 
—  The  issue  of  the  battle  of  Hastings,  in  1066,  made  William  of 
Normandy  king  of  England.  But  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  he 
still  held  his  possessions  in  France  as  a  fief  from  the  French  king, 
whose  vassal  he  was.  These  Continental  lands,  save  for  some  short 
intervals,  remained  under  the  rule  of  William's  Norman  successors 
in  England.  Then,  when  Henry,  Count  of  Anjou,  came  to  the 
English  throne  as  the  first  of  the  Plantagenets,  these  territories 
were  greatly  increased  by  the  French  possessions  of  that  prince. 
The  larger  part  of  Henry's  dominions,  indeed,  was  in  France,  the 


!f^^ 


Fig.  37.  —  The  Murder  of 
Thomas  Becket.  (From 
a  Canterbury  seal  of  the 
fourteenth  century) 


202  GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 

whole  of  the  western  half  of  the  country  being  in  his  hands ;  but 
for  all  of  this  he  of  course  paid  homage  to  the  French  king. 

As  was  inevitable,  a  feeling  of  intense  jealousy  sprang  up  between 
the  two  sovereigns.  The  French  king  was  ever  watching  for  some 
pretext  upon  which  he  might  deprive  his  rival  of  his  possessions 
in  France.  The  opportunity  came  when  John,  in  1 199,  succeeded 
Richard  the  Lion-hearted  as  king  of  England.  Twice  that  odious 
tyrant  was  summoned  by  Philip  Augustus  of  France  to  appear 
before  his  French  peers  and  clear  himself  of  certain  charges,  one 
of  which  was  the  murder  of  his  nephew  Arthur.  John  refused  to 
obey  the  summons.  Philip  was  finally  able,  so  strong  was  the 
feeling  against  John,  to  dispossess  him  of  all  his  lands  in  France, 
save  a  part  of  Aquitaine  in  the  south. 

The  loss  of  these  lands  was  a  great  gain  to  England.  The 
Angevin  kings  had  been  pursuing  a  policy  which,  had  it  been 
successful,  would  have  made  England  a  subordinate  part  of  a 
great  continental  state.  That  danger  was  now  averted.  In  the 
words  of  Freeman,  "  England  had  been  a  dependency  of  Anjou ; 
Aquitaine  was  now  a  dependency  of  England." 

210.  Magna  Carta  (12 15). — Magna  Carta^  the  "  Great  Char- 
ter," held  sacred  as  the  safeguard  of  English  liberties,  was  an 
instrument  which  the  English  barons  and  clergy  wrested  from 
King  John,  and  in  which  the  ancient  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
people  were  clearly  defined  and  guaranteed. 

The  circumstances  which  led  up  to  this  memorable  transaction, 
narrated  in  the  briefest  way  possible,  were  as  follows.  Among  the 
kings  of  foreign  race  whom  the  Norman  Conquest  brought  into 
England  there  were  those  who  disregarded  the  customs  and  insti- 
tutions of  the  realm  and  ruled  in  a  very  arbitrary  and  despotic 
manner.  King  John,  as  will  easily  be  believed  from  the  revelation 
of  his  character  already  made,  surpassed  the  worst  of  his  prede- 
cessors in  tyranny  and  wickedness.  His  course  led  to  an  open 
revolt  of  the  barons  of  the  realm.  The  tyrant  was  forced  to  bow 
to  the  storm  he  had  raised.  He  met  his  barons  at  Runnymede,  a 
flat  meadow  on  the  Thames,  near  Windsor,  and  there  affixed  his 
seal  to  the  instrument  that  had  been  prepared  to  receive  it. 


I    I    I   1   ^ 

ANGEVIN  DOMINIONS 

Scale  of  MlleH 
9  50  100         l&O       200 


I ICountrlcB  held  by  Vanitali)  from  Ueniy  II 

I  I  Held  by  Henry  II  from  ■  Huperior  king.    I 

t  I  Held  by  Heury  II  In  hi*  own  right. 


rth\     se\ 


^y 


Jif-      '.  AN/JOir/A'S-'    '^i  ^^   *" 
-^  ^—  Clilnont      fr    ^-^^ 


5^r      or 


SiStA Y 


0\     ^oy 


R.GaVonnc. 


f  Ou 


^#i,/P<vr"" 


,.^^^,^■1 


THE   GREAT   CHARTER  203 

Among  the  important  articles  of  the  Great  Charter  were  the 
following,  which  we  give  as  showing  at  once  the  nature  of  the 
venerable  document  and  the  kind  of  grievances  of  which  the  peo- 
ple had  occasion  to  complain. 

Art.  12.  "  No  scutage'  or  aid  shall  be  imposed  in  our  kingdom 
except  by  the  common  council  of  our  kingdom,  except  for  the  ran- 
soming of  our  body,  for  the  making  of  our  oldest  son  a  knight,  and 
for  once  marrying  our  oldest  daughter,  and  for  these  purposes  it  shall 
be  only  a  reasonable  aid  ;  *  .  .  . 

Art.  39.  "  No  free  man  shall  be  taken  or  imprisoned  or  dispos- 
sessed, or  outlawed,  or  banished,  or  in  any  way  destroyed,  nor  will  we 
go  upon  him,  nor  send  upon  him,  except  by  the  legal  judgment  of  his 
peers  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

Art.  40.  "  To  no  one  will  we  sell,  to  no  one  will  we  deny,  or  delay 
right  or  justice." 

The  Great  Charter  did  not  create  new  rights  and  privileges, 
but  in  its  main  points  simply  reasserted  and  confirmed  old  usages 
and  laws.  It  was  immediately  violated  by  John  and  afterwards 
was  disregarded  by  many  of  his  successors  ;  but  the  people  always 
clung  to  it  as  the  warrant  and  safeguard  of  their  liberties,  and 
again  and  again  forced  tyrannical  kings  to  renew  and  confirm  its 
provisions,  and  swear  solemnly  to  observe  all  its  articles. 

Considering  the  far-reaching  consequences  that  resulted  from 
the  granting  of  Magna  Carta,  —  the  securing  of  constitutional 
liberty  as  an  inheritance  for  the  English-speaking  race  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  —  it  must  always  be  considered  the  most  important 
concession  that  a  freedom-loving  people  ever  wnmg  from  a  tyran- 
nical sovereign. 

211.  Beginnings  of  the  House  of  Commons  (1265).  —  The  reign 
of  Henry  III  (12 16-1272),  John's  son  and  successor,  witnessed 
the  second  important  step  taken  in  English  constitutional  free- 
dom.   This  was  the  formation  of  the  House  of  Commons,  the 

8  Scutage  was  a  money  payment  made  in  commutation  of  personal  military  service. 

■*  This  article  respecting  taxation  was  suffered  to  fall  into  abeyance  in  the  reign  of 
John's  successor,  Henry  III,  and  it  was  not  until  about  one  hundred  years  after  the 
granting  of  Magna  Carta  that  the  great  principle  that  the  people  should  be  taxed 
only  through  their  representatives  in  Parliament  became  fully  established. 


204  GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 

Great  Council  having  up  to  this  time  been  made  up  of  nobles 
and  bishops.  It  was  again  the  royal  misbehavior  —  so  frequently 
is  it,  as  Lieber  says,  that  Liberty  is  indebted  to  bad  kings,  though 
to  them  she  owes  no  thanks  —  that  led  to  this  great  change  in 
the  form  of  the  English  national  assembly. 

Henry  had  violated  his  oath  to  observe  the  provisions  of  the 
Great  Charter  and  had  become  even  more  tyrannical  than  his 
father.  In  the  words  of  a  contemporary,  the  EngHsh  were 
oppressed  "  Hke  as  the  people  of  Israel  under  Pharaoh."  The 
final  outcome  was  an  uprising  of  the  barons  and  the  people  sim- 
ilar to  that  in  the  reign  of  King  John.  The  leader  of  the  revolt 
was  Earl  Simon,  a  son  of  the  Simon  de  Montfort  who  led  the  first 
crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  It  was  open  war  between  the 
king  and  his  people.  In  a  great  engagement  known  as  the  battle 
of  Lewes  (1264),  the  royal  forces  were  defeated  and  Henry  was 
taken  prisoner. 

In  order  to  rally  all  classes  to  the  support  of  the  cause  he 
represented.  Earl  Simon  now  issued,  in  the  king's  name,  writs  of 
summons  to  the  barons  (save  the  king's  adherents),  the  bishops, 
and  the  abbots  to  meet  in  Parliament ;  and  at  the  same  time 
sent  similar  writs  to  the  sheriffs  of  the  different  shires,  directing 
them  "  to  return  two  knights  for  the  body  of  their  county,  with 
two  citizens  or  burghers  for  every  city  and  borough  contained 
in  it." 

Although  the  knights  of  the  different  shires  had  in  several 
instances  before  this  been  represented  by  delegates,  so  that  the 
principle  of  representation  was  not  now  for  the  first  time  intro- 
duced into  the  English  constitution,  still  this  was  the  first  time 
when  plain  untitled  citizens,  or  burghers,  had  been  called  to  take 
their  place  with  the  barons,  bishops,  and  knights,  in  the  great 
council  of  the  nation,  to  join  in  deliberations  on  the  affairs  of  the 
realm.^ 

6  At  first  the  burghers  could  take  part  only  in  questions  relating  to  taxation,  but 
gradually  they  acquired  the  right  to  share  in  all  matters  that  might  come  before 
Parliament.  Just  thirty  years  later  (in  1295),  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I,  there  was 
gathered  through  regular  constitutional  summons  what  came  to  be  called  the  Model 
Parliament,  since  in  its  composition  it  served  as  a  pattern  for  later  Parliaments. 


CONQUEST   OF   WALES 


205 


From  this  gathering,  then,  may  be  dated  the  birth  of  the 
House  of  Commons  (1265).  Formed  as  it  was  of  knights  and 
burghers,  representatives  of  the  common  people,  it  was  at  first  a 
weak  and  timorous  body,  quite  overawed  by  the  great  lords,  but 
was  destined  finally  to  grow  into  the  controlling  branch  of  the 
British  Parliament. 

212.  Conquest  of  Wales  (12 7 2-1 282).  —  For  more  than  seven 
hundred  years  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans  from  Britain, 
the  Celtic  tribes  of  Wales  maintained  among  their  mountain 
fastnesses  an  ever- renewed  struggle  with  the  successive  invaders 
of  the  island,  —  with  Saxon,  Dane,  and   Norman.     They  were 


Fig.  38.  —  Carnarvon  Castle.    (From  a  photograph) 

This  fortress  was  founded  by  Edward  I  in  12S3.    It  is  one  of  the  most  impressive 
of  the  decayed  mediaeval  strongholds  of  the  British  Isles 

forced  to  acknowledge  the  overlordship  of  some  of  the  Saxon  and 
Norman  kings  ;  but  they  were  restless  vassals,  and  were  constantly 
withholding  tribute  and  refusing  homage. 

When  Edward  I  (i 272-1307)  came  to  the  English  throne, 
Llewellyn  III,  who  held  the  overlordship  of  the  Welsh  chiefs, 
refused  to  render  homage  to  the  new  king.  Edward  led  a  strong 
army  into  the  fastnesses  of  the  country  and  quickly  reduced  his 
rebel  vassal  to  submission.  A  few  years  later,  and  the  Welsh 
patriots  were  again  in  arms ;  but  the  uprising  was  soon  crushed, 
and  Llewellyn  was  slain  (1282).  His  head,  after  the  barbarous 
manner  of  the  times,  was  exposed  over  the  gateway  of  the  Tower 
of  London.  The  last  remnant  of  Welsh  independence  was  now 
extinguished.     Edward   made    his   little    son,    bom   during   the 


2o6  GROWTH   OF   THE   NATIONS 

campaign,  feudal  lord  of  the  Welsh,  with  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Wales;  and  from  that  time  the  title  has  usually  been  borne  by 
the  eldest  son  of  the  English  sovereign. 

The  strong- walled  and  picturesque  castle-fortresses  —  those  at 
Conway  and  Carnarvon  are  particularly  celebrated — which  Edward 
built  or  strengthened  to  guard  the  conquered  land  are,  like  the 
old  watch-towers  of  the  Norman  kings  in  England  (sec.  ii6), 
historical  monuments  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the  modern 
traveler  in  Wales. 

For  two  centuries  after  the  death  of  Llewellyn  the  Welsh  were 
the  unwilling  and  at  times  rebellious  subjects  of  England.  Then 
occurred  a  happy  circumstance,  —  the  accession  to  the  English 
throne  of  a  prince  of  Welsh  descent ;  for  Henry  Tudor,  the  first 
of  the  Tudor  dynasty,  was  the  grandson  of  a  Welsh  knight,  named 
Owen  Tudor.  With  princes  of  the  ancient  British  race  reigning  in 
London,  the  Welsh,  from  sulten  subjects,  were  suddenly  transformed 
into  enthusiastic  and  loyal  supporters  of  the  English  throne. 

213.  Wars  with  Scotland  (i 296-1 328).  —  From  the  time  of 
King  Alfred's  son  Edward,  the  kings  of  England  had  intermit- 
tently laid  claim  to  the  suzerainty  of  the  Scottish  realm.  The 
Norman  and  Plantagenet  kings  down  to  the  time  of  Edward  I 
were  constantly  quarreling  with  the  Scots  about  this  matter  of 
English  overlordship  and  Scotch  vassalage.  During  Edward  I's 
reign  an  opportunity  presented  itself  for  a  seemingly  final  settle- 
ment of  the  question.  In  1285  the  ancient  Celtic  line  of  Scot- 
tish chiefs  became  extinct.  A  great  number  of  claimants  for  the 
vacant  throne  immediately  arose.  Chief  among  these  were  Robert 
Bruce  and  John  Balliol,  distinguished  noblemen  of  Norman  descent, 
attached  to  the  Scottish  court.  Edward  was  asked  to  act  as  arbi- 
trator and  decide  to  whom  the  crown  should  be  given.  He  con- 
sented to  do  so,  but  only  on  condition  that  the  Scottish  nobles 
should  do  homage  to  him  as  their  overlord.  This  they  were 
constrained  to  do.  Edward's  commissioners  then  decided  the 
question  of  the  succession  in  favor  of  Balliol,  who  now  took 
the  crown  of  Scotland  as  the  fully  acknowledged  vassal  of  the 
English  sovereign  (1292). 


WARS   WITH   SCOTLAND 


207 


Balliol  soon  broke  the  feudal  ties  which  bound  him  to  Edward 
and  sought  an  alliance  with  the  French  king.  In  the  war  that 
followed  the  Scots  were  defeated  and  Scotland  fell  back  as  a  for- 
feited fief  into  the  hands  of  Edward  (1296).  As  a  sign  that  the 
Scottish  kingdom  had  come  to  an  end,  Edward  carried  off  to 
London  the  royal  regalia,  and  with  this  a  large  stone,  known  as 
the  Stone  of  Scone,  upon  which  the  Scottish  kings,  from  time  out 
of  memory,  had  been  accustomed 
to  be  crowned.  The  block  was  taken 
to  Westminster  Abbey,  and  there 
put  beneath  the  seat  of  a  stately 
throne-chair,  which  to  this  day  is 
used  in  the  coronation  ceremonies 
of  the  English  sovereigns. 

The  two  countries  were  not  long 
united.  The  Scotch  people  loved 
too  well  their  ancient  liberties  to 
submit  quietly  to  this  extinguish- 
ment of  their  national  independence. 
Under  the  inspiration  and  lead  of 
the  famous  Sir  William  Wallace,  an 
outlaw  knight,  all  the  Lowlands  were 
soon  in  determined  revolt.  Wallace 
gained  some  successes,*  but  at 
length  was  betrayed  into  Edward's 
hands.  He  was  condemned  to  death 
as  a  traitor,  and  his  head,  garlanded 
with  a  crown  of  laurel,  was  fixed  on 
London  Bridge  (i  305).  The  romantic  life  of  Wallace,  his  patriotic 
services,  his  heroic  exploits,  and  his  tragic  death  at  once  lifted 
him  to  the  place  that  he  has  ever  since  held  as  the  national  hero 
of  Scotland. 

The  struggle  in  which  Wallace  had  fallen  was  soon  renewed  by 
the  almost  equally  renowned  hero  Robert  Bruce  (grandson  of  the 
Robert  Bruce   mentioned   above),   who  was  the  representative 

fi  Notably  a  great  victory  at  what  is  known  as  the  battle  of  Stirling  (1297). 


Fig.  39.  —  Coronation  Chair 
IN  Westminster  Abbey 

Beneath  the  seat  is  the  celebrated 
Scottish  Stone  of  Scone,  which 
was  carried  away  from  Scotland 
by  Edward  I 


208  GROWTH   OF   THE    NATIONS 

of  the  nobles,  as  Wallace  had  been  of  the  common  people.  With 
Edward  II "  Bruce  fought  the  great  battle  of  Bannockburn,  near 
Stirling.  Edward's  army  was  almost  annihilated  (13 14).  It  was 
the  most  appalling  disaster  that  had  befallen  the  arms  of  the  Eng- 
lish people  since  the  memorable  defeat  of  Harold  at  Hastings. 

The  independence  of  Scotland  really  dates  from  the  great 
victory  of  Bannockburn,  but  the  English  were  too  proud  to 
acknowledge  it  until  after  fourteen  years  more  of  war.  Finally, 
in  the  year  1328,  the  young  king  Edward  III  gave  up  all  claim 
to  the  Scottish  crown,  and  Scotland,  with  the  hero  Bruce  as  its 
king,  took  its  place  as  an  independent  power  among  the  nations 
of  Europe. 

Respecting  the  results  to  both  the  English  and  the  Scotch  of 
the  failure  of  the  Edwards  to  subject  Scotland  to  their  rule,  the 
historian  Gardiner  finely  comments  as  follows  :  *'  Morally,  both 
nations  were  in  the  end  the  gainers.  The  hardihood  and  self- 
reliance  of  the  Scottish  character  is  distinctly  to  be  traced  to 
those  years  of  struggle  against  a  powerful  neighbor.  England, 
too,  was  the  better  for  being  balked  of  its  prey.  No  nation  can 
suppress  the  liberty  of  another  without  endangering  its  own." 

The  independence  gained  by  the  Scotch  at  Bannockburn  was 
maintained  for  nearly  three  centuries,  —  until  1603, — when  the 
crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  were  peacefully  united  in  the 
person  of  James  VI  of  Scotland,  who  became  James  I  of  Eng- 
land, the  founder  of  the  Stuart  dynasty  of  English  kings.  During 
the  greater  part  of  these  three  hundred  years  the  two  countries 
were  very  quarrelsome  neighbors. 

The  Hundred  Years'   War  {ijj8-i4S3) 

214.  Causes  of  the  War.  — The  long  and  wasteful  war  between 
England  and  France  known  in  history  as  the  Hundred  Years' 
War  was  a  most  eventful  one,  and  its  effect  upon  both  England 

J"  Edward  I  died  while  on  a  campaign  against  the  Scots  (1307).  He  was  one  of 
the  ablest  and  best  beloved  of  English  kings.  He  so  improved  the  laws  of  the 
realm,  and  made  such  great  and  beneficent  changes  in  the  administration  of  justice 
as  to  earn  the  title  of  the  "  English  Justinian." 


THE   HUNDRED   YEARS'  WAR  209 

and  France  so  important  and  lasting  as  to  entitle  it  to  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  records  of  the  closing  events  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Freeman  likens  the  contest  to  the  Peloponnesian  War  in 
ancient  Greece ;  and  Hallam  says  that  since  the  fall  of  Rome 
there  had  been  no  war  among  European  nations  "  so  memorable 
as  that  of  Edward  III  and  his  successors  against  France,  whether 
we  consider  its  duration,  its  objects,  or  the  magnitude  and 
variety  of  its  events." 

The  war  with  Scotland  was  one  of  the  things  that  led  up  to 
this  war.  All  through  that  struggle  France,  as  the  old  and 
jealous  rival  of  England,  was  ever  giving  aid  and  encouragenient 
to  the  Scots.  Then  the  English  possessions  in  France,  for  whicK 
the  English  king  owed  homage  to  the  French  sovereign  as  over- 
lord, were  a  source  of  constant  dispute  between  the  two  countries. 
Trade  jealousies  also  contributed  to  the  causes  of  mutual  hostility. 

Furthermore,  upon  the  death  of  Charles  IV  of  France,  the  last 
of  the  direct  Capetian  line,  Edward  III  laid  claim  to  the  French 
crown  in  much  the  same  way  that  William  of  Normandy  centuries 
before  had  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of  England. 

215.  The  Battle  of  Crecy  (1346).  — The  first  great  combat  of 
the  long  war  was  the  famous  battle  of  Cr^cy.  Edward  had 
invaded  France  with  a  strong  force,  made  up  largely  of  English 
bowmen,  and  had  penetrated  far  into  the  country,  ravaging  the 
land  as  he  went,  when  he  finally  halted  and  faced  the  pursuing 
French  army  near  the  village  of  Cr^y,  where  he  inflicted  upon  it 
a  most  terrible  defeat.  Twelve  hundred  knights,  the  flower  of 
French  chivalry,  and  thousands  of  foot  soldiers  lay  dead  upon 
the  field. 

The  great  battle  of  Cr^cy  is  memorable  for  several  reasons ; 
but  chiefly  because  feudalism  and  chivalry  there  received  their 
deathblow.  "The  whole  social  and  political  fabric  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,"  writes  Green,  "rested  on  a  military  base,  and  its 
base  was  suddenly  withdrawn.  The  churl  had  struck  down  the 
noble ;  the  bowman  proved  more  than  a  match,  in  sheer  hard 
fighting,  for  the  knight.  From  the  day  of  Cr^cy  feudalism  tot- 
tered slowly  but  surely  to  its  grave."    The  battles  of  the  world 


210  GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 

were  thereafter  to  be  fought  and  won,  not  by  mail-clad  knights 
with  battle-ax  and  lance,  but  by  common  foot  soldiers  with  bow 
and  gun. 

216.  The  Siege  and  Capture  of  Calais  (1346-1347).  —  From 
the  field  of  Cr^cy  Edward  led  his  army  to  Calais,  which  fell  into 
his  hands  at  the  end  of  a  year's  siege.  This  was  a  very  important 
event  for  the  English,  as  it  gave  them  control  of  the  commerce 
of  the  Channel  and  afforded  a  convenient  landing  place  for  their 
expeditions  of  invasion. 

217.  The  Black  Death  (1347-1349). — At  just  this  time  there 
fell  upon  Europe  the  awful  pestilence  known  as  the  Black  Death. 
The  plague  was  introduced  from  the  East  by  way  of  the  trade 
routes  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  the  southern  countries 
spread  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  over  the  entire  continent,  its 
virulence  without  doubt  being  greatly  increased  by  the  unsanitary 
condition  of  the  crowded  towns  and  the  wretched  mode  of  living 
of  the  poorer  classes. 

In  many  places  almost  all  the  people  fell  victims  to  the  scourge. 
Some  villages  were  left  without  an  inhabitant.  Many  monasteries 
were  almost  emptied.  In  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Baltic  ships 
were  seen  drifting  about  without  a  soul  on  board.  Crops  rotted 
unharvested  in  the  fields;  herds  and  flocks  wandered  about 
unattended.  It  is  estimated  that  from  one  third  to  one  half  of 
the  population  of  Europe  perished.  Hecker,  an  historian  of  the 
pestilence,  estimates  the  total  number  of  victims  at  twenty-five 
millions.  It  was  the  most  awful  calamity  that  ever  befell  the 
human  race.^ 

218.  The  Battle  of  Poitiers  (1356).  —  The  terrible  scourge 
caused  the  contending  nations  for  a  time  to  forget  their  quarrel. 
But  no  sooner  had  a  purer  atmosphere  breathed  upon  the  conti- 
nent than  their  minds  were  again  turned  to  war,  and  the  old 
struggle  was  renewed  with  fresh  eagerness. 

8  Under  the  terror  and  excitement  of  the  dreadful  visitation,  religious  penitents, 
thinking  to  turn  away  the  wrath  of  Heaven  by  unusual  penances,  went  about  in  pro- 
cession, lacerating  themselves  with  whips  (hence  they  were  called  flagellants).  This 
religious  frenzy  had  its  most  remarkable  manifestation  in  Germany. 


THE   PEASANTS'  REVOLT  211 

Edward  planned  a  double  invasion  of  France.  He  himself  led 
an  army  through  the  already  wasted  provinces  of  the  north, 
while  his  eldest  son,  known  from  the  color  of  the  armor  he  wore 
as  the  Black  Prince,  ravaged  with  another  the  rich  lands  of  the 
south.  As  the  prince's  army,  numbering  about  eight  thousand 
men,  loaded  with  booty,  was  making  its  way  back  to  the  coast,  it 
found  its  path,  near  Poitiers,  blocked  by  a  French  army  of  fifty 
thousand,  led  by  King  John,  the  successor  of  Philip.  A  battle 
ensued  which  proved  for  the  French  a  second  Crecy.  The  arrows 
of  the  English  bowmen  drove  them  in  fatal  panic  from  the  field, 
which  was  strewn  with  thousands  of  their  dead.  King  John  and 
his  son  Philip  were  taken  prisoners. 

219.  The  Peasants*  Revolt  (1381).  — During  most  of  the  half 
century  succeeding  the  treaty  that  soon  followed  the  battle  of 
Poitiers,®  the  war  between  the  two  countries  was  practically  sus- 
pended. The  most  important  event  in  English  history  during  this 
interval  was  what  is  known  as  the  Peasants'  Revolt. 

One  of  the  grievances  of  the  peasants  grew  out  of  their  rela- 
tions to  the  landlords.  Many  of  the  former  serfs  had  commuted 
into  money  payments  the  personal  services  they  owed  their  lords 
(sec.  95)  and  had  thus  got  rid  of  this  badge  of  serfdom.  They 
were  now  free  laborers  working  for  hire.  The  rise  in  wages  occa- 
sioned by  the  Black  Death  caused  the  landlords  to  regret  the 
bargain  they  had  made  with  their  former  serfs,  since  the  commu- 
tation money  would  not  now  pay  for  as  many  days'  labor  as  the 
serfs  were  originally  bound  to  render.  The  landlords  endeavored 
to  escape  from  their  bad  bargain  by  means  of  legislation.  They 
secured  the  enactment  by  Parliament  of  a  law  known  as  the  Statute 
of  Laborers  (135  i),  which  made  it  a  misdemeanor  for  any  unem- 
ployed laborer  to  refuse  to  work  for  the  wages  paid  before  the 
plague.  Attempts  to  enforce  this  statute  caused  much  discontent 
and  trouble. 


9  The  Treaty  of  Bretigny  (1360).  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty  Edward  was  to 
keep  possession  of  the  duchy  of  Aquitaine  and  some  other  provinces,  not,  however,  as 
fiefs  from  the  French  king,  in  which  way  he  had  hitherto  held  his  lands  in  France, 
but  in  full  sovereignty. 


212  GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 

The  hard  conditions  under  which  those  still  held  in  serfdom 
led  their  lives  constituted  another  grievance  of  a  large  class.  In 
these  words  of  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  uprising  we  hear  the 
burden  of  their  complaint:  *' For  what  reason  do  they  hold  us 
in  bondage?  Are  we  not  all  descended  from  the  same  parents 
Adam  and  Eve?  And  what  can  they  show,  or  what  reasons  give, 
why  they  should  be  more  the  masters  than  ourselves?" 

A  third  grievance  of  the  peasants,  and  seemingly  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  revolt,  was  the  imposition  of  a  heavy  poll  tax,  which 
struck  the  poor  as  well  as  the  rich,  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the 
French  war. 

The  storm  burst  in  1381.  The  peasants  rose  in  almost  every 
part  of  England  and  marched  in  crowds  upon  London.  Their 
most  noted  leaders  were  Wat  Tyler,  Jack  Straw,  and  John  Ball. 
The  essence  of  their  demands  was  the  abolition  of  villanage 
(serfdom)  in  England. 

There  was  tumult  and  violence  everywhere.  Abbeys  and  manor 
houses  were  sacked,  and  the  charters  which  were  the  evidence  of 
the  peasants'  servitude  were  burned.  The  revolt  had  the  usual 
issue.  The  bands  of  insurgents  were  finally  scattered  and  their 
leaders  were  pitilessly  put  to  death. 

Yet  the  insurrection  was  a  success  after  all.  The  fear  of  another 
uprising  and  the  inefficient  character  of  sullen  labor  caused  the 
landlords  to  hasten  the  process  that  had  long  been  going  on  of 
commuting  into  money  payments  or  rents  the  grudgingly  rendered 
personal  services  of  the  serfs.  At  the  end  of  a  hundred  years  after 
the  revolt  there  were  very  few  serfs  to  be  found  in  England. 

The  abolition  of  serfdom  was  an  important  step  in  the  nation- 
alization of  the  English  people.  Sweeping  away  artificial  barriers 
between  classes,  it  hastened  the  unification  of  English  society  and 
the  creation  of  a  true  English  nation. 

220.  Battle  of  Agincourt  (14 15).  —  During  the  reign  in  England 
of  Henry  V,  the  second  sovereign  of  the  House  of  Lancaster, 
France  was  unfortunate  in  having  an  insane  king,  Charles  VI ;  and 
Henry,  taking  advantage  of  the  disorder  into  which  the  French 
kingdom  naturally  fell  under  these  circumstances,  invaded  the 


JOAN   OF  ARC- 


SIS 


country  with  a  powerful  army.  After  losing  a  great  part  of  his 
followers  through  sickness,  Henry  finally,  with  a  force  of  only 
about  ten  thousand  men,  chiefly  archers,  met  a  French  feudal 
army  fifty  thousand  strong  on  the  field  of  Agincourt.  The  French 
suffered  a  most  humiliating  defeat,  their  terrible  losses  falling, 
as  at  Cr^y,  chiefly  upon 
the  knighthood.  Five 
years  later  was  con- 
cluded the  Treaty  of 
Troyes,  according  to  the 
terms  of  which  the 
French  crown,  upon 
the  death  of  Charles, 
was  to  go  to  the  English 
king. 

221.  Joan  of  Arc;  the 
Relief  of  Orleans  (1429). 
—  But  patriotism  was 
not  yet  wholly  extinct 

among  the  French  people.  There  were  many  who  regarded  the 
concessions  of  the  Treaty  of  Troyes  as  not  only  weak  and  shame- 
ful but  as  unjust  to  the  Dauphin  Charles,  who  was  thereby  disin- 
herited, and  they  accordingly  refused  to  be  bound  by  its  provisions. 
Consequently,  when  the  poor  insane  king  died,  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  could  not  be  carried  out  in  full,  and  the  war  dragged  on. 
The  party  that  stood  by  their  native  prince,  afterwards  crowned 
as  Charles  VII,  were  at  last  reduced  to  most  desperate  straits.  The 
greater  part  of  the  country  was  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  who 
were  holding  in  close  siege  the  important  city  of  Orleans  (1428). 

But  the  darkness  was  the  deep  gloom  that  precedes  the  dawn. 
A  better  day  was  about  to  rise  over  the  distressed  country.  A 
strange  deliverer  now  appears,  —  the  famous  Joan  of  Arc.  This 
young  peasant  girl,  with  soul  sensitive  to  impressions  from  brood- 
ing over  her  country's  wrongs  and  sufferings,  saw  visions  and  heard 
voices  which  bade  her  undertake  the  work  of  delivering  France. 
She  was  obedient  unto  the  heavenly  voices. 


Fig.  40.  —  Charge  of  French  Kmghts 
AND  Flight  of  English  Arrows 


214 


GROWTH   OF   THE   NATIONS 


The  warm,  impulsive  French  nation,  ever  quick  in  responding  to 
appeals  to  the  imagination,  was  aroused  exactly  as  it  was  stirred  by 
the  voice  of  the  preachers  of  the  Crusades.  Religious  enthusiasm 
now  accomplished  what  patriotism  alone  could  not  do. 

Rejected  by  some,  yet  received  by  most  of  her  countrymen 
as  a  messenger  from  Heaven,  the  maiden  kindled  throughout  the 
land  a  flame  of  enthusiasm^  that  nothing  could  resist.  Inspiring 
the  dispirited  French  soldiers  with  new  courage,  she  forced  the 
English  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans  (from  which  exploit  she  be- 
came known  as  the  Maid 
of  Orleans),  and  speedily 
brought  about  the  corona- 
tion of  Prince  Charles  at 
Rheims  (1429).  Shortly 
afterward  she  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  was 
tried  by  ecclesiastical 
judges  for  witchcraft  and 
heresy,  and  was  con- 
demned to  be  burned  as 
a  heretic  and  a  witch. 
Her  martyrdom  took 
place  at  Rouen  in  the 
year  1431. 

But  the  spirit  of  the 
Maid  had  already  taken 
possession  of  the  French 
nation.  From  this  on,  the 
war,  though  long  con- 
tinued, went  steadily  against  the  English.  Little  by  little  they 
were  pushed  off  from  the  soil  they  had  conquered,  and  driven 
out  of  their  own  Gascon  lands  of  the  south  as  well,  until  finally 
they  held  nothing  in  the  land  save  Calais.  Thus  ended,  in  1453, 
the  year  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 

222.  Effects  upon  England  of  the  War.  —  The  most  important 
effects  of  the  war  as  concerns  England  were  the  enhancement  of 


Fig.  41.  —  Joan  of  Arc.  (From  a  photo- 
graph of  a  beautiful  paintmg  in  the  His- 
torical Gallery  at  Versailles) 

We  have  no  authentic  likeness  of  Joan  of  Arc. 
The  above  must  be  regarded  as  an  idealized 
portrait 


THE   WARS   OF  THE   ROSES  21$ 

the  power  of  the  Lower  House  of  Parliament  and  the  awakening 
of  a  national  spirit.  The  maintaining  of  the  long  and  costly 
quarrel  called  for  such  heavy  expenditures  of  men  and  money 
that  the  English  kings  were  made  more  dependent  than  hitherto 
upon  the  representatives  of  the  people,  who  were  careful  to  make 
their  grants  of  supplies  conditional  upon  the  correction  of  abuses 
or  the  confirming  of  their  privileges.  Thus  the  war  served  to 
make  the  Commons  a  power  in  the  English  government. 

Again,  as  the  war  was  participated  in  by  all  classes  alike,  the 
great  victories  of  Cr^cy,  Poitiers,  and  Agincourt  aroused  a  national 
pride,  which  led  to  a  closer  union  between  the  different  elements 
of  society.  Normans  and  English,  enlisted  in  a  common  enterprise, 
were  fused  by  the  ardor  of  a  common  patriotic  enthusiasm  into  a 
single  people.  The  real  national  life  of  England  dates  from  this 
time. 

The  Wars  of  the  Roses  {14^^-148^) 

223.  Introductory.  — The  Wars  of  the  Roses  is  the  name  given 
to  a  long  contest  between  the  adherents  of  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster,  rival  branches  of  the  royal  family  of  England.  The 
strife  was  so  named  because  the  Yorkists  adopted  as  their  badge 
a  white  rose  and  the  Lancastrians  a  red  one. 

224.  Chief  Battles  of  the  War.  —  The  three  battles  which  may 
be  made  to  serve  as  landmarks  of  the  struggle  were  the  first  battle 
of  St.  Albans  (1455),  the  battle  of  Towton  Field  (1461),  and  the 
battle  of  Bosworth  Field  (1485).  The  first  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  the  struggle.  The  second  was  the  most  terrible  battle 
fought  in  England  after  that  of  Hastings.  The  third  battle  marks 
the  close  of  the  war.  In  this  fight  King  Richard  HI,^®  the  last  of 
the  House  of  York,  was  overthrown  and  slain  by  Henry  Tudor, 
Earl  of  Richmond,  who  was  crowned  on  the  field  with  the  diadem 
which  had  fallen  from  the  head  of  Richard,  and  saluted  as  King 
Henry  VH.    With  him  began  the  dynasty  of  the  Tudors. 

!<>  This  is  the  Richard  who,  in  order  to  make  secure  his  title  to  the  crown,  is 
believed  to  have  caused  the  murder  of  the  two  little  princes,  his  nephews,  in  the 
Tower  of  London  (1483). 


2l6  GROWTH   OF   THE   NATIONS 

225.  The  Effects  of  the  Wars.  — The  first  important  result  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses  was  the  ruin  of  the  baronage  of  England. 
Gne  half  of  the  nobility  were  slain.  Those  that  survived  were 
ruined,  their  estates  having  been  wasted  or  confiscated  during  the 
progress  of  the  struggle.  Not  a  single  great  house  retained  its 
old-time  wealth  and  influence.  The  war  marks  the  final  downfall 
of  feudalism  in  England. 

The  second  result  of  the  struggle  sprang  from  the  first.  This 
was  the  great  peril  into  which  English  liberty  was  cast  by  the 
ruin  of  the  nobihty.  It  was  primarily  the  barons  who  had  forced 
the  Great  Charter  from  King  John,  and  who  had  kept  him  and 
his  successors  from  reigning  like  absolute  monarchs.  Now  the 
once  proud  and  powerful  barons  were  ruined,  and  their  confis- 
cated estates  had  gone  to  increase  the  influence  and  patronage  of 
the  sovereign,  who  when  strong  and  willful,  like  Henry  VIII,  did 
pretty  much  as  he  pleased  and  became  unjust  and  tyrannical. 
In  short,  upon  the  ruins  of  the  baronage  was  erected  something 
like  a  royal  despotism.  Not  until  the  revolution  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  did  the  people,  by  overturning  the  throne  of  the 
Stuarts,  curb  the  undue  power  of  the  crown  and  recover  their 
lost  liberties. 

Growth  of  the  English  Language  and  Literature 

226.  The  Language.  —  From  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  there  were  in  use  in  England 
three  languages  :  Norman  French  was  the  speech  of  the  con- 
querors and  the  medium  of  pohte  Hterature;  Saxon,  or  Old 
English,  was  the  tongue  of  the  conquered  people ;  while  Latin 
was  the  language  of  the  laws  and  records,  of  the  Church  services, 
and  of  the  works  of  the  learned. 

Modern  EngHsh  is  the  old  Saxon  tongue  worn  and  improved 
by  use,  and  enriched  by  a  large  infusion  of  Norman- French 
words,  with  less  important  additions  from  the  Latin  and  other 
languages.  It  took  the  place  of  the  Norman-French  in  the  courts 
of  law  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.    At  this  time 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE  21/ 

the  language  was  broken  up  into  many  dialects,  and  the  expression 
"  King's  English  "  is  supposed  to  have  referred  to  the  standard 
form  employed  in  state  documents  and  in  use  at  court. 

227.  Eifect  of  the  Norman  Conquest  on  English  Literature.  — 
The  blow  that  struck  down  King  Harold  and  his  brave  thanes  on 
the  field  of  Hastings  silenced  for  the  space  of  above  a  century  the 
voice  of  English  literature.  The  tongue  of  the  conquerors  became 
the  speech  of  the  court,  the  nobility,  and  the  clergy ;  while  the 
language  of  the  despised  English  was,  like  themselves,  crowded 
out  of  every  place  of  honor.  But  when,  after  a  few  generations, 
the  downtrodden  race  began  to  reassert  itself,  EngHsh  literature 
emerged  from  its  obscurity,  and,  with  an  utterance  somewhat 
changed,  —  yet  unmistakably  it  is  the  same  voice,  —  resumed  its 
interrupted  lesson  and  its  broken  song. 

228.  Chaucer  (i34o?-i4oo).  —  Holding  a  position  high  above 
all  other  writers  of  early  English  is  Geoffrey  Chaucer.  He  is 
the  first  in  time,  and,  after  Shakespeare,  perhaps  the  first  in 
genius,  among  the  great  poets  of  the  English-speaking  race. 
He  is  reverently  called  the  "  Father  of  English  poetry." 

Chaucer  stands  between  two  ages,  the  mediaeval  and  the  mod- 
ern. He  felt  not  only  the  influences  of  the  age  of  feudalism 
which  was  passing  away,  but  also  those  of  the  new  age  of  learn- 
ing and  freedom  which  was  dawning.  It  is  because  he  was  so 
sensitive  to  these  various  influences,  and  reflects  his  surround- 
ings so  faithfully  in  his  writings,  that  these  are  so  valuable  as 
interpreters  of  the  period  in  which  he  lived. 

Chaucer's  greatest  and  most  important  work  is  his  Canterbury 
Tales.  The  poet  represents  himself  as  one  of  a  company  of  story- 
telling pilgrims  who  have  set  out  on  a  journey  to  the  tomb  of 
Thomas  Becket  at  Canterbury  (sec.  208).  The  persons,  thirty- 
two  in  number,  making  up  the  party,  represent  almost  every 
calling  and  position  in  the  middle  class  of  English  society.  The 
prologue,  containing  characterizations  of  the  different  members 
of  the  company,  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  production. 
Here  as  in  a  gallery  we  have  shown  to  us  faithful  portraits  of 
our  ancestors  of  the  fourteenth  century. 


2l8 


GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 


229.  William  Langland. — The  genial  Chaucer  shows  us  the 
pleasant,  attractive  side  of  English  society  and  life;  William 
Langland,  another  writer  of  the  same  period,  in  a  poem  called 
the  Vision  of  Piers  the  Plowman  (1362),  lights  up  for  us  the  world 
of  the  poor  and  the  oppressed. 

This  poem  quivers  with  sympathy  for  the  hungry,  labor-worn 
peasant,  doomed  to  a  life  of  weary  routine  and  hopelessness, 
despised  by  haughty  lords  and  robbed  by  shameless  ecclesiastics. 
The  long  wars  with  France  had  demoralized  the  nation  ;  the  Black 
Death  had  just  reaped  its  awful  harvest  among  the  ill-clad,  ill-fed, 
and  ill-housed  poor.  Occasional  outbursts  of  wrath  against  the 
favored  classes  are  the  mutterings  of  the  storm  soon  to  burst  upon 


Fig.  42.  —  Plowing  Scene.    (From  a  manuscript  of  the 
fourteenth  century) 

the  social  world  in  the  fury  of  the  Peasants'  Revolt,  and  later  upon 
the  religious  world  in  the  upheavals  of  the  Reformation. 

230.  John  Wycliife  (i  324-1 384)  and  the  Lollards.  —  Foremost 
among  the  reformers  and  religious  writers  of  the  period  under 
review  was  John  Wycliffe,  called  ''  the  Morning  Star  of  the  Ref- 
ormation." This  bold  reformer  attacked  first  many  of  the  prac- 
tices and  then  certain  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  He  gave  the 
English  people  the  first  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  in  the  English 
languiige.  There  was  no  press  at  this  time  to  multiply  editions  of 
the  book,  but  by  means  of  manuscript  copies  it  was  widely  circu- 
lated and  read.  Its  influence  was  very  great,  and  from  its  appear- 
ance may  be  dated  the  beginnings  of  the  Reformation  in  England. 

Wycliffe  did  not  wholly  escape  persecution  in  life,  and  his 
bones  were  riot  permitted  to  rest  in  peace.  His  enemies  attrib- 
uted to  his  teachings  the  unrest  and  the  revolt  of  the  peasants. 


CAXTON   AND   THE   PRINTING   PRESS  219 

and  this  caused  him  to  be  looked  upon  by  many  as  a  dangerous 
agitator.  In  141 5  the  Council  of  Constance  (sec.  259)  pro- 
nounced his  doctrines  heretical,  and  ordered  that  his  body  be 
taken  from  its  tomb  and  burned.  This  was  done,  and  the  ashes 
were  thrown  into  a  neighboring  stream  called  the  Swift.  "This 
brook,"  in  the  words  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  writer,  Thomas 
Fuller,  "  hath  conveyed  his  ashes  into  Avon,  Avon  into  Severn, 
Severn  into  the  Narrow  Seas,  they  into  the  ocean ;  and  thus  the 
ashes  of  Wycliffe  are  the  emblem  of  his  doctrine,  which  now  is 
dispersed  all  the  world  over." 

The  followers  of  Wycliffe  became  known  as  Lollards  (babblers), 
a  term  applied  to  them  in  derision.  Their  religious  opinions  were 
regarded  as  erroneous  or  as  heretical ;  and  heresy  at  that  time 
was  hated  and  feared,  at  least  by  those  in  authority.  Parliament 
passed  a  law  (1401)  known  as  the  Statute  for  the  Burning  of 
Heretics,  which  made  it  the  duty  of  the  proper  civil  officers,  in 
cases  of  persons  convicted  of  heresy  by  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
to  receive  the  same  and  "  before  the  people,  in  a  high  place,  cause 
them  to  be  burnt,  that  such  puifishment  may  strike  fear  to  the 
hearts  of  others." 

Heretics  had  been  burned  in  England  before  the  passage  of 
this  law,  but  now  for  the  first  time  did  Parliament  by  special 
enactment  make  this  form  of  punishment  the  penalty  for  reli- 
gious dissent.  It  was  the  opening  of  a  sad  chapter  in  English 
history.  Under  the  statute  many  persons  whose  only  fault  was 
the  teaching  or  the  holding  of  religious  opinions  different  from 
those  of  the  Church  perished  at  the  stake. 

231.  Caxton  (141 2-1 491)  and  the  Printing  Press.  — The  great 
religious  movement  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  which 
during  the  sixteenth  century  transformed  the  face  of  England, 
was  hastened  by  the  introduction  of  printing  into  the  island  by 
William  Caxton  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
first  work  which  appeared  from  his  press  was  entitled  the  Game 
of  Chess  (1474).  He  also  printed  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales ^ 
and  almost  everything  else  worth  reproducing  then  existing  in 
English,  besides  various  works  from  the  Latin  and  the  French. 


220  GROWTH   OF  THE   NATIONS 

The  eagerness  with  which  the  books  which  fell  from  Caxton's 
press  were  seized  and  read  by  all  classes  indicates  the  increasing 
activity  and  thoughtfulness  of  the  public  mind.  Manifestly  a 
new  day  —  one  to  be  filled  with  intellectual  and  moral  revolu- 
tions—  was  breaking  over  the  land  of  Alfred  and  of  Wycliffe. 

11.    France 

232.  Beginnings  of  the  French  Kingdom.  — The  separate  history 
of  France  may  be  regarded  as  beginning  with  the  partition  of 
Verdun  in  843.  At  that  time  the  Carolingians,  of  whom  we  have 
already  learned  (Chapter  VII),  exercised  the  royal  power. 

Just  at  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  in  987,  the  Capetian 
dynasty  acceded  to  the  throne.  The  direct  Capetian  line  ruled 
until  1328,  when  the  Valois  branch  of  the  house  came  into  power 
and  ruled  until  the  accession,  in  1589,  of  Henry  IV,  the  first 
of  the  Bourbons. 

We  shall  now  direct  attention  to  the  important  transactions  of 
the  period  covered  by  the  mediaeval  Capetian  kings.  Our  special 
aim  will  be  to  give  prominence  to  those  matters  which  concern 
the  gradual  consolidation  of  the  French  monarchy  and  the  develop- 
ment among  the  French  people  of  the  sentiment  of  nationality. 

France  under  the  Direct  Line  of  the  Capetians  {g8Y-ij28) 

233.  General  Statement. — The  Capetian  dynasty  takes  its 
name  from  Hugh  Capet,  Duke  of  Francia,  the  first  of  the  house. 
The  direct  line  embraced  fourteen  kings,  whose  united  reigns 
spanned  a  space  of  three  hundred  and  forty-one  years.^^ 

11  Table  of  the  Capetian  Kings  (direct  line) 

Hugh  Capet 987-  996 

Robert  II  (the  Pious)       .  996-1031 

Henry  I 1031-1060 

Phihp  I 1060-1108 

Louis  VI  (the  Fat)      .     .  1108-1137 

Louis  VII  (the  Young)    .  1137-1180 

Philip  II  (Augustus)    ,     .  11 80-1 223 


Louis  VIII  (the  Lion) 

.     1223-1226 

Louis  IX  (the  Saint)   . 

.     1226-1270 

Philip  III  (the  Bold)    . 

.     1270-1285 

Philip  IV  (the  Fair)     . 

•     1285-1314 

Louis  X  {le  Hutin) 

•     1314-1316 

Philip  V  (the  Tall)      . 

.     1316-1322 

Charles  IV  (the  Fair)  . 

.     1322-1328 

FRANCE   UNDER  THE   CAPETIANS  221 

The  first  Capetian  king  differed  from  his  vassal  counts  and 
dukes  simply  in  having  a  more  dignified  title ;  his  power  was 
scarcely  greater  than  that  of  many  of  the  lords  who  paid  him 
homage  as  their  suzerain.  But  through  forfeiture,  conquest,  and 
marriage  alliances,  one  after  another  of  the  feudal  fiefs  was  added 
to  the  royal  domains,  until  finally  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom 
was  ruled  directly  by  the  crown.  Before  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages  France  had  come  to  be  one  of  the  most  compact  and  power- 
ful kingdoms  in  Europe.  How  various  circumstances  conspired 
to  build  up  the  power  of  the  kings  at  the  expense  of  that  of  the 
great  feudal  lords  and  of  the  Church  will  appear  as  we  go  on. 

In  this  place,  however,  it  should  be  noted  that  nothing  con- 
tributed more  to  the  strength  and  influence  of  the  monarchy 
during  the  period  of  which  we  are  speaking  than  the  fortunate 
circumstance  that  for  eleven  generations,  from  the  accession 
of  Hugh  Capet  in  987  to  the  death  of  Philip  the  Fair  in  13 14, 
no  French  king  lacked  a  son  to  whom  to  transmit  his  authority. 
For  over  three  centuries  the  title  was  transmitted  directly  from 
father  to  son.  With  no  disputed  successions  the  monarchy  grew 
steadily  in  power  and  prestige. 

The  most  noteworthy  events  of  the  earlier  Capetian  period, 
regarded  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  growth  of  the  French 
kingdom,  were  the  acquisition  by  the  French  crown  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  English  possessions  in  France,  the  Crusades,  the 
admission  of  the  Third  Estate  to  the  National  Assembly,  and  the 
abolition  of  the  order  of  the  Templars.  Of  these  several  matters 
we  will  now  speak  in  order. 

234.  The  Acquisition  of  the  English  Possessions  in  France.  — 
In  our  sketch  of  the  growth  of  England  we  spoke  of  the  extensive 
possessions  of  the  first  Angevin  kings  in  France,  and  told  how 
the  larger  part  of  these  feudal  lands  were  lost  through  King  John's 
misconduct  and  resumed  as  forfeited  fiefs  by  his  suzerain  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  F'rance  (sec.  209).  The  annexation  of  these 
large  and  flourishing  provinces  to  the  crown  of  France  brought  a 
vast  accession  of  power  and  patronage  to  the  king,  who  was  now 
easily  the  superior  of  any  of  his  great  vassals. 


222  GROWTH    OF   THE    NATIONS 

235.  The  French  and  the  Crusades.  — The  age  of  the  Capetians 
was  the  age  of  the  Crusades.  These  romantic  expeditions,  while 
stirring  all  Christendom,  appealed  especially  to  the  ardent,  imagi- 
native genius  of  the  Gallic  race.  Three  Capetian  kings,  Louis  VII, 
Philip  Augustus,  and  Louis  IX,  were  themselves  leaders  of  crusades. 
It  was  the  great  predominance  of  French-speaking  persons  among 
the  first  crusaders  which  led  the  Eastern  peoples  to  call  them  all 
Franks,  the  term  still  used  throughout  the  East  to  designate 
Europeans,  irrespective  of  their  nationality. 

But  it  is  only  the  influence  of  the  Crusades  on  the  French  mon- 
archy that  we  need  to  notice  in  this  place.  They  tended  very 
materially  to  weaken  the  power  and  influence  of  the  feudal  nobiHty, 
and  in  a  corresponding  degree  to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the 
crown  and  add  to  its  dignity.  The  way  in  which  they  brought  about 
this  transfer  of  power  from  the  aristocracy  to  the  king  has  been 
already  explained  in  the  chapter  on  the  Crusades  (sec.  158). 

In  that  same  chapter  we  also  saw  how  the  crusade  against  the 
Albigenses  resulted  in  the  almost  total  extirpation  of  that  hereti- 
cal sect  and  in  the  final  acquisition  by  the  French  crown  of  large 
and  rich  territories  formerly  held  by  the  counts  of  Toulouse,  the 
patrons  of  the  heretics. 

236.  Admission  of  the  Third  Estate  to  the  National  Assembly 
(1302). — The  event  of  the  greatest  political  significance  in  the 
Capetian  age  was  the  admission,  in  the  reign  of  Philip  the  Fair, 
of  the  representatives  of  the  towns  to  the  National  Assembly. 
This  transaction  is  in  French  history  what  the  creation  of  the 
House  of  Commons  is  in  Enghsh  history  (sec.  211).  The  popular 
branches  of  the  two  councils  were,  however,  called  to  take  part 
in  the  administration  of  public  affairs  under  very  different  circum- 
stances. In  England  it  was  the  nobility  that  sought  the  people's 
aid  in  their  struggle  with  a  despotic  king.  In  France  it  was  the 
king  who  summoned  the  burghers  to  assist  him  in  his  quarrel  with 
the  papal  see.  But  the  fact  that  the  aid  of  the  commons  was 
courted,  whether  by  nobles  or  by  king,  indicates  that  in  both 
countries  the  middle  class  was  rising  into  pohtical  importance, 
and  was  holding  in  its  hands  the  balance  of  power.  ^ 


THE   ORDER   OF   THE  TEMPLARS  223 

The  dispute  between  Philip  and  the  Pope  to  which  we  have 
just  referred,  arose,  it  will  be  recalled,  respecting  the  control  of 
the  offices  and  revenues  of  the  Church  in  France  (sec.  168).  In 
order  to  rally  to  his  support  all  classes  throughout  his  kingdom, 
Philip  called  a  meeting  of  the  National  Assembly,  to  which  he 
invited  representatives  of  the  burghers,  or  inhabitants  of  the 
towns  (1302).  This  council  had  hitherto  been  made  up  of  two 
estates  only,  —  the  nobles  and  the  clergy ;  now  is  added  what 
comes  to  be  known  as  the  Tiers  Etat,  or  Third  Estate,  while 
the  assembly  henceforth  is  called  the  Estates-  or  States-General. 
Before  the  growing  power  of  this  Third  Estate  —  a  power  devel- 
oped however  outside  and  not  within  the  National  Assembly 
itself  —  we  shall  see  the  Church,  the  nobility,  and  the  monarchy 
all  go  down,  just  as  in  England  we  shall  see  clergy,  nobles,  and 
king  yield  to  the  rising  power  of  the  English  Commons. 

237.  The  Abolition  of  the  Order  of  the  Templars  (1307).  —  The 
abolition  of  the  order  of  the  Knights  of  the  Temple  by  Phihp 
the  Fair  affords  in  some  measure  a  parallel  to  the  suppression  of 
the  English  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

We  have  already,  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Crusades, 
learned  about  the  origin  of  the  Templars  (sec.  143).  In  recogni- 
tion of  their  services,  they  had  had  bestowed  upon  them,  through 
the  gifts  of  the  pious  and  the  grants  of  princes,  enormous  riches 
and  the  most  unusual  privileges.  The  number  of  manors  and 
castles  that  they  held  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe,  but 
chiefly  in  France,  is  estimated  at  from  nine  to  ten  thousand.  But 
gain  in  wealth  and  power  had  been  accompanied  apparently  by  a 
loss  in  virtue  and  piety.  At  all  events  the  most  incredible  rumors 
of  the  immoral  and  blasphemous  character  of  the  secret  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  society  were  spread  abroad.  Its  crimes  were 
declared  "  sufficient  to  move  the  earth  and  disturb  the  elements." 

Taking  advantage  of  the  feeling  against  the  order,  Philip  re- 
solved upon  its  destruction.  He  was  moved  doubtless  by  various 
motives,  but  beyond  all  question  it  was  the  riches  of  the  society, — 
which  Philip  coveted,  —  and  not  its  sins,  that  were  the  real  cause 
of  its  undoing. 


224  GROWTH    OF   THE    NATIONS 

The  blow  fell  suddenly.  Upon  a  preconcerted  day  (Oct.  13, 
1307)  the  chiefs  of  the  order  throughout  the  kingdom  were 
arrested,  and  many  of  them  afterwards  put  to  death  on  various 
charges.^^  The  great  crime  brought  to  PhiHp  enormous  wealth, 
which  greatly  enhanced  the  growing  power  and  patronage  of  the 
crown,  just  as  the  strength  and  influence  of  Henry  VIII  of  Eng- 
land were  vastly  increased  by  the  confiscated  wealth  of  the  reli- 
gious houses  he  suppressed. 

France  under  the  Mediaeval  Valois'^^  {ij28-i4g8) 

238.  Effects  upon  France  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War. — The 

main  interest  of  the  period  of  French  history  upon  which  we  here 
enter  attaches  to  that  long  struggle  between  England  and  France 
known  as  the  Hundred  Years'  War.  Having  already,  in  connec- 
tion with  English  affairs,  touched  upon  the  causes  and  incidents 
of  this  war,  we  shall  here  speak  only  of  the  effects  of  the  strug- 
gle on  the  French  people  and  kingdom.  Among  these  must  be 
noticed  the  almost  complete  prostration,  by  the  successive  shocks 
of  Crecy,  Poitiers,  and  Agincourt,  of  the  French  feudal  aristocracy, 
which  was  already  tottering  to  its  fall  through  various  undermining 
influences ;  the  growth  of  the  power  of  the  king,  a  consequence, 
largely,  of  the  ruin  of  the  nobility ;  and,  lastly,  the  awakening  of 
a  feeling  of  nationality  and  the  drawing  together  of  the  hitherto 
isolated  sections  of  the  country  by  the  attraction  of  a  common 
and  patriotic  enthusiasm.  Speaking  broadly,  we  may  say  that  by 
the  close  of  the  war  feudalism  in  France  was  over,  and  that  France 
had  become,  partly  in  spite  of  the  war  but  more  largely  by  reason 
of  it,  not  only  a  great  monarchy  but  a  great  nation. 

12  The  order  was  formally  abolished  in  1312  by  Pope  Clement  V,  the  first  of  the 
Avignon  popes,  who  was  wholly  under  the  influence  of  Philip, 

13  The  House  of  Valois,  as  already  pointed  out,  was  a  branch  of  the  Capetian 
family.     The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  the  mediaeval  Valois  kings. 

Philip  VI 1328-1350  Charles  VII  (the  Vic- 
John  (the  Good)       .     .     .  1350-1364  torious)        .     .     .     ,     .     1422-1461   ' 

Charles  V  (the  Wise)  .     .  1364-1380  Louis  XI 1461-1483 

Charles  VI  (the  Well-  Charles  VIII  (the 

Beloved) 1 380-1422  Affable) 1483-1498 


LOUIS   XI   AND   CHARLES   THE   BOLD  225 

239.  Louis  XI  and  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy.  —  The  founda- 
tions of  the  French  monarchy,  laid  and  cemented  in  the  way  we 
have  seen,  were  greatly  enlarged  and  strengthened  by  the  unscru- 
pulous measures  of  Louis  XI  (1461-1483),  who  was  a  perfect 
Ulysses  in  cunning  and  deceit.  His  maxim  was,  "  He  who  does 
not  know  how  to  dissimulate  does  not  know  how  to  reign."  The 
great  feudal  lords  that  still  retained  power  and  influence  he 
brought  to  destruction  one  after  another,  and  united  their  fiefs 
to  the  royal  domains. 

Of  all  the  vassal  nobles  ruined  by  the  craft  of  Louis,  the  most 
renowned  and  powerful  was  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy. 
Charles  was  endeavoring,  out  of  a  great  patchwork  of  petty  feudal 
states  and  semi-independent  cantons  and  cities,  to  build  up  a 
kingdom  between  Germany  and  France.  His  success  in  this  effort 
would  have  meant  practically  a  restoration  of  the  old  Lotharingian 
kingdom  (see  map,  p.  68),  which,  it  will  be  recalled,  stretched 
across  Europe  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  North  Sea.  It  seems 
one  of  the  misfortunes  of  history  that  Charles  did  not  succeed  in 
his  ambition.  Such  a  kingdom  as  he  planned  might  have  proved 
a  serviceable  **  buffer  state  "  between  France  and  Germany. 

For  some  of  his  lands  Charles  paid  homage,  or  at  least  owed 
homage,  to  the  king  of  France ;  others  he  held  as  fiefs  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how  these  rela- 
tions of  Charles  and  his  known  ambitions  should  have  set  him 
apart  as  one  whom  his  wily  neighbor  Louis  would  watch  closely. 
Louis  was  frequently  warring  with  the  duke  and  forever  intriguing 
against  him.  Upon  the  death  of  the  duke  —  he  was  killed  in  147  7 
in  a  battle  with  the  Swiss  —  Louis,  without  clear  right,  seized  a 
considerable  part  of  his  dominions. 

By  cession  and  by  inheritance  Louis  also  added  to  France  im- 
portant lands  in  the  south  (Provence,  Roussillon,  and  Cerdagne), 
which  gave  the  French  kingdom  a  wider  frontage  upon  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  made  the  Pyrenees  its  southern  defense. 

240.  Invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.  —  Charles  VIH  (1483- 
1498),  son  and  successor  of  Louis  XI,  was  the  last  of  the  mediae- 
val Valois.    Through  his  marriage  to  Anne  of  Brittany  he  brought 


226  GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 

that  great  fief,  which  had  hitherto  constituted  an  almost  inde- 
pendent state,  under  the  direct  rule  of  the  crown. 

Thus  through  the  favor  of  a  long  series  of  circumstances,  the 
persistent  poHcy  of  his  predecessors,  and  his  own  politic  marriage 
Charles  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  kingdom  which,  gradually 
transformed  from  a  feudal  league  into  a  true  monarchy,  had,  by 
slow  expansion,  touched  upon  almost  every  side  those  limits  which 
were  to  constitute  substantially  the  boundaries  of  modern  France. 

Charles  was  a  romantic  youth.  His  extravagant  fancy  led  him 
to  dream  of  some  brilHant  enterprise  which  should  draw  the  gaze 
of  the  world,  and  which  might  contribute  to  the  realization  of  his 
great  project  of  making  France  instead  of  Germany  the  head  of 
the  world-empire.  With  a  standing  army,  created  by  Charles  VII 
during  the  latter  years  of  the  war  with  England,^'*  at  his  command, 
he  invaded  Italy,  intent  on  the  conquest  of  Naples,  —  to  which 
he  laid  claim  on  the  strength  of  an  old  bequest,  —  proposing,  with 
that  state  subdued,  to  lead  a  crusade  to  the  East  against  the  Turks. 

Charles'  march  through  Italy  was  a  mere  "promenade."  In 
the  early  spring  of  the  year  1495  he  entered  Naples  in  triumph. 
Here,  in  the  midst  of  splendid  ceremonies,  he  caused  himself  to 
be  crowned  "  King  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Jerusalem." 

Meanwhile  the  king  of  Aragon,  the  Venetians,  and  other  powers 
were  uniting  their  armies  to  punish  the  insolence  and  check  the 
vaulting  ambition  of  the  would-be  emperor  and  crusader.  Only 
at  the  cost  of  a  large  part  of  his  army  did  Charles  succeed  in 
making  good  his  retreat  into  France.  The  forces  he  had  left  at 
Naples  were  quickly  driven  out  of  the  place,  and  thus  ended  the 
youth's  dream  of  a  French  world-empire. 

This  enterprise  of  Charles  is  noteworthy  not  only  because  it 
marks  the  commencement  of  a  long  series  of  brilliant  yet  disas- 
trous campaigns  carried  on  by  the  French  in  Italy,  but  further 
on   account  of  Charles'  army  having  been  made   up  largely  of 

14  The  paid  force  of  infantry  and  cavalry  created  by  Charles  VII  in  1448  was 
the  first  standing  army  in  Europe,  and  the  beginning  of  that  vast  military  system 
which  now  burdens  the  great  nations  of  that  continent  with  the  support  of  several 
millions  of  soldiers  constantly  under  arms. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE      22/ 

paid  troops  instead  of  feudal  retainers,  which  fact  assures  us  that 
the  feudal  system,  as  a  military  organization,  had  practically  come 
to  an  end. 


Formation  of  the  French  Language  and  the  Beginnings  of 
French  Literature 

241.  The  Language.  — The  contact  of  the  old  Latin  speech  in 
Gaul  with  that  of  the  Teutonic  invaders  gave  rise  there  to  two 
very  distinct  dialects.  These  were  the  Langue  </'  Oc^  or  Proven- 
^1,  the  tongue  of  the  South  of  France  and  of  the  adjoining 
regions  of  Spain  and  Italy;  and  the  Langue  d' Oily  or  French 
proper,  the  language  of  the  North.^ 

The  soft,  musical  tongue  of  the  South,  predestined  though  it 
was  to  an  early  decay,  was  the  first,  as  we  shall  learn  in  a 
moment,  to  develop  a  literature ;  but  when  the  North  precipi- 
tated itself  upon  the  South  in  the  furious  crusades  against  the 
Albigenses,  the  language,  literature,  and  heretical  religion  of 
these  southern  provinces  were  all  swept  away  together.  As  the 
persecuted  faith  was  driven  into  obscurity,  so  in  like  manner  the 
old  speech  was  driven  out  of  palace  and  court,  and  found  a  place 
only  among  the  rude  peasantry. 

The  position  of  this  once  widely  used  Proven(;al  speech  among 
living  languages  may  be  ilkistrated  by  comparing  its  fortunes  with 
those  of  the  Celtic  tongue  in  its  conflict  with  the  Anglo-Saxon 
in  the  British  Isles. 

242.  The  Troubadours. — About  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  by  which  time  the  Provencal  tongue  had  become  settled 
and  somewhat  poHshed,  Hterature  in  France  first  began  to  find  a 
voice  in  the  songs  of  the  Troubadours,  the  poets  of  the  South. 
It  is  instructive  to  note  that  it  was  the  home  of  the  Albigensian 
heresy,  the  land  that  had  felt  the  influence  of  every  Mediter- 
ranean civilization,  that  was  also  the  home  of  the  Troubadour 
literature.    The  counts  of  Toulouse,  the  protectors  of  the  heretics, 

1*  The  terms  Langut  (VOc  and  Langue  d^Oil  urose  from  the  use  of  different  words 
for  "yes,"  which  in  the  tongue  of  the  South  was  oc,  and  in  that  of  the  North  oil. 


228 


GROWTH    OF   THE   NATIONS 


were  also  the  patrons  of  the  poets.  It  was,  as  we  have  intimated, 
the  same  fierce  persecution  which  uprooted  the  heretical  faith 
that  stilled  the  song  of  the  Troubadours. 

The  compositions  of  the  Troubadours  were,  for  the  most  part, 
love  songs  and  satires.  Among  the  countless  minstrels  of  the 
South  were  some  who  acquired  a  fame  which  was  spread  through- 
out Christendom. 
The  verses  of  the 
Troubadours  were 
sung  in  every  land, 
and  to  their  stimu- 
lating influence  the 
early  poetry  of  al- 
most every  people  of 
Europe  is  largely  in- 
debted. 

243.  The  Trou- 
veurs.  —  These  were 
the  poets  of  North- 
ern France,  who  com- 
posed in  the  Langue 
d'  Gil,  or  Old  French 
tongue.  They  flour- 
ished during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  As  the  poetical 
literature  of  the  South  found  worthy  patrons  in  the  counts  of 
Toulouse,  so  did  that  of  the  North  find  admiring  encouragers  in 
the  dukes  of  Normandy. 

There  was,  however,  a  wide  difference  between  the  hterature 
of  Southern  and  that  of  Northern  France.  The  compositions  of 
the  Troubadours  were  almost  exclusively  lyric  songs,  while  those 
of  the  Trouveurs  were  chiefly  epic  or  narrative  poems,  called 
romances.  These  latter  celebrated  the  chivalrous  exploits  and 
loves  of  great  princes  and  knights,  and  displayed  at  times  almost 
Homeric  animation  and  grandeur.  Many  of  them  gather  about 
three  familiar  names,  —  Charlemagne,  King  Arthur,  and  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  —  thus  forming  what  are  designated  as  the  cycle 


Fig.  43.  —  In  the  Land  of  the  Troubadours 
—  THE  Castle  of  Foix.  (From  Smith,  The 
Trotibadours  at  Home) 


FROISSART'S   CHRONICLES  229 

of  Charlemagne,   the   Arthurian    or   Armorican   cycle,  and    the 
Alexandrian.^* 

The  influence  of  these  French  romances  upon  the  springing 
literatures  of  Europe  was  most  inspiring  and  helpful.  Nor  has  their 
influence  yet  ceased.  Thus  in  English  literature,  not  only  did 
Chaucer  and  Spenser  and  all  the  early  island  poets  draw  inspiration 
from  these  fountains  of  Continental  song,  but  the  later  Tennyson, 
in  his  Idylls  of  the  King,  has  illustrated  the  power  over  the  imagina- 
tion yet  possessed  by  the  Arthurian  poems  of  the  old  Trouveurs. 

244.  Froissart's  Chronicles.  —  The  first  really  noted  prose 
writer  in  French  literature  was  Froissart  (about  1 337-1410), 
whose  picturesqueness  of  style  and  skill  as  a  story-teller  have  won 
for  him  the  title  of  the  "  French  Herodotus."  Born,  as  he  was, 
only  a  little  after  the  opening  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  and 
knowing  personally  many  of  the  actors  in  that  long  struggle,  it 
was  fitting  that  he  should  have  become,  as  he  did,  the  annalist 
of  those  stirring  times. 

Froissart's  inimitable  Chronicles  have  an  added  value  from  the 
age  in  which  they  were  written.  It  was,  as  we  have  learned,  a 
transition  period.  Feudalism  was  fast  passing  away  and  chivalry 
was  beginning  to  feel  the  dissolving  breath  of  a  new  era.  But  as 
the  forests  never  clothe  themselves  in  more  gorgeous  colors  than 
when  already  touched  by  decay,  so  chivalry  never  arrayed  itself 
in  more  splendid  magnificence  than  when  about  to  die.  In  the 
age  of  Edward  III  and  the  Black  Prince  it  displayed  its  most 
sumptuous  and  prodigal  splendor.  And  this  is  the  age  which  the 
rare  genius  of  Froissart  has  painted  for  us. 

III.    Spain 

245.  The  Beginnings  of  Spain.  — When,  in  the  eighth  century, 
the  Saracens  swept  like  a  wave  over  Spain,  the  mountains  of 
Asturias  and  Cantabria  in  the  northwest  comer  of  the  peninsula 

16  These  epics,  it  will  be  noticed,  represent  the  three  elements  in  the  civilization 
of  Western  Europe,  —  the  (Jerman,  the  Celtic,  and  the  Grieco-Roman.  It  was  the 
Crusades  that  brought  in  a  fresh  relay  of  tales  and  legends  from  the  lands  of  the 
East  (sec.  159). 


230  GROWTH    OP^   THE    NATIONS 

afforded  a  refuge  for  the  most  resolute  of  the  Christian  chiefs  who 
refused  to  submit  their  necks  to  the  Moslem  yoke.  These  brave 
and  hardy  warriors  not  only  successfully  defended  the  hilly  dis- 
tricts that  formed  their  asylum,  but  gradually  pushed  back  the 
invaders  and  regained  control  of  a  portion  of  the  fields  and  cities 
that  had  been  lost. 

By  the  opening  of  the  eleventh  century  several  little  Christian 
states,  among  which  we  must  notice  especially  the  states  of  Castile 
and  Aragon  because  of  the  prominent  part  they  were  to  play  in 
later  history,  had  been  established  upon  the  ground  thus  recov- 
ered or  always  maintained.  Castile  was  at  first  simply  "  a  line  of 
castles  "  against  the  Moors,  whence  its  name. 

246.  Union  of  Castile  and  Aragon  (1479).  —  For  several  cen- 
turies the  princes  of  the  little  states  to  which  we  have  referred 
kept  up  an  incessant  warfare  with  their  Mohammedan  neighbors ; 
but,  owing  to  dissensions  among  themselves,  they  were  unable  to 
combine  in  any  effective  way  for  the  complete  reconquest  of  their 
ancient  possessions.  But  the  marriage,  in  1469,  of  Ferdinand, 
prince  of  Aragon,  to  Isabella,  princess  of  Castile,  paved  the  way 
for  the  virtual  union  in  1479  of  these  two  leading  states,  both 
greatly  enlarged  since  the  eleventh  century,  into  a  single  kingdom. 
By  this  happy  union  the  quarrels  of  these  two  rival  principalities 
were  composed,  and  they  were  now  free  to  employ  their  united 
strength  in  effecting  what  the  Christian  princes  amidst  all  their 
contentions  had  never  lost  sight  of,  — the  expulsion  of  the  Moors 
from  the  peninsula. 

247.  The  Conquest  of  Granada  (1492).  —  At  the  time  when  the 
basis  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  laid  by  the  union  of  Castile 
and  Aragon,  the  Mohammedan  possessions  had  been  reduced,  by 
the  constant  pressure  of  the  Christian  chiefs  through  eight  cen- 
turies, to  a  very  limited  dominion  in  the  south  of  Spain.  Here 
the  Moors  had  established  a  strong,  well-compacted  state,  known 
as  the  Kingdom  of  Granada.  As  soon  as  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
had  settled  the  affairs  of  their  dominions,  they  began  to  make 
preparation  for  the  reduction  of  this  last  stronghold  of  the 
Moorish  power  in  the  peninsula. 


The  Alhambra:  Palace  of  the  Moorish  Kings  at  Granada 
(From  a  photograph) 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  GRANADA       23 1 

The  Moors  made  a  desperate  defense  of  their  little  state.  The 
struggle  lasted  for  ten  years.  City  after  city  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Christian  knights,  and  finally  Granada,  pressed  by  an  army 
of  seventy  thousand,  was  forced  to  surrender,  and  the  Cross 
replaced  the  Crescent  on  its  walls  and  towers  (1492).  The 
Moors,  or  Moriscos,  as  they  were  called,  were  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  country,  though  under  many  annoying  restrictions.  What 
is  known  as  their  expulsion  occurred  at  a  later  date  (sec.  357). 

The  fall  of  Granada  holds  an  important  place  among  the  many 
significant  events  that  mark  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. It  marked  the  end,  after  an  existence  of  almost  eight  hun- 
dred years,  of  Mohammedan  rule  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and 
thus  formed  an  offset  to  the  progress  of  the  Moslem  power  in 
Eastern  Europe  and  the  loss  to  the  Christian  world  of  Constanti- 
nople. It  advanced  Spain  to  a  place  among  the  foremost  nations 
of  Europe,  and  gave  her  arms  a  prestige  that  secured  for  her 
position,  influence,  and  deference  long  after  the  decline  of  her 
power  had  commenced. 

248.  Influence  upon  the  Spanish  Character  of  the  Moorish  Domi- 
nation and  the  Moorish  Wars.  —  The  long  wars  which  the  Spanish 
Christians  waged  against  the  Arab  Moors  left  a  deep  impress 
upon  the  national  character.  In  the  first  place,  the  opportunity 
which  they  afforded  for  knightly  service  and  romantic  adventure 
heightened  that  chivalrous  spirit  of  which  more  than  traces  are 
noticeable  in  the  feelings  and  the  bearing  of  the  Spaniard  of 
to-day. 

In  the  second  place,  they  made  religion  a  thing  of  patriotism, 
and  thus  aroused  religious  zeal  and  fostered  the  growth  of  intol- 
erance. The  unfortunate  bias  and  temper  thus  imparted  to  the 
Spanish  national  character  set  Spain  apart  from  the  other  Western 
nations,  and  affords  the  key  to  much  of  her  later  history  both  in 
Europe  and  in  the  New  World.  For  illustration,  it  was,  without 
doubt,  the  development  in  the  Spanish  people  of  this  zealous, 
uncompromising  religious  spirit  that  helped  to  prepare  the  ground 
in  Spain  for  the  setting  up  there  of  the  terrible  tribunal  of  the 
Inquisition. 


232  GROWTH    OF   THE    NATIONS 

249.  The  Inquisition.  —  The  Inquisition,  or  Holy  Office,  was 
a  tribunal  the  purpose  of  which  was  the  detection  and  punish- 
ment of  heresy.  Its  establishment  in  Spain  casts  a  dark  shadow 
upon  the  reign  of  the  illustrious  sovereigns  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

Being  employed  by  the  government  for  the  securing  of  politi- 
cal as  well  as  religious  ends,  the  tribunal  became  an  instrument 
of  the  most  incredible  tyranny.  The  Jews  were  in  this  earlier 
period  the  chief  victims  of  the  court.  Accompanying  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  sentences  of  the  Holy  Office  there  were  solemn 
public  ceremonies  known  as  the  auto  de  fe  ("act  of  faith").  The 
assembly  was  held  in  some  church  or  in  the  public  square,  and 
the  following  day  those  condemned  to  death  were  burned  out- 
side the  city  walls.  It  is  particularly  to  this  last  act  of  the  drama 
that  the  term  auto  de  fe  has  come  popularly  to  be  applied. 

The  Inquisition  secured  for  Spain  unity  of  religious  belief,  but 
only  through  suppressing  freedom  of  thought,  and  thereby  sapping 
the  strength  and  virility  of  the  Spanish  people.  Whatever  was  most 
promising  and  vigorous  was  withered  and  blasted,  or  was  cast  out. 
In  the  year  1492  the  Jews  were  expelled  from  the  country.  It  is 
estimated  that  between  two  and  three  hundred  thousand  of  this 
race  were  forced  to  seek  an  asylum  in  other  lands. 

Thus  at  the  same  time  that  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were  doing 
so  much  to  foster  the  national  life,  their  unfortunate  religious  zeal 
was  planting  the  upas  tree  which  was  destined  completely  to  over- 
shadow and  poison  the  springing  energies  of  the  nation. 

250.  Death  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  —  Queen  Isabella  died 
in  1504,  and  Ferdinand  followed  her  in  the  year  15 16,  upon 
which  latter  event  the  crown  of  Spain  descended  to  their  grandson, 
Charles,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  much  hereafter  as  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.    With  his  reign  the  modern  history  of  Spain  begins. 


Fig.  44.  —  Recumbent  Effigy  of  Queen  Isabella.     (From  the 
magnificent  sarcophagus  in  the  Royal  Chapel  at  Granada) 


SPANISH   LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE        233 

Beginnings  of  the  Spanish  Language  and  Literature 

251.  The  Language.  — After  the  union  of  Castile  and  Aragon 
it  was  the  language  of  the  former  that  became  the  speech  of  the 
Spanish  court.  During  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  it 
gradually  gained  ascendancy  over  the  numerous  dialects  of  the 
country  and  became  at  last  the  national  speech,  just  as  in  P'rance 
the  Langue  d'  Oil  finally  crowded  out  all  other  dialects.  By  the 
conquests  and  colonizations  of  the  sixteenth  century  this  Castilian 
speech  was  destined  to  become  only  less  widely  spread  than  is 
the  English  tongue. 

252.  The  Poem  of  the  Cid.  —  Castilian  or  Spanish  literature 
begins  in  the  twelfth  century  with  the  romance  poem  of  the  Cid^ 
one  of  the  best  known  literary  productions  of  the  mediaeval  period. 
This  grand  national  poem  was  the  outgrowth  of  the  sentiments 
inspired  by  the  long  struggle  between  the  Spanish  Christians  and 
the  Mohammedan  Moors.  The  hero  of  the  epic  is  Ruy  Diaz, 
surnamed  the  Cid  (meaning  probably  "  lord  "),  the  champion  of 
Christianity  and  Castilian  royalty,  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
eleventh  century,  against  the  Saracens.  He  is  made  by  the 
romancers  to  be  the  impersonation  of  every  knightly  virtue,  — 
generosity,  patriotism,  courage,  truthfulness,  honor,  and  loyalty. 
The  real  Cid  was  quite  a  different  character. 

The  influence  of  the  romance  of  the  Cid  in  exciting  the  senti- 
ment of  Spanish  patriotism  and  in  stimulating  the  spirit  of  Spanish 
nationality  has  been  likened  to  the  effects  of  the  poems  of  Homer 
in  creating  fraternal  bonds  between  the  cities  of  ancient  Hellas. 

IV.    Germany 

253.  Beginnings  of  the  Kingdom  of  Germany. — The  history 
of  Germany  as  a  separate  kingdom  begins  with  the  break-up  of 
the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury (sec.  79).  The  part  to  the  east  of  the  Rhine,  with  which 
fragment  alone  we  are  now  specially  concerned,  was  called  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Eastern  Franks,  in  distinction  from  that  to  the 


234  GROWTH   OF   THE   NATIONS 

west  of  the  river,  which  was  known  as  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Western  Franks. 

This  Eastern  Frankish  kingdom  was  made  up  of  several  groups 
of  tribes,  —  the  Saxons,  the  Suabians,  the  Thuringians,  the  Bava- 
rians, and  the  East  Franks,  of  which  the  latter  were  at  this  time 
chief,  and  gave  name  to  the  whole.  Closely  allied  in  race,  speech, 
manners,  and  social  arrangements,  all  these  peoples  seemed  ready 
to  be  welded  into  a  close  and  firm  nation.  That  such  was  not 
the  outcome  of  the  historical  development  during  mediaeval  times 
was  due  largely  to  the  adoption  by  the  German  emperors  of  an 
unfortunate  policy  respecting  a  world-empire.  This  matter  will 
be  explained  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

254.  Revival  of  the  Empire  by  Otto  the  Great  (962);  Conse- 
quences to  Germany  of  its  Renewal.  —  We  have  in  another  place, 
while  tracing  the  history  of  the  Empire,  told  how  Otto  I  of  Ger- 
many, in  imitation  of  Charlemagne,  restored  the  imperial  authority 
(sec.  80).  Otto's  scheme  respecting  the  estabHshment  of  a  world- 
empire  was  a  grand  one,  but,  as  had  been  demonstrated  by  the 
failure  of  the  attempt  of  the  great  Charles,  was  an  utterly  imprac- 
ticable ideal.  Yet  the  pursuit  of  this  phantom  by  the  German 
kings  resulted  in  the  most  woeful  consequences  to  Germany. 
Trying  to  grasp  too  much,  the  German  rulers  seized  nothing  at 
all.  Attempting  to  be  emperors  of  the  world,  they  failed  to 
become  even  kings  of  Germany.  While  they  were  engaged  in 
outside  enterprises  their  home  affairs  were  neglected  and  the 
vassal  princes  of  Germany  succeeded  in  increasing  their  power 
and  making  themselves  practically  independent. 

Thus  while  the  kings  of  England,  France,  and  Spain  were 
gradually  consolidating  their  dominions  and  building  up  strong 
centralized  monarchies  on  the  ruins  of  feudalism,  the  preoccupied 
sovereigns  of  Germany  were  allowing  the  country  to  become  split 
up  into  a  great  number  of  semi-independent  states,  the  ambitions 
and  jealousies  of  whose  rulers  were  to  postpone  the  unification  of 
Germany  for  several  hundred  years  —  until  our  own  day. 

Had  the  emperors  inflicted  loss  and  disaster  upon  Germany 
alone  through  this  misdirection  of  their  energies,  the  case  would 


THE   HOHENSTAUFEN   EMPERORS  235 

not  be  so  lamentable ;  but  the  fair  fields  of  Italy  were  for  cen- 
turies made  the  camping  fields  of  the  imperial  armies,  and  the 
whole  peninsula  was  kept  embroiled  with  the  quarrels  of  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines,  and  thus  the  nationalization  of  the  Italian  people 
was  also  delayed  for  centuries. 

Germany  received  just  one  positive  compensation  for  all  this 
loss  accruing  from  the  ambition  of  her  kings.  This  was  the  gift 
of  Italian  civilization,  which  came  into  Germany  through  the 
connections  of  the  emperors  with  the  peninsula. 

255.  Germany  under  the  Hohenstaufen  Emperors  (i  138-1254). 
—  The  matter  of  chief  importance  during  the  rule  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen or  Suabian  house  was,  as  we  have  learned,  the  long  and 
bitter  conflict  waged  between  the  emperors  of  this  family  and 
the  popes. 

The  name  of  the  most  noted  of  the  Hohenstaufen  emperors  — 
Frederick  Barbarossa  —  is  familiar  to  us.  Frederick  gave  Ger- 
many a  good  and  strong  government,  and  gained  a  sure  place 
in  the  affections  of  the  German  people,  who  came  to  regard  him 
as  the  representative  of  the  sentiment  of  German  nationality. 
Other  emperors,  when  engaged  in  contentions  with  the  Pope, 
always  had  a  great  many  among  their  own  German  subjects  ready 
to  join  the  Roman  see  against  their  own  sovereign ;  but  all  classes 
in  Germany  rallied  about  their  beloved  Frederick.  When  news 
of  his  death  was  brought  back  from  the  Blist  (sec.  146)  they 
refused  to  believe  that  their  "  knightly  Emperor  "  was  dead,  and, 
as  time  passed,  a  legend  arose  which  told  how  he  slept  in  a 
cavern  beneath  one  of  his  castles  on  a  mountain  top,  and  how, 
when  the  ravens  should  cease  to  circle  about  the  hill,  he  would 
appear,  to  make  the  German  people  a  nation  united  and  strong. 

Frederick  Barbarossa  was  followed  by  his  son  Henry  VI  (1190- 
1197),  who,  by  marriage,  had  acquired  a  claim  to  the  kingdom 
of  Sicily.^'    Almost  all  his  time  and  resources  were  spent  in 

17  See  sec.  112.  The  Hohenstaufen  held  the  kingdom  until  1265,  when  the  Pope 
gave  it  as  a  fief  to  Charles  1  of  Anjou  (brother  of  Louis  IX  of  France).  Charles' 
oppressive  rule  led  to  a  revolt  of  his  island  subjects,  and  to  the  great  massacre  known 
as  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (1282),  one  of  the  great  tragedies  of  history.  All  the  hated 
race  of  Frenchmen  were  either  killed  or  driven  out  of  the  island. 


236  GROWTH   OF   THE   NATIONS 

attempts  to  reduce  that  remote  realm  to  a  state  of  proper  sub- 
jection to  his  authority.  By  leading  the  emperors  to  neglect  their 
German  subjects  and  interests,  this  southern  kingdom  proved  a 
fatal  dower  to  the  Suabian  house. 

By  the  close  of  the  Hohenstaufen  period  Germany  was  divided 
into  about  three  hundred  virtually  independent  states,  the  princes 
and  the  cities  having  taken  advantage  of  the  prolonged  absences 
of  the  emperors,  or  their  troubles  with  the  popes  and  the  Italian 
cities,  to  free  themselves  almost  completely  from  the  control  of 
the  crOwn.  There  was  really  no  longer  either  a  German  Kingdom 
or  a  Holy  Roman  Empire.  The  royal  as  well  as  the  imperial  title 
had  become  an  empty  name. 

256.  The  Seven  Electors;  the  Interregnum  (i 254-1 273).  —  In 
order  to  make  intelligible  the  transactions  of  that  period  in  German 
history  known  as  the  Interregnum,  which  we  have  now  reached, 
we  must  here  say  a  word  about  the  Electors  of  the  Empire. 


Fig.  45.  —  The  Electors'  Seat.    (From  a  photograph) 

This  structure  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  near  Coblenz.  On  the  top  are 
stone  seats  where  the  Electors  met  to  elect  the  German  king.  The  building 
shown  is  an  eighteenth-century  restoration 

When,  in  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  the  German 
Carolingian  line  became  extinct,  the  great  nobles  of  the  king- 
dom assumed  the  right  of  choosing  the  successor  of  the  last  of 
the  house,  and  Germany  thus  became  an  elective  feudal  mon- 
archy.   In  the  course  of  time  a  few  of  the  leading  nobles  usurped 


THE   INTERREGNUM  237 

the  right  of  choosing  the  king,  and  these  princes  became  known 
as  Electors.  There  were  at  the  end  of  the  Hohenstaufen  period 
seven  princes  who  enjoyed  this  important  privilege,  four  of  whom 
were  secular  princes  and  three  spiritual.  This  electoral  body 
really  held  the  destinies  of  Germany  in  its  hands.'^^ 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  understand  the  shameful  trans- 
action of  the  sale  of  the  German  crown.  The  Electors,  like 
the  pretorians  of  ancient  Rome,  put  up  the  bauble  for  sale. 
There  were  two  bidders,  both  foreigners,  Richard  of  Cornwall, 
brother  of  the  English  king,  Henry  III,  and  Alphonso,  king  of 
Castile.  Both  candidates  offered  the  Electors  large  bribes,  and 
so  both  were  elected,  —  one  of  the  Electors  voting  for  both  can- 
didates. Although  Alphonso  had  manifested  so  much  anxiety  to 
secure  the  honor,  he  never  once  set  foot  within  the  limits  of 
Germany,  and  Richard  contented  himself  with  an  occasional 
visit  to  the  country. 

Of  course  neither  of  the  emperors-elect  possessed  any  real 
authority  in  Germany  or  in  any  of  the  countries  claimed  as  parts 
of  the  Empire.  The  period  is  known  in  German  history  as  the 
Interregnum.  Anarchy  prevailed  throughout  the  country.  Princes 
made  themselves  petty  despots  in  their  dominions,  while  the  lesser 
nobles  became  robbers  and  preyed  upon  traders. 

257.  Towns  and  Free  Imperial  Cities.  —  The  kingly  power 
having  fallen  into  such  utter  contempt  that  all  general  govern- 
ment was  practically  in  abeyance,  the  towns  found  it  necessary, 
in  order  to  protect  themselves  against  the  violence  and  oppres- 
sion of  the  princes  and  barons,  to  form  confederations  and  take 
their  defense  in  their  own  hands.  It  was  during  this  anarchical 
period  that  the  Hanseatic  League  (sec.  185)  grew  rapidly  in 
strength  and  influence. 

18  The  claims  of  the  Electors  were  very  naturally  disputed  by  some  of  the  other 
members  of  the  Germanic  body.  In  order  to  settle  the  matter  forever,  the  Luxem- 
burg Emperor  Charles  IV  (i 347-1378),  having  first  secured  the  action  of  a  Diet, 
promulgated  a  decree  called,  from  its  golden  seal,  the  Golden  Bull,  which  confirmed 
the  right  of  election  in  the  princes  who  then  exercised  it,  and  defined  clearly  the 
powers  and  privileges  of  the  electoral  college.  This  bull  remained  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  German  constitution  so  long  as  the  Empire  lasted,  —  until  1806. 


238  GROWTH    OF   THE    NATIONS 

During  the  course  of  the  thirteenth  century  many  of  the  towns, 
through  the  favor  of  their  suzerain,  were  reheved  of  the  presence 
of  the  imperial  officers  and  became  what  are  known  as  free 
imperial  cities.  They  of  course  still  acknowledged  the  suzerainty 
of  the  Emperor,  but  were  allowed  to  manage  their  local  affairs  to 
suit  themselves,  and  thus  became  practically  little  commonwealths, 
somewhat  like  the  city-republics  of  Italy. 

A  century  or  two  after  these  cities  had  secured  freedom  from 
the  imperial  superintendence  they  acquired  the  right  of  repre- 
sentation in  the  Diet,  or  national  legislative  body.  This  was  the 
natural  consequence  of  their  growing  power,  just  as  in  England 
the  increasing  weight  of  the  towns  led,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
to  the  admission  of  their  representatives  to  Parliament. 

258.  Rise  of  the  Swiss  Republic.  —  The  most  noteworthy 
matters  in  German  history  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  are  the  struggle  between  the  Swiss  and  the  princes  of 
the  Hapsburg  or  Austrian  family,  the  religious  movement  of  the 
Hussites,  and  the  growing  power  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

Embraced  within  the  limits  of  the  mediaeval  Empire  was  the 
country  now  known  as  Switzerland.  Its  liberty-loving  people 
yielded  to  the  Emperor  a  nominal  obedience,  like  that  of  the 
free  imperial  cities ;  but  they  were  very  impatient  of  the  claims 
of  various  feudal  lords  to  political  rights  and  authority  over 
them. 

Among  the  lords  claiming  or  actually  possessing  rights  over 
different  cantons  or  communities  were  the  counts  of  Hapsburg.^® 
The  efforts  of  the  Hapsburgs  to  bring  the  mountaineers  wholly 
under  their  direct  power  led  the  three  so-called  Forest  Cantons, 
Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden,  to  form  a  defensive  union,  known 
as  the  Everlasting  Compact  (1291).  This  league  laid  the  basis 
of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  one  of  the  most  typical  and  interest- 
ing of  the  federal  states  of  to-day. 


19  So  called  from  the  castle  of  Hapsburg,  in  Switzerland,  the  cradle  of  the  house. 
In  1273  Count  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  was  chosen  Emperor.  A  little  later  he  acquired 
Austria  as  an  appanage  for  his  house.  From  this  new  possession  the  family  took  a 
new  title,  —  that  of  the  House  of  Austria. 


THE   HUSSITES  239 

.  The  struggle  between  the  brave  hillsmen  and  the  House  of  Haps- 
burg  was  long  and  memorable.^  Embellished  by  Swiss  patriotism 
with  thrilling  tales  of  heroic  daring  and  self-devotion,  the  history 
of  this  contest  reads  like  an  Iliad.  But  modern  historical  criticism 
has  reduced  much  of  the  story  to  prose.  Thus  the  tale  of  the 
hero- patriot  William  Tell  and  of  the  tyrant  Gessler  we  now  know 
to  be  a  myth,  with  nothing  but  the  revolt  as  the  nucleus  of  fact. 

Just  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  (in  1499)  the  Hapsburg 
Emperor  Maximilian  I,  having  been  defeated  in  a  war  with  the 
league,  concluded  with  it  a  treaty  which  practically  established 
the  independence  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  and  gave  it  a  place 
in  the  family  of  European  states. 

One  effect  upon  the  Swiss  of  their  long  struggle  for  liberty  was 
the  fostering  among  them  of  such  a  love  for  the  military  life  that 
when,  at  a  later  period,  there  was  lack  of  warlike  occupation  for 
them  at  home,  the  Swiss  soldiers  hired  themselves  out  to  the 
different  sovereigns  of  Europe  ;  and  thus  it  happened  that,  though 
trained  in  the  school  of  freedom,  these  sturdy  mountaineers 
became  the  most  noted  mercenary  supporters  of  despotism. 

259.  The  Hussites.  — About  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, through  the  medium  of  the  university  connections  between 
England  and  Germany,  the  doctrines  of  the  English  reformer 
Wycliffe  began  to  spread  in  Bohemia.  The  chief  of  the  new  sect 
was  John  Huss,  a  professor  of  the  University  of  Prague.  The 
doctrines  of  the  reformer  were  condemned  by  the  great  Council 
of  Constance,  and  Huss  himself,  having  been  delivered  over  into 
the  hands  of  the  civil  authorities  for  punishment,  was  burned  at 
the  stake  (141 5).  The  following  year  Jerome  of  Prague,  another 
reformer,  was  likewise  burned. 

Shortly  after  the  burning  of  Huss  a  crusade  was  proclaimed 
against  his  followers,  who  had  risen  in  arms.    Then  began  a  cruel, 

20  Noteworthy  battles,  all  victories  for  the  Swiss,  were  the  battle  of  Morgarten 
(131 5),  the  battle  of  Sempach  (1386),  and  the  battle  of  Nafels  (1388).  It  was  at 
Sempach,  as  a  patriotic  myth  relates,  that  Arnold  of  VVinkelried  broke  the  ranks  of 
the  Austrians  by  collecting  in  his  arms  as  many  of  their  lances  as  he  could,  and,  as 
they  pierced  his  breast,  bearing  them  with  him  to  the  ground,  exclaiming,  "  Comrades, 
I  will  open  a  road  for  you." 


240  GROWTH    OF  THE   NATIONS 

desolating  war  of  fifteen  years,  the  outcome  of  which  was  tl^e 
almost  total  extermination  of  the  radical  party  among  the  Hussites. 

260.  The  Imperial  Crown  becomes  Hereditary  in  the  House  of 
Austria  (1438).  —  In  the  year  1438  Albert,  Duke  of  Austria, 
was  raised  by  the  Electors  to  the  imperial  throne.  His  accession 
marks  an  epoch  in  German  history,  for,  from  this  time  on  until 
the  dissolution  of  the  Empire  by  Napoleon  in  1806,  the  imperial 
crown  was  practically  hereditary  in  the  Hapsburg  family,  the 
Electors,  although  never  failing  to  go  through  the  formality  of  an 
election,  always  choosing  a  person  of  Hapsburg  descent.^^ 

261.  The  Reign  of  Maximilian  I.  — The  greatest  of  the  Haps- 
burg Hne  during  the  mediaeval  period  was  Maximilian  I  (1493- 
15 19).  The  most  noteworthy  matter  of  his  reign  was  the  efforts 
made  for  constitutional  reforms  which  should  enable  Germany  to 
secure  that  internal  peace  and  national  unity  which  France, 
England,  and  Spain  had  each  already  in  a  fair  degree  attained. 

The  condition  of  Germany  at  this  time  was  somewhat  similar 
to  that  of  our  Union  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 
The  need  of  a  firmer  union  was  recognized.  One  way  of  reach- 
ing this  end  was  to  invest  the  Emperor  with  greater  authority ; 
but  the  Electors  and  princes  would  not  give  up  any  part  of  their 
privileges  and  power.  "  To  expect  help  from  the  princes,"  said 
despairingly  a  friend  of  the  Emperor,  "  is  like  looking  for  grapes 
from  thistles." 

Working  under  such  untoward  circumstances  Maximilian, 
although  he  had  large  and  ambitious  plans  for  the  Empire, 
accomplished  but  httle.  On  several  sides  the  Empire  was 
shorn  of  territory;  within,  brigandage  was  rife.  The  Emperor's 
pathetic  words,  ''  Earth  possesses  no  joy  for  me ;  alas,  poor  land 
of  Germany  !  "  vividly  reveal  to  us  the  hopeless  condition  of  the 
"  Fatherland  "  as  the  Middle  Ages  were  closing. 

21  There  was  one  exception;  Francis  I  (of  Lorraine),  1747-1765,  was  chosen  as 
the  husband  of  the  Hapsburg  queen,  Maria  Theresa. 


THE   NIBELUNGENLIED  241 

Beginnings  of  German  Literature 

262.  The  Nibelungenlied.  —  It  was  during  the  rule  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  that  Germany  produced  the  first  pieces  of  a  national 
literature.  The  Nibelungenlied,  or  the  "  Lay  of  the  Nibelungs,"  is 
the  great  German  mediaeval  epic.  It  was  reduced  to  writing  about 
1 200,  being  a  recast,  by  some  Homeric  genius  perhaps,  of  ancient 
German  legends  and  lays  dating  from  the  sixth  and  seventh  cen- 
turies. The  hero  of  the  story  is  Siegfried,  the  Achilles  of  Teutonic 
legend  and  song.  The  names  and  deeds  of  Attila,  Theodoric,  and 
other  warriors  of  the  age  of  the  Wanderings  of  the  Nations  are 
mingled  in  its  lines. 

This  great  national  epic  romance  may  be  likened  to  the  poem 
Beowulf  oi  our  Saxon  ancestors  (sec.  22).  It  is  gross  and  brutal, 
filled  with  fierce  fightings  and  horrible  slaughters,  —  a  reflection 
of  the  rude  times  that  gave  birth  to  the  original  ballads  out  of 
which  the  epic  was  woven ;  but  there  are  also  embodied  in  it  the 
feudal  virtues  of  loyalty  and  courage,  while  it  further  bears  traces 
of  the  later  softening  influences  of  Christianity  and  of  chivalry. 

263.  The  Minnesingers.  —  Under  the  same  emperors,  during 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  the  Minnesingers,  the  poets 
of  love,  as  the  word  signifies,  flourished.  They  were  the  "  Trou- 
badours of  Germany."  The  most  eminent  of  the  Minnesingers 
was  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  (11 70-1227),  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  for  the  epigram,  "  Woman  is  women's  fairest  name, 
and  honors  them  more  than  Lady."  Most  of  the  love  songs  of 
these  minstrels  were  refined  and  chivalrous  and  pure,  and  thus 
tended  to  soften  the  manners  and  lift  the  hearts  of  the  German 
people. 

Closely  connected  with  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Minnesingers 
is  a  species  of  chivalric  romances  known  as  court  epics.  The 
finest  of  these  pieces  have  for  their  groundwork  the  mythic 
Celtic-French  legends  of  the  Holy  Grail  and  of  the  Knights  of 
King  Arthur's  Round  Table.  The  best  representative  of  these 
romances  is  the  poem  of  ParsifalP    The  moral  and  spiritual 

22  By  Wolfram  of  Eschenbach  (d.  about  1220). 


242  GROWTH    OF   THE    NATIONS 

teaching  of  the  poem  is  that  only  through  humility,  purity,  and 
human  sympathy  can  the  soul  attain  unto  the  highest  perfection 
of  which  it  is  capable. 

Just  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  humanistic  studies 
(sec.  280)  came  to  interest  the  scholars  of  Germany.  The  result 
was  that  for  three  hundred  years  thereafter  much  of  the  best 
literary  work  of  the  German  scholars  and  writers  was  done  in 
Latin,  —  the  mother  tongue  being  regarded  by  the  younger  or 
later  humanists  as  plebeian  and  fit  only  for  inferior  composition, 
—  and  thus  the  development  of  the  native  literature  was  seriously 
checked. 

V.  Russia 

264.  The  Beginnings  of  Russia. — We  have  already  seen  how, 
about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the  Swedish  adventurer 
Rurik  became  the  chief  of  some  Slavonic  and  Finnish  tribes 
dwelling  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Novgorod,  and  there  laid  the  foundation  of  what  was 
destined  to  grow  into  one  of  the  leading  powers  of  Europe  (sec. 
84).  The  state  came  to  be  known  as  Russia,  from  Ros^  the  name 
of  the  Scandinavian  settlers.  The  descendants  of  Rurik  gradually 
extended  their  authority  over  adjoining  tribes,  until  nearly  all  the 
northwestern  Slavs  were  included  in  their  growing  dominions. 

265.  The  Mongol  Invasion Before  the  end  of  the  eleventh 

century  the  unity  of  the  Russian  state  had  been  almost  com- 
pletely destroyed.  The  monarchy  became  a  loose  confederacy 
of  petty,  jealous,  and  warring  principalities.  This  state  of  things 
prepared  the  way  for  the  overwhelming  calamity  which  befell 
Russia  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  misfortune  to  which  we  refer  was  the  overrunning  and  con- 
quest of  the  country  by  the  Tartar  hordes  of  Jenghiz  Khan  and 
his  successors  (sec.  174).  The  barbarian  conquerors  inflicted  the 
most  horrible  atrocities  upon  the  unfortunate  land,  and  for  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  held  the  Russian  princes  in  a  degrading 
bondage,  forcing  them  to  pay  homage  and  tribute.  This  period  is 
almost  a  perfect  blank  in  Russian  history.    The  misfortune  delayed 


THE   RISE   OF   MUSCOVY 


243 


for  centuries  the  nationalization  of  tlie  Slavonian  peoples.  It  was 
just  such  a  misfortune  as  a  little  later  befell  the  Greeks  and  the 
other  races  of  Southeastern  Europe. 

266.  The  Rise  of  Muscovy ;  Russia  freed  from  the  Mongols.  — 
During  this  period  of  Tartar  domination  the  state  of  Muscovy, 
so  called  from  Moscow,  its  center  and  capital,  gradually  extended 
its  dominions  until  it  became  easily  the  first  among  all  the  Sla- 
vonic states.    In  1470  the  prince  of  Moscow  annexed  Novgorod 


RUSSIA  AND  THE   SCANDINAVIAN    COUNTRIES   AT  THE  CLOSE 

OF  THE  Middle  Ages 


the  Mighty  to  his  dominions.    This  new  Russian  power  now  felt 
itself  strong  enough  to  throw  off  the  Tartar  yoke. 

It  was  under  Ivan  the  Great  (1462-1505)  that  Russia,  —  now 
frequently  called  Muscovy  from  the  fact  that  it  had  been  reor- 
ganized with  Moscow  as  a  center,  —  after  a  terrible  stniggle,  suc- 
ceeded in  freeing  itself  from  the  hateful  Tartar  domination  and 
began  to  assume  the  character  of  a  well-consolidated  monarchy. 
Thus  by  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  Russia  had  become  a  really 


244  GROWTH    OF   THE    NATIONS 

great  power ;  but  she  was  as  yet  too  completely  hemmed  in  by 
hostile  states  to  be  able  to  make  her  influence  felt  in  the  affairs 
of  Europe. 

VI.   Italy 

267.  No  National  Government.  —  In  marked  contrast  to  all 
those  countries  of  which  we  have  thus  far  spoken,  unless  we 
except  Germany,  Italy  came  to  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages 
without  a  national  or  regular  government.  This  is  to  be  attribu- 
ted, as  we  have  already  learned,  to  a  variety  of  causes,  but  in 
large  part  to  that  unfortunate  rivalry  between  Pope  and  Emperor 
which  resulted  in  dividing  Italy  into  the  two  hostile  camps  of 
Guelph  and  Ghibelline. 

And  yet  the  mediaeval  period  did  not  pass  without  attempts  on 
the  part  of  patriot  spirits  to  effect  some  sort  of  political  union 
among  the  different  cities  and  states  of  the  peninsula.  The  most 
noteworthy  of  these  movements,  and  one  which  gave  assurance 
that  the  spark  of  patriotism  which  was  in  time  to  flame  into  an 
inextinguishable  passion  for  national  unity  was  kindling  in  the 
Italian  heart,  was  that  headed  by  the  patriot-hero  Rienzi  in  the 
fourteenth  century. 

268.  Rienzi,  Tribune  of  Rome  (1347).  —  During  the  greater 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  seat  of  the  papal  see  was  at 
Avignon,  beyond  the  Alps  (sec.  169).  Throughout  this  period  of 
the  ''  Babylonian  Captivity,"  Rome,  deprived  of  her  natural 
guardians,  was  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  confusion.  The  nobles 
terrorized  the  country  about  the  capital  and  kept  the  streets  of 
the  city  itself  in  constant  turmoil  with  their  bitter  feuds. 

In  the  midst  of  these  disorders  there  appeared  from  among 
the  lowest  ranks  of  the  people  a  deliverer  in  the  person  of  one 
Nicola  di  Rienzi.  With  imagination  all  aflame  from  long  study 
of  the  records  and  monuments  of  the  freedom  and  the  glories  of 
ancient  Rome,  he  conceived  the  magnificent  idea  of  not  only 
delivering  the  capital  from  the  wretchedness  of  the  prevailing 
anarchy  but  also  of  restoring  the  city  to  its  former  proud  position 
as  head  of  Italy  and  mistress  of  the  world. 


RIENZI,  TRIBUNE   OF   ROME  245 

Possessed  of  considerable  talent  and  great  eloquence,  Rienzi 
easily  incited  the  people  to  a  revolt  against  the  rule,  or  rather 
misrule,  of  the  nobles,  and  succeeded  in  having  himself,  with  the 
title  of  Tribune,  placed  at  the  head  of  a  new  government  for 
Rome.  In  this  position  his  power  was  virtually  absolute.  He 
forced  the  nobles  into  submission,  and  in  a  short  time  effected  a 
most  wonderful  transformation  in  the  city  and  surrounding  coun- 
try. Order  and  security  took  the  place  of  disorder  and  violence. 
The  best  days  of  republican  Rome  seemed  to  have  been  sud- 
denly restored.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  Roman  populace  knew 
no  limits.  The  remarkable  revolution  drew  the  attention  of  all 
Italy,  and  of  the  world  beyond  the  peninsula  as  well. 

Encouraged  by  the  success  that  had  thus  far  attended  his 
schemes,  Rienzi  now  began  to  concert  measures  for  the  union  of  all 
the  principalities  and  commonwealths  of  Italy  into  a  great  republic, 
with  Rome  as  its  capital.  He  sent  ambassadors  throughout  Italy 
to  plead,  at  the  courts  of  the  princes  and  in  the  council  chambers 
of  the  municipalities,  the  cause  of  Italian  unity  and  freedom. 

The  splendid  dream  of  Rienzi  was  shared  by  other  Italian 
patriots  besides  himself,  among  whom  was  the  poet  Petrarch, 
who  was  the  friend  and  encourager  of  the  plebeian  tribune,  and 
who  "  wished  part  in  the  glorious  work  and  in  the  lofty  fame." 
"  Could  passion  have  listened  to  reason,"  says  Gibbon,  "  could 
private  welfare  have  yielded  to  the  public  welfare,  the  supreme 
tribunal  and  confederate  union  of  the  Italian  republic  might  have 
healed  the  intestine  discord  and  closed  the  Alps  against  the 
barbarians  of  the  North." 

But  the  moment  for  Italy's  unification  had  not  yet  come.  Not 
only  were  there  hindrances  to  the  national  movement  in  the 
ambitions  and  passions  of  rival  parties  and  classes,  but  there 
were  still  greater  impediments  in  the  character  of  the  plebeian 
patriot  himself.  Rienzi  proved  to  be  an  unworthy  leader.  His 
sudden  elevation  and  surprising  success  completely  turned  his 
head,  and  he  soon  began  to  exhibit  the  most  incredible  vanity 
and  weakness.  The  people  withdrew  from  him  their  support; 
the  Pope  excommunicated  him  as  a  rebel  and  heretic;  and  the 


246 


GROWTH   OF  THE   NATIONS 


nobles  rose  against  him.  He  was  finally  killed  in  a  sudden 
uprising  of  the  populace  (1354). 

Thus  vanished  the  dream  of  Rienzi  and  of  Petrarch,  of  the 
hero  and  of  the  poet.  Centuries  of  division,  of  shameful  sub- 
jection to  foreign  princes,  —  French,  Spanish,  and  Austrian,  — 
of  wars  and  suffering,  were  yet  before  the  Italian  people  ere  Rome 
should  become  the  center  of  a  free,  orderly,  and  united  Italy. 

269.  The  Five  Great  States. — The  unification  of  Italy  was 
impossible ;  yet  the  later  mediaeval  time  witnessed  a  movement 


Italy  about  the  Middle  of  the  Fifteenth  Century 


in  the  direction  of  the  consolidation  of  the  numerous  petty  states 
of  the  northern  and  central  regions  into  larger  ones.  By  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula 


"THE   PRINCE"   OF   MACHIAVELLI  247 

was  gathered  into  five  so-called  Great  States,  —  the  duchy  of 
Milan**  and  the  two  nominal  republics  of  Venice  and  Florence 
in  the  north,  the  States  of  the  Church  in  Central  Italy,  and  the 
old  Kingdom  of  Naples  in  the  south. 

The  formation  of  these  states  and  the  establishment  of  a  sort 
of  balance  of  power  between  them  hushed  the  savage  quarrels  of 
the  individual  cities  and  gave  Italy  finally  a  few  years  of  compara- 
tive peace  (1447-1492). 

But  these  great  states,  like  the  smaller  ones,  were  jealous  of 
one  another.  It  was  their  inability  to  act  in  concert  that  enabled 
the  French  king,  Charles  VIII,  to  march  in  such  an  extraordinary 
way  from  one  end  of  the  peninsula  to  the  other  (sec.  240). 
Thus  was  Italy  again  opened  to  the  ''barbarians"  of  the  North. 
It  was  the  beginning,  as  we  have  seen,  of  the  foreign  enslave- 
ment of  the  peninsula.  For  three  centuries  and  more  Italy  was 
destined  to  be  merely  "  a  geographical  expression." 

270.  The  Renaissance.  —  Though  the  Middle  Ages  closed  in 
Italy  without  the  rise  there  of  a  national  government,  still  before 
the  end  of  the  period  much  had  been  done  to  create  those  com- 
mon ideals  and  sentiments  upon  which  political  unity  can  alone 
securely  repose. 

Literature  and  art  here  performed  the  part  that  war  did  in 
other  countries  in  arousing  a  national  pride  and  spirit.  The 
Renaissance,  of  which  we  shall  tell  in  the  following  chapter,  with 
its  awakenings  and  achievements,  did  much  towards  creating 
among  the  Italians  a  common  pride  in  race  and  country;  and 
thus  this  splendid  literary  and  artistic  enthusiasm  was  the  first 
step  in  a  course  of  national  development  which  was  to  lead  the 
Italian  people,  in  the  fullness  of  time,  to  a  common  political  life. 

Here,  in  connection  with  Italian  Renaissance  literature,  a  word 
will  be  in  place  respecting  The  Prince^  by  the  Florentine  historian 
Machiavelli.  In  this  remarkable  book  the  writer,  imbued  with  a 
deep  patriotic  sentiment,  points  out  the  way  in  which,  in  the  midst 

28  Milan  was  in  the  hands  of  the  powerful  family  of  the  Visconti.  The  last  of  the 
house  died  in  1447,  and  was  succeeded  in  1450  by  Francesco  Sforza,  the  founder  of 
the  celebrated  family  of  Sforza. 


248 


GROWTH    OF  THE   NATIONS 


of  the  existing  chaos,  material  and  spiritual,  Italy  might  be  con- 
solidated into  a  great  state,  like  England  or  France  or  Spain. 

The  redeemer  of  Italy  and  the  maker  of  the  new  state  must  be 
a  strong  despotic  prince,  who  in  the  work  must  have  no  moral 
scruples  whatever,  but  be  ready  to  use  all  means,  however  cruel 
and  unjust  and  wicked,  which  promised  to  further  the  end  in 
view.  After  the  prince  had  created  a  united  Italy,  then  he  must 
rule  in  righteousness  as  the  representative  of  the  people. 

The  way  in  which  Machiavelli  instructs  the  prince  to  build  up 
a  state  out  of  the  broken-down  institutions  of  the  Middle  Ages 
was,  in  truth,  the  very  way  in  which  the  despots  of  his  time  in 
Italy  had  actually  created  their  principalities ;  but  that  he  should 

have  seriously  advised  any  one 
to  adopt  their  immoral  state- 
craft soon  raised  against  him  and 
his  teachings,  especially  in  the 
North,  a  storm  of  protest  and 
denunciation  which  has  not  yet 
subsided.  Machiavelli  found 
disciples  enough,  however,  so 
that  his  work  had  a  vast  though 
malign  influence  in  molding  the 
poHtical  morality  of  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies. 

271.  Savonarola (145  2-1498). 
—  A  word  must  here  be  said 
respecting  the  Florentine  monk  and  reformer  Girolamo  Savon- 
arola, who  stands  as  the  most  noteworthy  personage  in  Italy 
during  the  closing  years  of  the  mediaeval  period. 

Savonarola  was  at  once  Roman  censor  and  Hebrew  prophet. 
His  powerful  preaching  alarmed  the  conscience  of  the  Florentines. 
At  his  suggestion  the  women  brought  their  finery  and  ornaments, 
and  others  their  beautiful  works  of  art,  and,  piHng  them  in  great 
heaps  in  the  streets  of  Florence,  burned  them  as  vanities.  Savon- 
arola even  urged  that  the  government  of  Florence  be  made  a 


Fig.  46.  —  Savonarola.  (After  an 
engraving  by  Leonardo  dg,  Vinci 
in  Vienna  Museum) 


THE   UNION   OF  CALMAR  249 

theocracy  and  Christ  be  proclaimed  king.  But  finally  the  activity 
of  his  enemies  brought  about  the  reformer's  downfall,  and  he  was 
condemned  to  death,  strangled,  his  body  burned,  and  his  ashes 
thrown  into  the  Arno. 

Savonarola  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  great  mediaeval  fore- 
runner of  the  reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Yet  he  must 
not  be  thought  of  as  a  reformer  in  the  same  sense  that  Luther, 
for  instance,  was.  He  was  not  a  precursor  of  Protestantism.  He 
stood  firmly  on  Catholic  ground.  He  believed  the  Papacy  to  be 
a  divine  institution.  He  wished,  it  is  true,  to  reform  the  Church, 
but  he  had  no  quarrel  with  its  doctrines  or  its  form  of  government. 

VII.   The  Northern  Countries 

272.  The  Union  of  Calmar  (1397).  —  The  great  Scandinavian 
Exodus  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  drained  the  Northern 
lands  of  some  of  the  best  elements  of  their  population.  For 
this  reason  these  countries  did  not  play  as  prominent  a  part  in 
mediaeval  history  as  they  probably  would  otherwise  have  done. 
The  constant  contentions  between  the  nobility  and  their  sover- 
eigns were  also  another  cause  of  internal  weakness. 

In  the  year  1397,  by  what  is  known  as  the  Union  of  Calmar,  the 
three  kingdoms  of  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  were  united 
under  Margaret  of  Denmark,  "  the  Semiramis  of  the  North."  The 
treaty  provided  that  each  country  should  retain  its  constitution 
and  make  its  own  laws.  But  the  treaty  was  violated,  and  though 
the  friends  of  the  measure  had  hoped  much  from  it,  it  brought 
only  jealousies,  feuds,  and  wars. 

Thus  the  history  of  these  Northern  countries  during  the  later 
mediaeval  time  presents  nothing  of  primary  interest  which  calls 
for  narration  here ;  but  early  in  the  Modern  Age  we  shall  see 
Sweden  developing  rapidly  as  an  independent  monarchy  and  for 
a  period  playing  an  important  part  in  European  affairs. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Lanier,  The  Boy*s  Froissart,  being 
Sir  John  Froissart's  Chronicles  edited  for  boys.  Read  chaps.  Ixxviii- 
Ixxxiv,  on  the  battle  of  Poitiers  and  after.     Aucassin  and  Nicolette  (trans. 


250  GROWTH   OF   THE    NATIONS 

by  Andrew  Lang) ;  this  is  the  most  exquisite  love  story,  in  prose  and 
verse,  preserved  to  us  from  the  land  and  the  age  of  the  Troubadours. 
Henderson,  Select  Historical  Documents,  pp.  1-168.  Old  South  Leaflets^ 
No,  5,  "  Magna  Charta."  Kendall,  Source-Book,  chaps,  v-vii.  Colby, 
Selections,  Extracts  22-52.  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  ii.  No.  5, 
"England  in  the  Time  of  Wycliff e  "  (ed.  by  Edward  P.  Cheyney). 

Secondary  Works. — (i)  Works  of  a  general  character:  Freeman, 
Historical  Geography  of  Europe,  2  vols.  (vol.  ii  consists  of  maps).  GuizoT, 
History  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  Lects.  ix  and  xi.  Wilson,  The  State ; 
has  valuable  chapters  on  the  development  of  the  governmental  institu- 
tions of  the  leading  states.  Lodge,  The  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  isj^- 
14^4.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  chap,  xiii,  "The 
Formation  of  France,"  and  chap,  xiv,  "  England  and  the  Other  States." 

(2)  National  histories :  The  Story  of  the  Nations  series  contains  con- 
venient volumes  on  each  of  the  chief  European  states.  Green,  History 
of  the  English  People,  parts  of  vols,  i  and  ii.  Kitchin,  History  of  Trance, 
vol.  i.  Henderson,  History  of  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Hassall, 
The  French  People.  Hume,  The  Spanish  People.  Gardiner's,  Coman  and 
Kendall's,  Montgomery's,  Terry's,  Andrews',  and  Cheyney's  histo- 
ries of  England  and  Duruy's  History  of  France  are  excellent  single-volume 
text-books. 

(3)  Biographies  and  books  on  special  topics :  In  the  Epochs  of  Modern 
History  and  the  Heroes  of  the  Nations  series  are  to  be  found  sepa- 
rate volumes  covering  many  of  the  matters,  political  and  biographical, 
touched  upon  in  the  present  chapter.  Lowell,  foan  of  Arc.  Trevel- 
yan,  England  in  the  Age  of  Wycliffe ;  furnishes  the  best  account  we 
possess  of  the  Peasants'  Revolt.  Poole,  Wycliffe  and  Movements  for 
Reform.  Gasquet,  The  Great  Pestilence.  Cheyney,  An  Introduction  to 
the  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  chap,  v,  "  The  Black  Death 
and  the  Peasants'  Rebellion."  For  English  constitutional  matters  the 
student  should  consult  Stubbs',  Taswell-Langmead's,  Macy's,  and  Tay- 
lor's works.  Smith,  The  Troubadours  at  Home ;  the  best  work  in  our 
language  on  the  subject  with  which  it  deals.  Mrs.  Oliphant,  The  Makers 
of  Florence.  Lea,  A  History  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Middle  Ages.  KiRK, 
History  of  Charles  the  Bold ;  a  notable  work.  Prescott,  History  of  the 
Reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Irving,  The  Conquest  of  Granada. 
Ken  YON,  Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient  Manuscripts.  Gasquet,  The  Old 
English  Bible  and  Other  Essays. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Thomas  Becket.  2.  William  Wallace 
of  Scotland.  3.  The  Black  Death.  4.  Joan  of  Arc.  5.  Character  of 
Louis  XI  of  France.  6.  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy.  7.  The  fall  of 
Granada.     8.  The  Sicilian  Vespers.     9.  Savonarola. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
THE  RENAISSANCE 

I.   The  Beginnings  of  the  Renaissance 

273.  The  Renaissance  defined.  —  By  the  term  Renaissance 
("New  Birth"),  used  in  its  narrower  sense,  is  meant  that  new 
enthusiasm  for  classical  literature,  learning,  and  art  which  sprang 
up  in  Italy  towards  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  which 
during  the  course  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  gave 
a  new  culture  to  Europe. •^ 

Using  the  word  in  a  somewhat  broader  sense,  we  may  define 
the  Renaissance  as  the  reentrance  into  the  world  of  that  secular, 
inquiring,  self-reliant  spirit  which  characterized  the  life  and  cul- 
ture of  classical  antiquity.  This  is  simply  to  say  that  under  the 
influence  of  the  intellectual  revival  the  men  of  Western  Europe 
came  to  think  and  feel,  to  look  upon  life  and  the  outer  world, 
as  did  the  men  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome;  and  this  again 
is  merely  to  say  that  they  ceased  to  think  and  feel  as  mediaeval 
men  and  began  to  think  and  feel  as  modem  men. 

274.  The  Crusades  in  their  Relation  to  the  Renaissance. — 
Many  agencies  conspired  to  bring  in  the  Renaissance.  Among 
these  were  the  Crusades.  These  long-sustained  enterprises,  as 
we  pointed  out  in  summarizing  their  effects  (sec.  159),  contrib- 
uted essentially  to  break  the  mental  lethargy  that  had  fallen  upon 
the  European  mind,  and  to  awaken  in  the  nations  of  Western 
Europe  the  spirit  of  a  new  life.     Before  the  Crusades  closed,  the 

1  By  many  writers  the  term  is  employed  in  a  still  narrower  sense  than  this,  being 
used  to  designate  merely  the  revival  of  classical  art;  but  this  is  to  depreciate  the 
most  important  phase  of  a  many-sided  development.  The  Renaissance  was  essen- 
tially an  intellectual  movement.  It  is  this  intellectual  quality  which  gives  it  so  large 
a  place  in  universal  history. 

251 


252  THE   RENAISSANCE 

way  of  the  Renaissance  was  already  prepared.  In  every  territory 
of  human  activity  the  paths  along  which  advances  were  to  be 
made  by  the  men  of  coming  generations  had  been  marked  out, 
and  in  many  directions  trodden  by  the  eager  feet  of  the  pioneers 
of  the  new  life  and  culture. 

275.  The  Development  of  Vernacular  Literatures  as  an  Expres- 
sion of  the  New  Spirit.  —  The  awakening  of  this  new  spirit  in  the 
Western  nations  is  especially  observable  in  the  growth  and  devel- 
opment of  their  vernacular  literatures.  It  was,  speaking  broadly, 
during  and  just  after  the  crusading  centuries  that  the  native 
tongues  of  Europe  found  a  voice,  —  began  to  form  literatures  of 
their  own.  We  have  in  another  place  spoken  of  the  formation 
and  gradual  growth  of  some  of  the  most  important  of  these 
languages  (sec.  44).  As  soon  as  their  forms  became  somewhat 
settled,  then  Hterature  was  possible,  and  all  these  speeches  bud 
and  blossom  into  song  and  romance.  In  Spain  the  epic  poem 
of  the  Cid,  a  reflection  of  Castihan  chivalry,  forms  the  beginning 
of  Spanish  literature ;  in  the  south  of  France  the  Troubadours 
fill  the  land  with  the  melody  of  their  love  songs ;  in  the  north 
the  Trouveurs  recite  the  stirring  romances  of  Charlemagne  and 
his  paladins,  of  King  Arthur  and  the  Holy  Grail ;  in  Germany  the 
harsh  strains  of  the  Nibelungenlied  are  followed  by  the  softer  notes 
of  the  Minnesingers;  in  Italy  Dante  sings  his  Divine  Comedy 
in  the  pure  mellifluous  tongue  of  Tuscany,  and  creates  a  language 
for  the  Italian  race;  in  England  Chaucer  writes  his  Canterbury 
Tales  and  completes  the  fusion  of  Saxon  and  Norman  into  the 
English  tongue. 

This  growth  of  native  literatures  foreshadowed  the  approach- 
ing Renaissance  ;  for  there  was  in  them  a  note  of  freedom,  a  note 
of  protest  against  mediaeval  asceticism  and  ecclesiastical  restraint. 
And  at  the  same  time  that  this  Hterary  development  heralded  the 
coming  intellectual  revival  it  hastened  its  advance ;  for  the  light 
songs,  tales,  and  romances  of  these  vernacular  hteratures,  unHke 
the  learned  productions  of  the  Schoolmen,  which  were  in  Latin 
and  addressed  only  to  a  limited  class,  appealed  to  the  masses  and 
thus  stirred  the  universal  mind  and  heart  of  Europe. 


DANTE  AND   THE   RENAISSANCE 


253 


276.  Town  Life  and  Lay  Culture.  — The  spirit  of  the  new  life  was 
nourished  especially  by  the  air  of  the  great  cities.  In  speaking  of 
mediaeval  town  life  we  noticed  how  within  the  towns  there  was  early 
developed  a  life  like  that  of  modern  times.  The  atmosphere  of  these 
bustling,  trafficking  cities  called  into  existence  a  practical  com- 
mercial spirit,  a  many-sided,  independent,  secular  life  which  in  many 
respects  was  directly  opposed  to  mediaeval  teachings  and  ideals. 

This  intellectual  and  social  movement  within  the  mediaeval 
towns,  especially  in  the  great  city-republics  of  Italy,  was  related 
most  intimately,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  moment  (sec.  279),  to  that 
great  revival  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  to  which 
the  term  Renaissance  is 
distinctively  applied. 

277.  Dante  as  a  Fore- 
runner of  the  Renaissance. 
— We  have  already  spoken 
the  name  of  Dante,  but 
the  great  place  he  holds 
in  the  intellectual  history 
of  the  race  requires  that 
we  should  speak  with  some 
detail  of  the  relation  which 
he  sustained  to  the  age 
which,  just  as  he  appeared, 
was  passing  away,  and  to 
the  new  age  which  was 
then  approaching. 

Dante  Alighieri,  "the 
fame  of  the  Tuscan  peo- 
ple," was  born  at  Flor- 
ence in  1265.  He  was 
exiled  by  the  Florentines 
in  1302,  and  at  the  courts 

of  friends  learned  how  hard  a  thing  it  is  "  to  climb  the  stairway 
of  a  patron."  He  died  at  Ravenna  in  1321,  and  his  tomb  there 
is  a  place  of  pilgrimage  to-day. 


Fig.  47. 


Dante.    (From  a  portrait  by 
S.  Tofanelli) 


254  THE   RENAISSANCE 

It  was  during  the  years  of  his  exile  that  Dante  wrote  his  immor- 
tal poem,  the  Commedia  as  named  by  himself,  because  of  its 
happy  ending;  the  Divina  Commedia^  or  the  "  Divine  Comedy," 
as  called  by  his  admirers.  This  poem  has  been  called  the  "  Epic 
of  Mediae valism."  It  is  an  epitome  of  the  life  and  thought  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Dante's  theology  is  the  theology  of  the  mediaeval 
Church ;  his  philosophy  is  the  philosophy  of  the  Schoolmen ;  his 
science  is  the  science  of  his  time. 

But  although  Dante  viewed  the  world  from  a  standpoint  which 
was  essentially  that  of  the  mediaeval  age  which  was  passing  away, 
still  he  was  in  a  profound  sense  a  prophet  of  the  new  age  which 
was  approaching,  —  a  forerunner  of  the  Renaissance.  He  was 
such  in  his  feeling  for  classical  antiquity.  When  he  speaks  lov- 
ingly of  Vergil  as  his  teacher  and  master,  the  one  from  whom  he 
took  the  beautiful  style  that  had  done  him  honor,  he  reveals  how 
he  has  come  to  look  with  other  than  mediaeval  eyes  upon  the 
Augustan  poet.  His  modern  attitude  towards  Graeco-Roman  cul- 
ture is  further  shown  in  his  free  use  of  the  works  of  the  classical 
writers  ;  the  illustrative  material  of  his  great  poem  is  drawn  almost 
as  largely  from  classical  as  from  Hebrew  and  Christian  sources. 
Again,  in  his  self-rehant  judgment,  in  his  critical  spirit,  in  his  mental 
independence,  Dante  exhibits  intellectual  traits  which  we  recog- 
nize as  belonging  rather  to  the  modern  than  to  the  mediaeval  man. 

278.  The  Fresh  Stimulus  from  the  Side  of  Classical  Antiquity. 
—  We  have  now  reached  the  opening  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
Just  at  this  time  the  intellectual  progress  of  Europe  received  a 
tremendous  impulse  from  the  more  perfect  recovery  of  the  ines- 
timable treasures  of  the  civilization  of  Graeco-Roman  antiquity. 
So  far-reaching  and  transforming  was  the  influence  of  the  old 
world  of  culture  upon  the  nations  of  Western  Europe  that  the 
Renaissance,  viewed  as  the  transition  from  the  mediaeval  to  the 
modern  age,  may  properly  be  regarded  as  beginning  with  its  dis- 
covery, or  rediscovery,  and  the  appropriation  of  its  riches  by  the 
Italian  scholars.  In  the  following  sections  we  shall  try  to  give 
some  account  of  this  Renaissance  movement  in  its  earlier  stages 
and  as  it  manifested  itself  in  Italy. 


INCITING   CAUSES   OF   THE  MOVEMENT        255 

II.    The  Renaissance  in  Italy 

279.  Inciting  Causes  of  the  Movement. — Just  as  the  Refor- 
mation went  forth  from  Germany  and  the  PoHtical  Revolution 
from  France,  so  did  the  Renaissance  go  forth  from  Italy.  And 
this  was  not  an  accident.  The  Renaissance  had  its  real  beginnings 
in  Italy  for  the  reason  that  all  those  agencies  which  were  slowly 
transforming  the  mediaeval  into  the  modern  world  were  here  more 
active  and  effective  in  their  workings  than  elsewhere. 

Foremost  among  these  agencies  must  be  placed  the  influence 
of  the  Italian  cities.  We  have  already  seen  how  city  life  was 
more  perfectly  developed  in  Italy  than  in  the  other  countries  of 
Western  Europe.  In  the  air  of  the  great  Italian  city-republics 
there  was  nourished  a  strong,  self-reliant,  secular,  myriad-sided 
life.  It  was  a  political,  intellectual,  and  artistic  life  like  that  of 
the  cities  of  ancient  Greece.  Florence,  for  example,  became  a 
second  Athens,  and  in  the  eager  air  of  that  city  individual  talent 
and  faculty  were  developed  as  of  old  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
Attic  capital.  "  In  Florence,"  says  Symonds,  "  had  been  pro- 
duced such  glorious  human  beings  as  the  world  has  rarely  seen. 
.  .  .   The  whole  population  formed  an  aristocracy  of  genius." 

In  a  word,  life  in  Italy  earlier  than  elsewhere  lost  its  mediaeval 
characteristics  and  assumed  those  of  the  modern  type.  We  may 
truly  say  that  the  Renaissance  was  cradled  in  the  cities  of  mediaeval 
Italy.  The  Italians,  to  use  again  the  words  of  Symonds,  were  "  the 
firstborn  among  the  sons  of  modern  Europe." 

A  second  circumstance  that  doubtless  contributed  to  make 
Italy  the  birthplace  of  the  Renaissance  was  the  fact  that  in  Italy 
the  break  between  the  old  and  the  new  civilization  was  not  so 
complete  as  it  was  in  the  other  countries  of  Western  Europe. 
The  Italians  were  closer  in  language  and  in  blood  to  the  old 
Romans  than  were  the  other  new-forming  nations.  They  regarded 
themselves  as  the  direct  descendants  and  heirs  of  the  old  con- 
querors of  the  world.  This  consciousness  of  kinship  with  the  men 
of  a  great  past  exerted  an  immense  influence  upon  the  imagination 
of  the  Italians  and  tended  not  only  to  preserve  the  continuity  of 


256  THE   RENAISSANCE 

the  historical  development  in  the  peninsula  but  also  to  set  as  the 
first  task  of  the  ItaHan  scholars  the  recovery  and  appropriation 
of  the  culture  of  antiquity. 

But  more  potent  than  all  other  agencies,  not  so  much  in  awak- 
ening the  Italian  intellect  as  in  determining  the  direction  of  its 
activities  after  they  were  once  aroused  by  other  inciting  causes, 
was  the  existence  in  the  peninsula  of  so  many  monuments  of  the 
civilization  and  the  grandeur  of  ancient  Rome.  The  cities  them- 
selves were,  in  a  very  exact  sense,  fragments  of  the  old  Empire ; 
and  everywhere  in  the  peninsula  the  ground  was  covered  with 
ruins  of  the  old  Roman  builders.  The  influence  which  these 
reminders  of  a  glorious  past  exerted  upon  sensitive  souls  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  biographies  of  such  men  as  Rienzi  and  Petrarch. 

280.  The  Two  Phases  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  —  It  was,  as 
we  have  already  intimated,  the  nearness  of  the  Italians  to  the 
classical  past  that  caused  the  Renaissance  in  Italy  to  assume 
essentially  the  character  of  a  classical  revival,  —  a  recovery  and 
appropriation  by  the  Italians  of  the  long-neglected  heritage  of 
Graeco-Roman  civiHzation. 

The  movement  here  consisted  of  two  distinct  yet  closely  related 
phases,  namely,  the  revival  of  classical  literature  and  learning, 
and  the  revival  of  classical  art.  It  is  with  the  first  only,  the  intel- 
lectual and  literary  phase  of  the  movement,  that  we  shall  be  chiefly 
concerned.  This  feature  of  the  movement  is  called  distinctively 
''Humanism,"  and  the  promoters  of  it  are  known  as  "Human- 
ists," because  of  their  interest  in  the  study  of  the  classics,  the  liiercR 
humaniores,  or  the  "  more  human  letters,"  in  opposition  to  the 
diviner  letters,  that  is,  theology,  which  made  up  the  old  education. 

281.  Petrarch,^  the  First  of  the  Humanists.  —  "  Not  only  in 
the  history  of  Italian  literature  but  in  that  of  the  civilized  world, 
and  not  only  in  this  but  in  the  history  of  the  human  mind  ;  *4  . 
Petrarch's  name  shines  as  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude."^ 

2  Francesco  Petrarca  (1304- 13  74).  Petrarch  is  best  known  to  most  as  the  writer 
of  Italian  sonnets,  but  his  significance  for  general  history  is  due  almost  wholly  to  his 
relation  to  the  revival  of  classic  learning  in  Italy,  and  consequently  it  is  only  of  this 
phase  of  his  activity  that  we  shall  speak, 

3  Voigt,  Die  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen  Alterthums,  3d  ed.,  vol.  i,  p.  22. 


PETRARCH,  THE   FIRST   HUMANIST 


257 


It  is  in  such  words  as  these  that  one  of  the  greatest  historians 
of  humanism  speaks  of  Petrarch  and  his  place  in  the  history  of  the 
intellectual  progress  of  the  race.  It  will  be  worth  our  while  to  try 
to  understand  what  Petrarch  was  in  himself  and  what  he  did  which 
justifies  such  an  appraisement  of  his  significance  for  universal  his- 
tory.   To  understand  Petrarch  is  to  understand  the  Renaissance. 

Petrarch  was  the  first  and  greatest  representative  of  the  human- 
istic phase  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  He  was  the  first  scholar  of 
the  mediaeval  time  who 
fully  realized  and  ap- 
preciated the  supreme 
excellence  and  beauty 
of  the  classical  literature 
and  its  value  as  a  means 
of  culture.  His  enthu- 
siasm for  the  ancient 
writers  was  a  sort  of  wor- 
ship. At  great  cost  of 
time  and  labor  he  made 
a  collection  of  about 
two  hundred  manuscript 
volumes  of  the  classics. 
Among  his  choicest 
Latin  treasures  were 
some  of  Cicero's  letters, 
which  he  had  himself 
discovered  in  an  old 
library  at  Verona,  and 
reverently  copied  with 
his  own  hand.  He  could  not  read  Greek,  yet  he  gathered  Greek  as 
well  as  Latin  manuscripts.  He  had  sixteen  works  of  Plato  and  a 
revered  copy  of  Homer  sent  him  from  Constantinople  ;  and  thus, 
as  he  himself  expressed  it,  the  first  of  poets  and  the  first  of  phi- 
losophers took  up  their  abode  with  him. 

This  last  sentiment  reveals  Petrarch's  feeling  for  his  books. 
The  spirits  of  their  authors  seemed  to  him  to  surround  him  in 


' 

1 

t 

>l 

1 

mi^- 

,r  »/9^4T/^^^ 

Fig.  48. 


Petrarch.    (From  a  portrait 
by  .S".  Tofanelli) 


258  THE   RENAISSANCE 

his  quiet  library,  and  he  was  never  so  happy  as  when  holding 
converse  with  these  choice  souls  of  the  past.  Often  he  wrote 
letters  to  the  old  worthies,  —  Homer,  Cicero,  Vergil,  Seneca,  and 
the  rest, —  for  Petrarch  loved  thus  to  record  his  thoughts,  and 
spent  much  of  his  time  in  the  recreation  of  letter  writing;  for 
recreation,  and  life  itself,  letter  writing  was  to  him. 

Petrarch's  enthusiasm  for  the  classical  authors  became  conta- 
gious. Fathers  reproached  him  for  enticing  their  sons  from  the 
study  of  the  law  to  the  reading  of  the  classics  and  the  writing  of 
Latin  verses.  But  the  movement  started  by  Petrarch  could  not  be 
checked.  The  impulse  he  imparted  to  humanistic  studies  is  still 
felt  in  the  world  of  letters  and  learning. 

282.  Petrarch's  Feeling  for  the  Ruins  of  Rome.  —  Petrarch  had 
for  the  material  monuments  of  classical  antiquity  a  feeling  akin  to 
that  which  he  had  for  its  literary  memorials. 

The  men  of  the  real  mediaeval  time  had  no  intelligent  curiosity 
or  feeling  respecting  the  monuments  and  ruins  of  the  ancient 
world.  Their  attitude  towards  all  these  things  was  exactly  the 
same  as  that  of  the  modern  Arabs  and  Turks  towards  the  remains 
of  past  civilizations  in  the  lands  of  the  Orient.  To  these  degen- 
erate successors  of  masterful  races  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon are  convenient  brick  quarries,  and  nothing  more.  They  are 
absolutely  indifferent  respecting  all  that  great  past  to  which  these 
vast  ruins  bear  silent  and  melancholy  witness.  How  different  is 
it  with  us,  children  of  the  Renaissance,  as  we  dig  in  those  same 
mounds,  carefully  and  reverently  gathering  up  every  fragment  of 
lettered  stone  or  brick  that  may  tell  us  something  of  the  thoughts 
and  feelings  and  deeds  of  those  men  of  the  early  time  ! 

All  this  illustrates  perfectly  the  difference  between  the  mediae- 
val man  and  the  man  of  the  Renaissance.  During  all  the  mediaeval 
centuries,  until  the  dawn  of  the  intellectual  revival,  the  ruins  of 
Rome  were  merely  a  quarry.  The  monuments  of  the  Caesars 
were  torn  down  for  building  material,  the  sculptured  marbles 
were  burned  into  lime  for  mortar. 

Now,  Petrarch  was  one  of  the  first  men  of  mediaeval  times  who 
had  for  the  ruins  of  Rome  the  modern  feeling.    *'  He  tells  us  how 


BOCCACCIO,  THE  DISCIPLE  OF  PETRARCH      259 

often  with  Giovanni  Colonna  he  ascended  the  mighty  vaults  of 
the  Baths  of  Diocletian,  and  there  in  the  transparent  air,  amid 
the  wide  silence,  with  the  broad  panorama  stretching  far  around 
them,  they  spoke,  not  of  business,  or  political  affairs,  but  of  the 
history  which  the  ruins  beneath  their  feet  suggested."  * 

283.  Boccaccio,  the  Disciple  of  Petrarch.  —  Petrarch  called  into 
existence  a  school  of  ardent  young  humanists  who  looked  up  to 
him  as  their  master,  and  who  carried  on  with  unbounded  enthusi- 
asm the  work  of  exploring  the  new  spiritual  hemisphere  which  he 
had  discovered.  Most  distinguished  among  these  disciples  was 
Boccaccio  (131 3- 1375),  whose  wide  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his 
Decameron^  a  collection  of  tales  written  in  Italian,  but  whose  work 
as  a  humanist  alone  has  interest  for  us  in  the  present  connection. 

Boccaccio  did  much  to  spread  and  to  deepen  the  enthusiasm 
for  antiquity  that  Petrarch  had  awakened.  He  industriously  col- 
lected and  copied  ancient  manuscripts  and  thus  greatly  promoted 
classical  scholarship  in  Italy.  Imitating  Petrarch,  he  tried  to 
learn  Greek,  but,  like  Petrarch,  made  very  little  progress  towards 
the  mastery  of  the  language  because  of  the  incompetence  of  his 
teacher  and  also  because  of  the  utter  lack  of  text-books,  gram- 
mars, and  dictionaries.  He  persuaded  his  teacher,  however,  to 
make  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey^  and  was 
thus  instrumental  in  giving  to  the  world  the  first  modern  trans- 
lation of  Homer.  It  was  a  wretched  version,  yet  it  served  to 
inspire  in  the  Italian  scholars  an  intense  desire  to  know  at  first 
hand. Greek  literature,  —  that  literature  from  which  the  old  Roman 
authors  had  admittedly  drawn  their  inspiration. 


^  Burckhardt,  The  Civilization  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  p.  177.  Petrarch 
represents  still  other  phases  and  qualities  of  the  modern  spirit,  U|X)n  which,  however, 
it  is  impossible  for  us  to  dwell.  Regarding  his  feeling  for  nature  in  her  grand  and 
romantic  aspects,  we  must  nevertheless  say  a  single  word.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able passages  in  his  writings  is  his  description  of  his  ascent  of  Mount  Ventoux,  near 
Avignon,  for  the  sake  of  the  view  from  the  top.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
mountain  climbing  of  modem  times,  —  a  new  thing  in  the  world.  There  was  very 
little  of  it  in  antiquity,  and  during  the  Middle  Ages  apparently  none  at  all.  Even 
Dante  always  speaks  of  the  mountains  with  a  shudder.  Nothing  distinguishes  the 
modern  from  the  mediajval  man  more  sharply  than  this  new  feeling  for  nature  in  her 
wilder  and  grander  moods. 


26o  THE   RENAISSANCE 

2 84 .  The  Italians  are  taught  Greek  by  Chrysoloras.  —This  desire 
of  the  Itahan  scholars  was  soon  gratified.  Just  at  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth  century  the  Eastern  Emperor  sent  an  embassy  to  Italy 
to  beg  aid  against  the  Turks.  The  commission  was  headed  by 
Manuel  Chrysoloras,  an  eminent  Greek  scholar.  No  sooner  had 
he  landed  at  Venice  than  the  Florentines  sent  him  a  pressing 
invitation  to  come  to  their  city.  He  acceded  to  their  request, 
was  received  by  them  with  such  honor  as  they  might  have  shown  a 
celestial  being,  and  was  given  a  professor's  chair  in  the  university 
(1396).  Young  and  old  thronged  his  class  room.  Men  past  sixty 
"felt  the  blood  leap  in  their  veins  "  at  the  thought  of  being  able 
to  learn  Greek. 

The  appearance  of  Chrysoloras  as  a  teacher  at  Florence  marks 
the  revival,  after  seven  centuries  of  neglect,  of  the  study  of  the 
Greek  language  and  literature  in  the  schools  of  Western  Europe. 
This  meant  much.  It  meant  the  revival  of  civilization,  the  opening 
of  the  modern  age ;  for  of  all  the  agencies  concerned  in  trans- 
forming the  mediaeval  into  the  modern  world  one  of  the  most 
potent  certainly  was  Greek  culture.^ 

285.  The  Search  for  Old  Manuscripts.  —  Having  now  spoken  of 
the  pioneers  of  Italian  humanism  in  the  fourteenth  century,  we 
can,  in  our  remaining  space,  touch  only  in  a  very  general  way 
upon  the  most  important  phases  of  the  humanistic  movement  in 
the  following  century. 

The  first  concern  of  the  Italian  scholars  was  to  rescue  from 
threatened  oblivion  what  yet  remained  of  the  ancient  classics. 
Just  as  the  antiquarians  of  to-day  dig  over  the  mounds  of  Assyria 
for  relics  of  the  ancient  civilization  of  the  East,  so  did  the 
humanists  ransack  the  libraries  of  the  monasteries  and  cathe- 
drals and  search  through  all  the  out-of-the-way  places  of  Europe 
for  old  manuscripts  of  the  classic  writers. 

The  precious  manuscripts  were  often  discovered  in  a  shameful 
state  of  neglect  and  in  advanced  stages  of  decay.    Sometimes 

6  "  If  it  be  true  [as  has  been  asserted]  that  except  the  blind  forces  of  nature  noth- 
ing moves  in  this  world  which  is  not  Greek  in  its  origin,  we  are  justified  in  regarding 
the  point  of  contact  between  the  Greek  teacher  Chrysoloras  and  his  Florentine  pupils 
as  one  of  the  most  momentous  crises  m  the  history  of  civilization."  —  Symonds, 


PATRONS   OF  THE    NEW   LEARNING  261 

they  were  found  covered  with  mold  in  damp  cells  or  loaded  with 
dust  in  the  attics  of  monasteries.  Again  they  were  discovered,  as 
by  Boccaccio  in  the  manuscript  room  of  the  Benedictine  mon- 
astery of  Monte  Cassino,  mutilated  in  various  ways,  some,  for 
instance,  with  the  borders  of  the  parchment  pared  away,  and 
others  with  whole  leaves  lacking.^ 

This  late  search  of  the  humanists  for  the  works  of  the  ancient 
authors  saved  to  the  world  many  precious  manuscripts  which,  a 
little  longer  neglected,  would  have  been  forever  lost. 

286.  Patrons  of  the  New  Learning;  the  Founding  of  Libraries. 
—  This  gathering  and  copying  of  the  ancient  manuscripts  was 
costly  in  time  and  labor.  But  there  was  many  a  Maecenas  to 
encourage  and  further  the  work.  Merchant  princes,  despots,  and 
popes  became  generous  patrons  of  the  humanists.  Prominent 
among  these  promoters  of  the  New  Learning,  as  it  was  called, 
were  Cosimo  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  at  Florence.  It  was  largely 
due  to  their  genuine  and  enlightened  interest*  in  the  great  under- 
taking of  recovering  for  culture  the  ancient  classical  literatures 
that  Florence  became  the  foster  home  of  the  intellectual  and 
literary  revival. 

Among  the  papal  promoters  of  the  movement  Pope  Nicholas  V 
(1447-145 5)  was  one  of  the  most  noted.  He  sent  out  explorers 
to  all  parts  of  the  West  to  search  for  manuscripts,  and  kept  busy 
at  Rome  a  multitude  of  copyists  and  translators.  A  little  later 
Pope  Julius  II  (1503-15 13)  and  Pope  Leo  X  (1513-1521)  made 
Rome  a  brilliant  center  of  Renaissance  art  and  learning. 

Libraries  were  founded  where  the  new  treasures  might  be  safely 
stored  and  made  accessible  to  scholars.  In  this  movement  some 
of  the  largest  libraries  of  Italy  had  their  beginnings.  At  Florence 
the  Medici  established  the  fine  existing  Medicean  Library.  At 
Rome  Pope  Nicholas  V  enriched  the  original  papal  collection  of 

«  This  mutilation  was  due  chiefly  to  the  scarcity  of  writing  material,  which  led 
the  medisBval  copyists  to  erase  the  original  text  of  old  parchments  that  they  might 
use  them  a  second  time.  In  this  way  many  works  of  chssical  authors  were  destroyed. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  earlier  text  was  so  imperfectly  obliterated  that  by  means  of 
chemical  reagents  it  can  be  wholly  or  partially  restored.  Such  twice-written  manu- 
scripts are  called  palimpsests. 


262  THE   RENAISSANCE 

books  by  the  addition,  it  is  said,  of  fully  five  thousand  manu- 
scripts, and  thus  became  the  real  founder  of  the  celebrated 
Vatican  Library  of  the  present  day. 

287.  How  the  Fall  of  Constantinople  aided  the  Revival The 

humanistic  movement,  especially  in  so  far  as  it  concerned  Greek 
letters  and  learning,  was  given  a  great  impulse  by  the  disasters 
which  in  the  fifteenth  century  befell  the  Eastern  Empire.  Con- 
stantinople, it  will  be  recalled,  was  captured  by  the  Ottoman 
Turks  in  1453.  But  for  a  half  century  before  that  event  the 
threatening  advance  of  the  barbarians  had  caused  a  great  migra- 
tion of  Greek  scholars  to  the  West.  So  many  of  the  exiles  sought 
an  asylum  in  Italy  that  one  could  say  :  "  Greece  has  not  fallen ; 
she  has  migrated  to  Italy,  which  in  ancient  times  bore  the  name 
of  Magna  Graecia." 

These  fugitives  brought  with  them  many  valuable  manuscripts 
of  the  ancient  Greek  classics  still  unknown  to  Western  scholars. 
The  enthusiasm  of 'the  Italians  for  everything  Greek  led  to  the 
appointment  of  many  of  the  exiles  as  teachers  and  lecturers  in 
their  schools  and  universities.  Thus  there  was  now  a  repetition 
of  what  took  place  at  Rome  in  the  days  of  the  later  republic; 
Italy  was  conquered  a  second  time  by  the  genius  of  Greece. 

288.  Translation  and  Criticism  of  the  Classics.  — The  recovery 
of  the  ancient  classics,  their  multiplication  by  copyists,  and  their 
preservation  in  libraries  was  only  the  first  and  lightest  part  of  the 
task  which  the  Italian  humanists  set  themselves.  The  most  diffi- 
cult and  significant  part  of  their  work  lay  in  the  comparison  and 
correction  of  texts,  the  translation  into  Latin  of  the  Greek  manu- 
scripts, and  the  interpretation  and  criticism  of  the  ancient 
literatures  now  recovered. 

Among  the  Italian  scholars  who  devoted  themselves  to  this 
work  a  foremost  place  must  be  assigned  to  PoHtian  (i 454-1494), 
a  man  of  remarkable  genius  and  learning.  Almost  all  the  noted 
humanists  in  Europe  of  his  own  and  the  following  generation 
seem  to  have  caught  their  inspiration  in  his  lecture  room.' 

''  Another  name  of  great  renown  connected  with  these  fifteenth-century  labors  of 
the  Italian  scholars  is  that  of  Pico  della  Mirandola  (1463-1494),  a  man  of  extraordinary 


THE   INVENTION   OF   PRINTING 


263 


289.  The  Invention  of  Printing.  —  During  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  work  of  the  Italian  humanists  was  greatly 
furthered  by  the  happy  and  timely  invention  of  the  art  of  print- 
ing from  movable  letters,  the  most  important  discovery,  in  the 
estimation  of  Hallam,  recorded  in  the  annals  of  mankind. 

The  making  of  impressions  by  means  of  engraved  seals  or 
blocks  seems  to  be  a  device  as  old  as  civilization.  The  Chinese 
have  practiced  this  form  of  printing  from  an  early  time.  The  art 
appears  to  have  sprung  up 
independently  in  Europe 
during  the  later  mediaeval 
period.  First,  devices  on 
playing  cards  were  formed 
by  impressions  from 
blocks ;  then  manuscripts 
were  stamped  with  portraits 
and  pictures.  The  next 
step  was  to  cut  into  the 
same  block  a  few  lines  of 
explanatory  text.  In  time 
the  lines  increased  to 
pages,  and  during  the  first 
half  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury many  entire  books 
were  produced  by  the 
block-printing  method. 

But  printing  from  blocks 
was  slow  and  costly.  The 
art  was  revolutionized  by 
John  Gutenberg  (i 400-1468),  a  native  of  Mainz  in  Germany, 
through  the  invention  of  the  movable  letters  which  we  call  type.' 
The  oldest  book  known  to  have  been  printed  from  movable 

gifts  of  mind.  The  special  task  which  Pico  set  for  himself  was  the  harmonizing  of 
Christianity  and  the  New  Learning,  a  task  like  that  of  those  scholars  of  the  present 
time  who  seek  to  reconcile  the  Bible  and  modem  science. 

8  Some  Dutch  writers  claim  for  Coster  of  Haarlem  the  honor  of  the  invention,  but 
there  is  nothing  aside  from  unreliable  tradition  on  which  such  a  claim  can  rest. 


Fig.  49.  —  A  Block-Printed  Page 

FROM    THE    "BiBLIA    PaUPERUM  ** 
(From  Lacroix) 


264 


THE   RENAISSANCE 


letters  was  a  Latin  copy  of  the  Bible  issued  from  the  press  of 
Gutenberg  and  Faust  at  Mainz  between  the  years  1454  and  1456. 
The  art  spread  rapidly  and  before  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury presses  were  busy  in  every  country  of  Europe  —  in  the  city 
of  Venice  alone  there  were  two  hundred  —  multiplying  books  with 
a  rapidity  undreamed  of  by  the  patient  copyists  of  the  cloister. 

290.  The  Aldine  Press  at  Venice.  —  But  it  is  merely  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  art  into  Italy  that  especially  concerns  us  now. 


Fig.  50.  —  The  Printing  of  Books.    (From  Early  Venetian  Printing) 


The  little  that  our  brief  space  will  permit  us  to  say  on  this  subject 
gathers  about  the  name  of  Aldus  Manutius  (1450-15 15),  who 
established  at  Venice  a  celebrated  printing  house,  known  as  the 
Aldine  Press,  the  story  of  which  forms  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of  the  new  art  in  its 
relation  to  humanism. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  Aldus  had  given  to  the  apprecia- 
tive scholars  of  Europe  an  almost  complete  series  of  the  Greek 
authors.  Besides  these  Greek  editions  he  issued  both  Latin  and 
Hebrew  texts.    Altogether  he  printed  over  a  hundred  works.    In 


HUMANISM   CROSSES   THE   ALPS 


265 


quality  of  paper  and  in  clearness  and  beauty  of  type  his  editions 
have  never  been  surpassed. 

The  work  of  the  Aldine  Press  at  Venice,  in  connection  of  course 
with  what  was  done  by  presses  of  less  note  in  other  places,  made 
complete  the  recovery  of  the  classical  literatures,  and  by  scattering 
broadcast  throughout 
Europe  the  works  of 
the  ancient  authors 
rendered  it  impossible 
that  any  part  of  them 
should  ever  again  be- 
come lost  to  the  world. 

291.  Humanism 
crosses  the  Alps.  —  As 
early  as  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  the 
German  youths  had  be- 
gun to  cross  the  Alps  in 
order  to  study  Greek  at 
the  feet  of  the  masters 
there.  As  the  type  and 
representative  of  these 
young  German  human- 
ists we  may  name 
Reuchlin,  who  in  1482 
journeyed  to  Italy  and' 
presented  himself  there 
before  a  celebrated 
teacher  of  Greek.  As  a 
test  of  his  knowledge  of 
the  language  he  was  given  to  translate  a  passage  from  Thucydides. 
The  young  barbarian  —  for  by  this  term  the  Italians  of  that  time 
expressed  their  contempt  for  an  inhabitant  of  the  rude  North  — 
turned  the  lines  so  easily  and  masterfully  that  the  examiner,  who 
was  a  native-born  Greek,  cried  out  in  astonishment,  "  Our  exiled 
Greece  has  flown  beyond  the  Alps." 


Fig.  51.  —  Case  of  Chained  Books.    (From 
Clarke,  The  Care  of  Books) 

The  case  shown  is  preserved  in  the  Chapter  Library, 
Hertford,  England.  In  some  libraries  this  practice 
of  chaining  the  books  was  kept  up  even  in  the 
eighteenth  century 


266  THE   RENAISSANCE 

In  transalpine  Europe  the  humanistic  movement  became 
blended  with  other  tendencies.  In  Italy  it  had  been  an  almost 
exclusive  devotion  to  Greek  and  Latin  letters  and  learning ;  but 
in  the  North  there  was  added  to  this  enthusiasm  for  classical  cul- 
ture an  equal  and  indeed  supreme  interest  in  Hebrew  and  Chris- 
tian antiquity.  Hence  here  the  literary  and  intellectual  revival 
became,  in  the  profoundest  sense,  the  moving  cause  of  the  great 
religious  revolution  known  as  the  Reformation,  and  it  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  beginnings  of  that  movement  that  we  shall  find 
a  place  to  speak  of  the  humanists  of  Germany  and  the  other 
northern  lands. 

292.  The  Artistic  Revival. — As  we  have  already  seen,  the 
new  feeling  for  classical  antiquity  awakened  among  the  Italians 
embraced  not  simply  the  literary  and  philosophical  side  of  the 
Graeco-Roman  culture,  but  the  artistic  side  as  well.  Respecting 
this  latter  phase  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  it  will  be  impossible 
for  us  to  speak  in  detail,  nor  is  it  necessary  for  us  to  do  so,  since 
the  chief  significance  of  the  Renaissance  for  universal  history,  as 
already  noted,  is  to  be  sought  in  the  purely  intellectual  movement 
traced  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  chapter. 

The  artistic  revival  was  in  its  essence  a  return  of  art  to  nature ; 
for  mediaeval  art  lacked  freedom  and  naturalness.  The  artist  was 
hampered  by  ecclesiastical  tradition  and  restraint ;  he  was,  more- 
over, under  the  influence  of  the  religious  asceticism  of  the  time. 
His  models  as  a  rule  were  the  stiff,  angular,  lifeless  forms  of 
Byzantine  art,  or  the  gaunt,  pinched  bodies  of  saints  and  anchorites. 
In  the  decoration  of  the  walls,  pulpits,  and  altars  of  the  churches 
he  was  not  at  liberty,  even  if  he  had  the  impulse,  to  depart  from 
the  consecrated  traditional  types.^ 

Now,  what  the  Renaissance  did  for  art  was  to  liberate  it  from 
these  trammels  and  to  breathe  into  its  dead  forms  the  spirit  of 
that  new  life  which  was  everywhere  awakening.  This  emancipa- 
tion movement  took  place  largely  under  impulses  which  came 

9  In  the  Greek  Church  at  the  present  time  the  artist  in  the  portrayal  of  sacred 
subjects  is  not  permitted  to  change  the  traditional  expression  or  attitude  of  his 
figures. 


RENAISSANCE   PAINTINC 


267 


from  a  study  of  the  masterpieces  of  ancient  art.  Thus  did  classical 
antiquity  exercise  the  same  influence  in  the  emancipation  and 
revival  of  art  as  in  the  emancipation  and  revival  of  letters.^® 

293.  Why  Painting  was  the  Supreme  Art  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance.^^—  The  characteristic  art  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  was 
painting,  and  for  the 
reason  that  it  best 
expresses  the  ideas 
and  sentiments  of 
Christianity.  T  h  e 
art  that  would  be 
the  handmaid  of  the 
Church  needed  to 
be  able  to  represent 
faith  and  hope, 
ecstasy  and  suffer- 
ing,— none  of  which 
things  can  well  be 
expressed  by  sculp- 
ture,  which  is 
essentially  the  art 
of  repose. 

Sculpture  was  the  chief  art  of  the  Greeks,  because  among  them 
the  aim  of  the  artist  was  to  represent  physical  beauty  or  strength. 
But  the  problem  of  the  Christian  artist  is  to  express  spiritual 
emotion  or  feeling  through  the  medium  of  the  body.  This  cannot 
be  represented  in  cold,  colorless  marble.  Thus,  as  Symonds  asks, 
"  How  could  the  I^st  Judgment  be  expressed  in  plastic  form?  " 
The  chief  events  of  Christ's  life  removed  him  beyond  the  reach 
of  sculpture. 


Fig.  52.  —  Tomb  at  Tours  of  the  Children 
OF  Charles  VIII.    (From  a  photograph) 

Showing  the  influence  of  ancient  classical  art  upon  the 
art  of  the  Renaissance 


!<>  In  the  list  of  Italian  sculptors  the  following  names  are  especially  noteworthy : 
Ghiberti  (1378-1455),  whose  genius  is  shown  in  his  celebrated  bronze  gates  of  the 
Baptistery  at  Florence,  of  which  Michael  Angelo  said  that  they  were  worthy  to  be  the 
gates  of  Paradise;  Brunelleschi  (1377-1444),  Donatello  (1386-1466),  and  Michael 
Angelo  (1475-1564). 

11  The  views  presented  in  this  f>aragraph  are  those  of  Symonds  in  his  work  on 
The  Fine  Aris,  which  forms  the  third  volume  of  his  /Renaissance  in  Italy. 


268  THE   RENAISSANCE 

Therefore,  because  sculpture  has  so  little  power  to  express 
emotion,  painting,  which  runs  so  easily  the  entire  gamut  of  feel- 
ing, became  the  chosen  medium  of  expression  of  the  Italian  artist. 
This  art  alone  enabled  him  to  portray  the  raptures  of  the  saint, 
the  sweet  charm  of  the  Madonna,  the  intense  passion  of  the 
Christ,  the  moving  terrors  of  the  Last  Judgment. 

294.  The  Four  Masters;  Mingling  of  Christian  and  Classical 
Subjects.  —  The  four  supreme  masters  of  Italian  Renaissance 
painting  were  Leonardo  da  Vinci  ^^  (1452-15 19),  whose  master- 
piece is  his  Last  Supper,  on  the  wall  of  a  convent  at  Milan ; 
Raphael  (1483-152 o),  the  best  beloved  of  artists,  whose 
Madonnas  are  counted  among  the  world's  treasures;  Michael 
Angelo-^^  (1475-15  64),  whose  best  paintings  are  his  wonderful 
frescoes,  among  them  the  Last  Judgme7it,  in  the  Sistine  Chapel 
at  Rome;  and  Titian"  (147 7-1 5 7 6),  the  Venetian  master,  cele- 
brated for  his  portraits,  which  have  preserved  for  us  in  flesh  and 
blood,  so  to  speak,  many  of  the  most  noteworthy  personages  of 
his  time. 

The  earlier  Itahan  painters  drew  their  subjects  chiefly  from 
Christian  sources.  They  literally  covered  the  walls  of  the 
churches,  palaces,  and  civic  buildings  of  Italy  with  pictorial  rep- 
resentations of  all  the  ideas  and  imaginings  of  the  mediaeval  ages 
respecting  death,  the  judgment,  heaven,  and  hell.  As  Symonds 
tersely  expresses  it,  they  did  by  means  of  pictures  what  Dante 
had  done  by  means  of  poetry. 

The  later  artists,  more  under  the  influence  of  the  classical 
revival,  mingled  freely  pagan  and  Christian  subjects  and  motives, 


12  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was,  in  his  many-sidedness  and  versatility,  a  true  child  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance ;  he  was  at  once  painter,  sculptor,  architect,  poet,  musician,  and 
scientist. 

13  Michael  Angelo,  as  we  have  seen,  was  an  architect  and  sculptor  as  well  as 
a  painter.  He  is  the  only  modern  sculptor  who  can  be  given  a  place  alongside  the 
greatest  sculptors  of  ancient  Greece. 

14  A  longer  list  of  the  most  eminent  Italian  painters  would  include  at  least  the 
following  names :  Cimabue  (about  1240-1302)  and  Giotto  (1276-1337),  precursors  of 
the  revival;  Fra  Angelico  (1387-1455) ;  Correggio  (about  1494-1534) ;  Tintoretto 
(1518-1594)  and  Veronese  (about  1530-1588),  representatives  of  the  Renaissance 
proper. 


PAGANISM  OF  THE  ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE      269 

and  thus  became  truer  representatives  than  their  predecessors  of 
the  Renaissance  movement,  one  important  issue  of  which  was  to  be 
the  reconciHation  and  blending  of  pagan  and  Christian  culture. 

295.  The  Paganism  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  — There  was  a 
religious  and  moral,  or,  as  usually  expressed,  an  irreligious  and 
immoral,  side  to  the  classical  revival  in  Italy  which  cannot  be 
passed  wholly  unnoticed  even  in  so  brief  an  account  of  the  move- 
ment as  the  present  sketch. 

In  the  first  place,  the  study  of  the  pagan  poets  and  philosophers 
produced  the  exact  result  predicted  by  a  certain  party  in  the 
Church.  It  proved  hurtful  to  religious  faith.  Men  became  pagans 
in  their  feelings  and  in  their  way  of  thinking.  Itahan  scholars 
and  Italian  society  almost  ceased  to  be  Christian  in  any  true 
sense  of  the  word. 

With  the  New  Learning  came  also  those  vices  and  immoralities 
that  characterized  the  decline  of  classical  civilization.  Italy  was 
corrupted  by  the  new  influences  that  flowed  in  upon  her,  just  as 
Rome  was  corrupted  by  Grecian  luxury  and  sensuality  in  the  days 
of  the  failing  republic.  Much  of  the  literature  of  the  time  is  even 
more  grossly  immoral  in  tone  than  the  literature  of  the  age  of 
classical  decadence. 

III.    General  Effects  of  the  Renaissance 

296.  The  Renaissance  brought  in  New  Conceptions  of  Life  and 
the  World.  —  The  Renaissance  effected  in  the  Christian  West  an 
intellectual  and  moral  revolution  so  profound  and  so  far-reaching 
in  its  consequences  that  it  may  well  be  likened  to  that  produced 
in  the  ancient  world  by  the  incoming  of  Christianity.  The  New 
Learning  was  indeed  a  New  Gospel.  Like  Christianity,  the 
Renaissance  revealed  to  men  another  world,  another  state  of 
existence;  for  such  was  the  real  significance,  to  the  men  of  the 
revival,  of  the  discovery  of  the  civilization  of  classical  antiquity. 
Through  this  discovery  they  learned  that  this  earthly  life  is  worth 
living  for  its  own  sake  ;  that  this  life  and  its  pleasures  need  not 
be  contemned  and  sacrificed  in  order  to  make  sure  of  eternal  life  in 


270  THE   RENAISSANCE 

another  world ;  and  that  man  may  think  and  investigate  and  satisfy 
his  thirst  to  know  without  endangering  the  welfare  of  his  soul.^^ 

These  discoveries  made  by  the  men  of  the  Renaissance  gave  a 
vast  impulse  to  the  progress  of  the  human  race.  They  inspired 
humanity  with  a  new  spirit,  a  spirit  destined  in  time  to  make 
things  new  in  all  realms,  —  in  the  realm  of  religion,  of  poHtics,  of 
literature,  of  art,  of  science,  of  invention,  of  industry.  Some  of 
these  changes  and  revolutions  we  shall  briefly  indicate  in  the 
remaining  sections  of  this  chapter.  To  follow  them  out  more  in 
detail  in  all  the  territories  of  human  activity  and  achievement 
will  be  our  aim  in  later  chapters,  where  we  propose  to  trace  the 
course  of  the  historical  development  through  the  centuries  of  the 
Modern  Age,  —  the  great  age  opened  by  the  Renaissance. 

297.  It  restored  the  Broken  Unity  of  History.  — When  Chris- 
tianity entered  the  ancient  Grseco-Roman  world  war  declared 
itself  at  once  between  the  new  religion  and  classical  culture, 
especially  between  it  and  Hellenism.  The  Church,  soon  trium- 
phant over  paganism,  rejected  the  bequest  of  antiquity.  Some 
of  the  elements  of  that  heritage  were,  it  is  true,  appropriated  by 
the  men  of  the  mediaeval  time  and  thus  came  to  enrich  the  new 
Christian  culture  ;  but,  as  a  whole,  it  was  cast  aside  as  pagan,  and 
neglected.  Thus  was  the  unity  of  the  historical  development  broken. 

Now,  through  the  Hberal  tendencies  and  generous  enthusiasms 
of  the  Renaissance  there  was  effected  a  reconciliation  between 

15  The  longings  and  the  superstitious  fears  of  men  in  the  age  of  transition  between 
mediaeval  and  modern  times  is  well  epitomized  in  the  tradition  of  Dr.  Faustus. 
"  That  legend,"  says  Symonds,  "  tells  us  what  the  men  upon  the  eve  of  the  Revival 
longed  for,  and  what  they  dreaded,  when  they  turned  their  minds  toward  the  past. 
The  secret  of  enjoyment  and  the  source  of  strength  possessed  by  the  ancients  allured 
them  ;  but  they  beUeved  that  they  could  only  recover  thi*s  lost  treasure  by  the  suicide 
of  the  soul.  So  great  was  the  temptation  that  Faustus  paid  the  price.  After  imbib- 
ing all  the  knowledge  of  the  age,  he  sold  himself  to  the  devil,  in  order  that  his  thirst 
for  experience  might  be  quenched,  his  grasp  upon  the  world  be  strengthened,  and  the 
ennui  of  his  activity  be  soothed.  His  first  use  of  his  dearly-bought  power  was  to 
make  blind  Homer  sing  to  him.  Amphion  tunes  his  harp  in  concert  with  Mephis- 
topheles.  Alexander  rises  from  the  dead  at  his  behest,  with  all  his  legionaries ;  and 
Helen  is  given  to  him  for  a  bride.  Faustus  is  therefore  a  parable  of  the  impotent 
yearnings  of  the  spirit  in  the  Middle  Ages,  —  its  passionate  aspiration,  its  conscience 
stricken  desire,  its  fettered  curiosity  amid  the  cramping  limits  of  impotent  knowledge 
and  irrational  dogmatisms."  —  Revival  of  Learning,  p.  53  (ed.  1888), 


IT  REFORMED  EDUCATION         2/1 

Christianity  and  classical  civilization.  There  took  place  a  fusion 
of  their  qualities  and  elements.  The  broken  unity  of  history  was 
restored.  The  cleft  between  the  ancient  and  the  modern  world 
was  closed.    The  severed  branch  was  reunited  to  the  old  trunk. 

The  importance  for  universal  history  of  this  restoration  of  its 
broken  unity,  of  this  recovery  by  the  Modern  Age  of  the  long- 
neglected  culture  of  antiquity,  can  hardly  be  overestimated ;  for 
that  culture  had  in  its  keeping  not  only  the  best  the  human  race 
had  thought  and  felt  in  the  period  of  the  highest  reach  of  its 
powers,  but  also  the  precious  scientific  stores  accumulated  by  all 
the  ancient  peoples.  What  the  recovery  and  appropriation  of  all 
this  meant  for  the  world  is  suggested  by  ex-President  Woolsey  in 
these  words  :  "  The  old  civilization  contained  treasures  of  perma- 
nent value  which  the  world  could  not  spare,  which  the  world  will 
never  be  able  or  willing  to  spare.  These  were  taken  up  into  the 
stream  of  life,  and  proved  true  aids  to  the  progress  of  a  culture 
which  is  gathering  in  one  the  beauty  and  truth  of  all  the  ages." 

298.  It  reformed  Education. — The  humanistic  revival  revolu- 
tionized education.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Latin  language 
had  degenerated,  for  the  most  part,  into  a  barbarous  jargon, 
while  the  Greek  had  been  forgotten  and  the  Aristotelian  philoso- 
phy perverted.  As  to  Plato,  he  was  practically  unknown  to  the 
mediaeval  thinkers.  Now  humanism  restored  to  the  world  the  pure 
classical  Latin,  rediscovered  the  Greek  language,  and  recovered 
for  civilization  the  once-rejected  heritage  of  the  ancient  classics, 
including  the  Platonic  philosophy,  which  was  to  be  a  quickening 
and  uplifting  force  in  modem  thought. 

The  schools  and  universities  did  not  escape  the  influences  of 
this  humanistic  revival.  Chairs  in  both  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages and  literatures  were  now  established,  not  only  in  the  new 
universities  which  arose  under  the  inspiration  of  the  New  Learn- 
ing, but  also  in  the  old  ones.  The  scholastic  method  of  instruc- 
tion, of  which  we  spoke  in  a  preceding  chapter,  was  gradually 
superseded  by  this  so-called  classical  system  of  education,  which 
dominated  the  schools  and  universities  of  the  world  down  to  the 
incoming  of  the  scientific  studies  of  the  present  day. 


2/2  THE   RENAISSANCE 

299.  It  aided  the  Development  of  the  Vernacular  Literatures 

The  classical  revival  gave  to  the  world  the  treasures  of  two  great 
literatures.  And  in  giving  to  the  scholar?  of  Europe  the  master- 
pieces of  the  ancient  authors,  it  gave  to  them,  besides  much 
fresh  material,  the  most  faultless  models  of  literary  taste  and 
judgment  that  the  world  has  ever  produced.  The  influence  of 
these  in  correcting  the  extravagances  of  the  mediaeval  imagina- 
tion and  in  creating  correct  literary  ideals  can  be  distinctly  traced 
in  the  native  literatures  of  Italy,  France,  Spain,  and  England. 

It  is  sometimes  maintained  indeed  that  the  attention  given  to 
the  ancient  classics,  and  the  preferred  use  by  so  many  authors 
during  the  later  mediaeval  and  the  earher  modern  period  of  the 
Latin  as  a  literary  language,^®  retarded  the  normal  development 
of  the  vernacular  literatures  of  the  European  peoples.  As  to 
Italy,  it  is  true  that  the  national  literature  which  had  started  into 
life  with  such  promise  with  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio  was 
for  almost  a  century  neglected ;  but  in  transalpine  Europe,  apart 
from  Germany,  where  for  a  period  Latin  did  almost  supplant  the 
vernacular,  the  revived  study  of  the  classics  did  not  produce  the 
disastrous  effects  observed  in  Italy.  On  the  contrary,  as  we  have 
just  said,  the  effect  of  humanism  upon  the  great  literatures  of 
Europe,  aside  from  the  exceptions  noticed,  was  to  enrich,  to 
chasten,  and  to  refine  them. 

300.  It  called  into  Existence  the  Sciences  of  Archaeology  and 
Historical  Criticism.  —  Many  sciences  were  in  germ  in  the  Renais- 
sance. As  to  the  science  of  archaeology,  which  possesses  such  a 
special  interest  for  the  historical  student,  it  may  be  truly  said 
that  it  had  its  birth  in  the  classical  revival.  We  have  already 
noticed  the  new  feeling  for  the  remains  of .  antiquity  that  stirred 
in  the  souls  of  the  men  of  the  Renaissance  (sec.  282). 

The  ruins  of  Rome  were  naturally  the  first  object  of  the  reverent 
curiosity  and  archaeological  zeal  of  the  Italian  scholars.  From  the 
fifteenth  century  down  to  the  present  day  the  interest  in  the 
monuments  and  relics  of  past  ages  and  civilization  has  steadily 

16  Some  of  the  very  best  literary  work  of  the  period  was  done  in  Latin,  as  witness 
the  Colloquies  by  Erasmus  and  the  Utopia  by  More. 


THE   SCIENCE  OF  ARCHEOLOGY  273 

widened  and  deepened  and  has  led  to  remarkable  discoveries,  not 
only  on  classical  ground,  but  also  in  Hebrew,  Assyrian,  and 
Egyptian  territories,  —  •  discoveries  which,  by  carrying  the  story 
of  the  human  race  back  into  a  past  immensely  remote,  have  given 
an  entirely  new  beginning  to  history. 

What  is  true  of  the  science  of  archaeology  is  equally  true  of  the 
science  of  historical  criticism.  We  have  seen  that  the  spirit  which 
awoke  in  the  Renaissance  was  a  questioning,  critical  spirit,  one 
very  different  from  the  credulous  mediaeval  spirit,  which  was 
ready  to  accept  any  picturesque  tradition  or  marvelous  tale  with- 
out inquiry  as  to  its  source  or  credibility.  It  was  this  spirit  that 
stirred  in  Petrarch.  We  find  him  comparing  and  criticising  the 
classical  authors  and  following  only  those  whom  he  has  reason  to 
believe  to  be  trustworthy. 

But  the  true  founder  of  the  science  of  historical  criticism  was 
Laurentius  Valla  (1407-145 7).  His  greatest  achievement  as  a 
critic  was  the  demonstration,  on  philological  and  historical 
grounds,  of  the  unauthentic  character  of  the  celebrated  Dona- 
tion of  Constantine."  He  also  called  in  question  the  authority 
of  Livy  and  proved  the  spurious  character  of  the  alleged  corre- 
spondence between  Seneca  and  the  Apostle  Paul. 

The  achievements  of  Valla  ushered  in  the  day  of  historical 
criticism.  Here  began  that  critical  sifting  and  valuation  of  our 
historical  sources  which  has  resulted  in  the  discrediting  of  a  thou- 
sand myths  and  legends  once  regarded  as  unimpeachable  histori- 
cal material,  and  in  the  consequent  reconstruction  of  Oriental, 
classical,  and  mediaeval  history. 

301 .  It  gave  an  Impulse  to  Religious  Reform. —  The  humanistic 
movement,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  when  it  crossed  the  Alps 
assumed  among  the  northern  peoples  a  new  character.  It  was 
the  Hebrew  past  rather  than  the  Graeco-Roman  past  which  stirred 
the  interest  of  the  scholars  of  the  North.  The  Bible,  which  the 
printing  presses  were  now  multiplying  in  the  original  Hebrew  and 
Greek  as  well  as  in  the  vernacular  languages,  became  the  subject 
of  enthusiastic  study  and  of  fresh  interpretation.  Consequently 
17  See  sec.  41,  n.  15. 


274  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

what  was  in  the  South  a  restoration  of  classical  literature  and  art 
became  in  the  more  serious  and  less  sensuous  North  a  revival  of 
primitive  Christianity,  of  the  ethical  and  religious  elements  of  the 
Hebrew-Christian  past.  The  humanist  became  the  reformer. 
Reuchlin,  Erasmus,  and  the  other  humanists  of  the  North  were 
the  true  precursors  of  the  great  religious  revolution  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Robinson  and  Rolfe,  Petrarch.  This 
volume  contains  a  selection  from  Petrarch's  "correspondence  with  Boc- 
caccio and  other  friends,  designed  to  illustrate  the  beginnings  of  the 
Renaissance."  The  student  should  begin  his  readings  on  this  subject 
with  this  delightful  book.  Whitcomb,  Source-Book  of  the  Renaissance, 
Part  I.  An  excellent  little  book,  which  forms  a  good  supplement  to  the 
preceding  work.  The  part  cited  contains  short  extracts  judiciously  chosen 
from  the  writings  of  fourteen  Italian  writers  of  the  age  of  the  Renaissance. 
The  Book  of  The  Courtier  (The  Tudor  Translations).  This  book  is  one 
of  the  most  important  and  characteristic  products  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance. It  was  translated  into  all  the  chief  European  languages  and  exerted 
a  vast  influence  upon  life  and  manners  everywhere,  and  especially  in  Eng- 
land. "  There  is  not  the  slightest  reason  for  doubting,"  says  Professor 
Saintsbury,  "  that  Sidney  himself  had  the  Courtier  and  its  ideal  constantly 
before  him."     Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  chap.  xxii. 

Secondary  Works.  —  The  literature  on  the  Renaissance  is  very  exten- 
sive ;  we  shall  suggest  only  a  few  titles.  Symonds,  The  Renaissance  in 
Italy ;  the  best  extended  history  in  English.  Burckhardt,  The  Civiliza- 
tion of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy ;  the  most  philosophical  and  suggestive 
work  on  the  subject.  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Makers  of  Florence  and  Makers  of 
Venice.  Field,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Renaissance.  Adams, 
Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  chap.  xv.  MuNRO  and  Sellery, 
Mediceval  Civilization,  pp.  277-309.  Putnam,  Books  and  their  Makers 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  vol.  i,  Part  II,  "The  Earlier  Printed  Books." 
Grimm,  The  Life  of  Michael  Angela.  Armstrong,  Lorenzo  de*  Medici 
and  Florence  in  the  Fifteenth  Century. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Dante's  life  and  his  Divine  Comedy. 
2.  The  ruins  of  Rome  in  mediaeval  times.  3.  Petrarch's  ascent  of  Mount 
Ventoux.  4.  Boccaccio  as  a  collector  of  ancient  manuscripts.  5.  Chryso- 
loras,  the  Greek  teacher.     6.  The  Aldine  Press. 


Part  II— The  Modern  Age 

THIRD  PERIOD— THE  ERA  OF  THE 
REFORMATION 

(From  the  Discovery  of  America,  in  1492,  to  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648) 

CHAPTER  XIX 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES  AND  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF 
MODERN  COLONIZATION 

302.  Transition  from  the  Mediaeval  to  the  Modern  Age.  — The 
discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  in  1492,  is  often  used  to 
mark  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  beginning  of  modern 
times ;  and  this  was  an  event  of  such  transcendent  importance,  — 
the  effect  upon  civilization  of  the  opening  up  of  fresh  continents 
was  so  great,  —  that  we  may  very  properly  accord  to  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  Genoese  the  honor  proposed.  Yet  we  must  bear  in 
mind  that  no  single  circumstance  or  event  actually  marks  the  end 
of  the  old  order  of  things  and  the  beginning  of  the  new.  The 
finding  of  the  New  World  did  not  make  the  new  age ;  the  new 
age  discovered  the  New  World.  The  undertaking  of  Columbus 
was  the  natural  outcome  of  that  spirit  of  commercial  enterprise 
and  scientific  curiosity  which  for  centuries  —  ever  since  the  Cru- 
sades—  had  been  gradually  expanding  the  scope  of  mercantile 
adventure  and  broadening  the  horizon  of  the  European  world. 
His  fortunate  expedition  was  only  one  of  several  brilliant  nautical 
exploits  which  distinguished  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  and  the 
opening  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

275 


2/6      BEGINNINGS   OF   MODERN   COLONIZATJON 

This  same  period  was  also  marked  by  significant  intellectual, 
political,  and  religious  movements,  which  indicated  that  civiliza- 
tion was  about  to  enter  —  indeed,  had  already  entered  —  upon  a 
new  phase  of  its  development. 

In  the  intellectual  world,  as  we  have  seen,  was  going  on  the 
wonderful  Revival  of  Learning,  producing  everywhere  unwonted 
thought,  stir,  and  enterprise.^  This  intellectual  movement  alone 
would  suffice  to  mark  the  period  of  which  we  speak  as  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  historical  era ;  for  the  opening  and  the  closing  of 
the  great  epochs  of  history,  such  as  the  Age  of  Christianity,  the 
Age  of  the  Protestant  Reformation,  and  the  Age  of  the  Political 
Revolution,  are  determined  not  by  events  or  happenings  in  the 
outer  world  but  by  movements  within  the  soul  of  humanity. 

In  the  political  world  the  tendency  to  centralization  which  had 
long  been  at  work  in  different  countries  of  Europe,  gathering  up 
the  little  feudal  units  into  larger  aggregates,  was  culminating  in 
the  formation  of  great  independent  nations  with  strong  monar- 
chical governments.  The  Age  of  the  Nations  was  opening.  This 
movement  was  one  of  vast  significance  in  European  history  and 
might  in  itself  very  well  be  regarded  as  forming  a  division  hne 
between  two  great  epochs. 

In  the  religious  world  there  were  unrest,  dissatisfaction,  inquiry, 
complaint, — premonitory  symptoms  of  the  tremendous  revolution 
that  was  destined  to  render  the  sixteenth  century  memorable  in 
the  religious  records  of  mankind.  This  upheaval  also  constitutes 
a  sort  of  continental  divide  in  history. 

1  The  truest  representative  of  the  intellectual  revival  on  its  scientific  side  was 
Nicholas  Copernicus  (1473-1543),  who,  while  Columbus  and  others  were  exploring 
the  earth's  unknown  seas  and  opening  up  a  new  hemisphere  for  civilization,  was 
exploring  the  heavens  and  discovering  the  true  system  of  the  universe.  He  had  quite 
fully  matured  his  theory  by  the  year  1507,  but  fearing  the  charge  of  heresy  he  did  not 
publish  the  great  work  embodying  his  views  until  thirty-six  years  later  (in  1543).  It 
should  be  carefully  noted,  however,  that  the  Copernican  theory  had  little  influence  on 
the  thought  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  denounced  as  contrary  to  Scripture  by 
both  Catholics  and  Protestants,  and  was  almost  universally  rejected  for  more  than 
a  hundred  years  after  its  first  publication.  Even  after  the  revelations  made  by  the 
telescope  of  Galileo  (i 564-1642)  the  acceptance  of  the  truth  was  so  hindered  by 
theological  opposition  tliat  the  complete  triumph  of  the  doctrine  was  delayed  until 
the  eighteenth  century.  See  Andrew  D.  White,  The  Warfare  of  Science  with 
Theology,  vol.  i,  chap.  iii. 


MARITIME   EXPLORATIONS 


277 


Closely  connected  with  these  movements  were  three  great 
inventions  which,  like  the  inventions  of  our  own  time  (sec.  760), 
were  also  signs  of  a  new  age,  and  which  powerfully  helped  on  the 
mental  and  social  revolutions.  Thus  the  intellectual  revival  and 
the  religious  reform  were  greatly  promoted  by  the  new  art  of 
printing  (sec.  289);  the  kings  in  their  struggle  with  the  nobles 
were  materially  aided  by  the  use  of  gunpowder,  which  rendered 
useless  costly  armor  and  fortified  castle  and  helped  to 
replace  the  feudal  levy  by  a  regular  standing  army, 
the  prop  and  bulwark  of  the  royal  power ;  while  the 
great  ocean  voyages  of  the  times  were  rendered  pos- 
sible only  by  the  improvement  of  the  mariner's  com- 
pass,^ whose  trusty  guidance  emboldened  the  navigator 
to  quit  the  shore  and  push  out  upon  hitherto 
untraversed  seas. 

303.  Maritime  Explorations  ;  the  Terrors 
of  the  Ocean.  — To  appreciate  the  greatness 
of  the  achievements  of  the  navigators  and 
explorers  of  the  age  of  geographical  dis- 
covery, we  need  to  bear  in  mind  with  what 
terrors  the  mediaeval  imagination  had  in- 
Vested  the  unknown  regions  of  the  earth. 
In  the  popular  conception  these  parts  were 
haunted  by  demons  and  dragons  and  mon- 
sters of  every  kind.  The  lands  were  shrouded 
in  eternal  mists  and  darkness.  The  seas  were 
filled  with  awful  whirlpools  and  treacherous 
currents,  and  shallowed  into  vast  marshes. 
Out  in  the  Atlantic,  so  a  popular  superstition  taught,  was  the  mouth 
of  hell ;  the  red  glow  cast  upon  the  sun  at  its  setting  was  held 
to  be  positive  evidence  of  this.    Away  to  the  south,  under  the 


Fig.  53.  —  A  Chinese 
Magnet  Figure 
(After  Beazley) 

A  rude  form  of  the  com- 
pass used  by  early 
Chinese  sailors.2  The 
little  wooden  figure  was 
set  on  a  pivot,  and  in 
the  outstretched  arm 
was  placed  a  bar  of 
magnetized  iron 


2  It  is  a  disputed  question  as  to  what  people  should  be  given  the  credit  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  properties  of  the  magnetic  needle.  In  a  very  primitive  form  the  compass 
was  certainly  in  use  among  the  Chinese  as  early  as  the  eighth  century  of  our  era. 
There  is  no  reliable  record  of  its  use  by  European  navigators  before  about  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  It  seems  most  probable  that  a  knowledge  of  the  instrument 
was  gained  in  the  East  by  the  crusaders. 


2/8      BEGINNINGS   OF  MODERN   COLONIZATION 

equator,  there  was  believed  to  be  an  impassable  belt  of  fire.  This 
was  a  very  persistent  idea,  and  was  not  dispelled  until  men  had 
actually  sailed  beyond  the  equatorial  regions. 

304.  Portuguese  Explorations;  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator.  — 
Many  incentives  concurred  to  urge  daring  navigators  in  the  later 
mediaeval  time  to  undertake  voyages  of  discovery,  but  a  chief 
motive  was  a  desire  to  find  a  water  way  that  should  serve  as  a 
new  trade  route  between  Europe  and  the  Indies. 

The  first  attempts  to  reach  these  lands  by  an  all  sea  route 
were  made  by  sailors  feehng  their  way  down  the  western  coast  of 
the  African  continent.  The  favorable  situation  of  Portugal  upon 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  caused  her  to  become  foremost  in  these 
enterprises.  Throughout  the  fifteenth  century  Portuguese  sailors 
were  year  after  year  penetrating  a  little  farther  into  the  myste- 
rious tropical  seas  and  uncovering  new  reaches  of  the  western 
coast  of  Africa.  The  soul  and  inspiration  of  all  this  maritime 
enterprise  was  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  (i 394-1460). 

In  the  year  1442  the  Portuguese  mariners  reached  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  and  here  discovered  the  home  of  the  true  negro. 
Some  of  the  ebony-skinned  natives  were  carried  to  Portugal  as 
slaves.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  modern  African  slave 
trade,  which  was  destined  to  shape  such  large  sections  of  the 
history  of  the  centuries  with  which  we  have  to  do.  The  traffic 
was  at  first  approved  by  even  the  most  philanthropic  persons, 
on  the  ground  that  the  certain  conversion  of  the  slaves  under 
Christian  masters  would  more  than  compensate  them  for  their 
loss  of  freedom. 

Finally,  in  i486,  Bartholomew  Dias  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  most  southern  point  of  the  continent,  which,  as  the  possi- 
bility of  reaching  India  by  sea  now  seemed  assured,  was  later 
given  the  name  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  But  at  the  same  time 
it  was  a  disappointment  to  the  Portuguese  to  find  that  Africa 
extended  so  far  to  the  south.  Even  should  India  be  reached, 
the  way,  it  was  now  known,  would  be  long  and  dangerous.  This 
knowledge  stimulated  efforts  to  reach  the  Indies  and  the  "  place 
of  spices  "  by  a  different  and  shorter  route. 


COLUMBUS   FINDS  THE   NEW  WORLD 


279 


305.  Columbus  in  Search  of  a  Westward  Route  to  the  Indies 
finds  the  New  World  (1492).  —  It  was  Christopher  Columbus,  a 
Genoese  by  birth,  who  now  proposed  the  bold  plan  of  reaching 
these  eastern  lands  by  sailing  westward.  The  sphericity  of  the 
earth  was  a  doctrine  held  by  all  the  really  learned  men  of  this 
time.  This  notion  was  also  familiar  to  many  at  least  of  the  com- 
mon people ;  but  they,  while  vaguely  accepting  the  view  that  the 
earth  is  round, 
thought  that  the 
habitable  part  was  a 
comparatively  flat, 
shieldlike  plain  on 
the  top  of  it.  All  the 
rest  they  thought  to 
be  covered  by  the 
waters  of  a  great 
ocean. 

While  agreed  as  to 
the  globular  form  of 
the  earth  and  of  the 
curvature  of  the  land 
as  well  as  of  the  water 
surface,  scholars  dif- 
fered as  to  the  pro- 
portion of  land  and 
water.  The  common 
opinion  among  them 
was  that  the  greater  part  of  the  earth's  surface  was  water.  Some, 
however,  believed  that  three  fourths  or  more  of  its  surface  was  land, 
and  that  only  a  narrow  ocean  separated  the  western  shores  of  Europe 
from  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia.  Columbus  held  this  latter  view, 
and  also  shared  with  others  a  misconception  as  to  the  size  of  the 
earth,  supposing  it  to  be  much  smaller  than  it  really  is.  Conse- 
quently he  felt  sure  that  a  westward  sail  of  three  or  four  thousand 
miles  would  bring  him  to  the  Indies.  Thus  his  very  misconceptions 
fed  his  hopes  and  drew  him  on  to  his  great  discovery. 


Fig.  54.  —  Christopher  Columbus.  (After 
the  Capriolo  portrait;  from  the  Columbus 
Memorial  Volume) 


28o      BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  COLONIZATION 

Everybody  knows  how  Columbus  in  his  endeavors  to  secure 
a  patron  for  his  enterprise  met  at  first  with  repeated  repulse 
and  disappointment;  how  at  last  he  gained  the  ear  of  Queen 
Isabella  of  Castile ;  how  a  fleet  of  three  small  vessels  was  fitted 
out  for  the  explorer ;  and  how  the  New  World  was  discovered, 
—  or  rather  rediscovered  (sec.  83). 

The  return  of  Columbus  to  Spain  with  his  vessels  loaded  with 
the  strange  animal  and  vegetable  products  of  the  new  lands  he 
had  found,  together  with  several  specimens  of  the  inhabitants,  — 
a  race  of  men  new  to  Europeans,  —  produced  the  profoundest 
sensation  among  all  classes.  Curiosity  was  unbounded.  The  spirit 
of  hazardous  enterprise  awakened  by  the  surprising  discovery  led 
to  those  subsequent  undertakings  by  Castilian  adventurers  which 
make  up  the  most  thrilHng  pages  of  Spanish  history.  * 

Columbus  made  altogether  four  voyages  to  the  new  lands; 
still  he  died  in  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  he  had  really  discov- 
ered a  new  world.  He  supposed  the  land  he  had  found  to  be 
some  part  of  the  Indies,  whence  the  name  "  West  Indies  "  which 
still  chngs  to  the  islands  between  North  and  South  America,  and 
the  term  <'  Indians  "  applied  to  the  aborigines.  It  was  not  until 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  that  it  became  fully  estab- 
lished that  a  great  new  double  continent,  separated  from  Asia  by 
an  ocean  wider  than  the  Atlantic,  had  been  found. 

Columbus  never  received  during  his  lifetime  a  fitting  recog- 
nition of  the  unparalleled  service  he  had  rendered  Spain  and  the 
world.  Jealousy  pursued  him,  and  from  his  third  voyage  he  was 
sent  home  loaded  with  chains.  Even  the  continent  he  had  dis- 
covered, instead  of  being  called  after  him  as  a  perpetual  memo- 
rial, was  named  from  a  Florentine  navigator,  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
whose  chief  claim  to  this  distinction  was  his  having  written  the 
first  widely  pubhshed  account  of  the  new  lands. 

306.  The  Voyage  of  Vasco  da  Gama  (i  497-1498);  the  Portu- 
guese create  a  Colonial  Empire  in  the  East.  —  We  have  seen  that 
by  the  year  i486  the  Portuguese  navigators,  in  their  search  for 
an  ocean  route  to  the  Indies,  had  reached  the  southern  point  of 
Africa.    A  little  later,  six  years  after  the  first  voyage  of  Columbus, 


,RTIN 


THE  PAPAL  LINE   OF   DEMARCATION  281 

Vasco  da  Gama,  a  Portuguese  admiral,  doubled  the  Cape,  crossed 
the  Indian  Ocean,  and  landed  on  the  coast  of  Malabar. 

The  discovery  of  an  unbroken  water  path  to  India  effected 
most  important  changes  in  the  trade  routes  and  traffic  of  the 
world.  It  made  the  port  of  Lisbon  the  depot  jof  the  Eastern 
trade.  The  merchants  of  Venice  were  ruined.  The  great  ware- 
houses of  Alexandria  were  left  empty.  The  old  route  to  the 
Indies  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  had  been  from  time  imme- 
morial a  main  Hne  of  communication  between  the  Far  East  and 
the  Mediterranean  lands,  now  fell  into  disuse,  not  to  be  reopened 
until  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  our  own  day. 

Portugal  dotted  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  the  Moluccas 
and  other  islands  of  the  Pacific  archipelago,  with  fortresses  and 
factories,  and  built  up  in  these  parts  a  great  commercial  empire, 
and,  through  the  extraordinary  impulse  thus  given  to  the  enter- 
prise and  ambition  of  her  citizens,  now  entered  upon  the  most 
splendid  era  of  her  history.^ 

307.  The  Papal  Line  of  Demarcation.  —  Remarkable  and  bold 
as  were  the  voyages  of  Columbus  and  Vasco  da  Gama,  these 
were  now  to  be  eclipsed  by  the  still  more  adventurous  enterprise 
of  the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  by  Ferdinand  Magellan,  a 
navigator  of  Portuguese  birth.  But  to  make  intelligible  the  object 
of  this  expedition  there  is  needed  a  word  of  explanation  con- 
cerning what  is  known  as  the  Papal  Line  of  Demarcation. 

Upon  the  return  of  Columbus  from  his  successful  expedition, 
Pope  Alexander  VI,  with  a  view  to  adjusting  the  conflicting 
claims  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  issued  a  bull  wherein  he  drew 
from  pole  to  pole  a  line  of  demarcation  through  the  Atlantic  one 
hundred  leagues  west  of  the  Azores*  (the  line  was  afterwards 
moved  two  hundred  and  seventy  leagues  farther  west  ^),  and  gave 

8  Among  the  makers  of  the  Portuguese  colonial  empire  Albuquerque  (i452?-i5i5) 
stands  preeminent.     The  story  of  his  career  possesses  many  elements  of  romance. 

*  The  indefiniteness  of  the  language  of  the  bull  made  no  end  of  trouble,  for  it  : 
was  impossible  for  the  surveyors  or  geometers  to  fix  upon  the  right  starting  point  j 
See  Bourne's  Essays  in  Historical  Criticism,  Essay  vii. 

5  One  result  of  this  change  was  to  throw  the  eastward  projecting  part  of  South 
America  to  the  east  of  the  demarcation  line,  and  thus  to  make  it  a  Portuguese  instead 
of  a  Spanish  possession. 


282      BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  COLONIZATION 

to  the  Spanish  sovereigns  all  pagan  lands,  not  already  in  posses- 
sion of  Christian  princes,  that  their  subjects  might  find  west  of 
this  line,  and  to  the  Portuguese  kings  all  unclaimed  pagan  lands 
discovered  by  Portuguese  navigators  east  of  the  designated  merid- 
ian.® By  treaty,  arrangements  as  well  as  by  papal  edicts,  —  which 
were  based  on  the  theory  of  that  time  that  the  ocean  like  the 
land  might  be  appropriated  by  any  power  and  absolute  control 
over  it  asserted,^  —  the  Portuguese  were  prohibited  from  sailing 
any  of  the  seas  thus  placed  under  the  dominion  of  Spain  or  from 
visiting  as  traders  any  of  her  lands,  and  the  Spaniards  from  tres- 
passing upon  the  waters  or  the  lands  granted  to  the  Portuguese. 

Spain  was  thus  shut  out  from  the  use  of  the  Cape  route  to  the 
Indies  which  had  been  opened  up  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  con- 
sequently from  participation  in  the  coveted  spice  trade,  unless 
perchance  a  way  to  the  region  of  spices  could  be  found  through 
some  opening  in  the  new  lands  discovered  by  Columbus. 

308.  The  Circumnavigation  of  the  Globe  by  Magellan  (15 19- 
1522). — Such  was  the  situation  of  things  when  Magellan  laid 
before  the  young  Emperor  Charles  V,  grandson  of  the  Isabella 
who  had  given  Columbus  his  commission,  his  plan  of  reaching 
the  Moluccas,  or  *' Spice  Islands,"  which  he  contended  were  in 
Spanish  waters,^  by  a  westward  voyage.  The  young  king  looked 
with  favor  upon  the  navigator's  plans,  and  placed  under  his  com- 
mand a  fleet  of  five  small  vessels. 

Magellan  directed  his  ships  in  a  southwesterly  course  across 
the  Atlantic,  hoping  to  find  towards  the  south  a  break  in  the  new- 
found lands.    Near  the  most  southern  point  of  South  America  he 

6  The  claim  of  the  popes  to  the  right  thus  to  dispose  of  pagan  lands  was  believed 
to  be  supported  by  such  Scripture  texts  as  this :  "  Ask  of  me,  and  I  shall  give  thee 
the  heathen  for  thine  inheritance,  and  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  for  thy  pos- 
session" (Psalms  ii.  8).  The  Catholic  sovereigns,  in  general,  recognized  the  claim 
only  in  so  far  as  it  coincided  with  their  interests  to  do  so.  After  the  Lutheran  revolt 
the  rulers  of  the  Protestant  states  gave  no  heed  to  it. 

'^  Hugo  Grotius  (15 83-1645),  the  eminent  Dutch  jurist,  in  a  treatise  entitled  Mare 
Liberum,  refuted  this  theory,  and  in  opposition  to  it  maintained  that  the  ocean 
should  be  free  to  all, —  a  far-reaching  doctrine  which  finally  became  a  part  of  the 
common  law  of  nations. 

8  There  was  difficulty  in  determining  just  where  among  the  islands  lying  southeast 
of  Asia  the  papal  line  of  demarcation,  when  carried  around  the  globe,  should  run. 


CIRCUMNAVIGATION   OF   THE   GLOBE  283 

found  the  narrow  strait  that  now  bears  his  name.  Through  this 
channel  the  bold  sailor  pushed  his  vessels  and  found  himself  upon 
a  great  sea  with  a  blank  horizon  to  the  west.  From  the  calm, 
unruffled  face  of  the  new  ocean,  so  different  from  the  stormy 
Atlantic,  he  gave  to  it  the  name  Pacific, 

The  voyage  of  these  first  intruders  ®  from  the  Old  World  upon 
the  unknown  sea,  beneath  the  strange  constellations  of  the 
southern  skies,  was  one  of  almost  incredible  sufferings,  endured 
with  the  bravest  fortitude.  Finally,  on  March  16,1521,  Magellan 
reached  the  group  of  islands  now  known  as  the  Philippines,  hav- 
ing been  so  named  in  honor  of  Philip  II,  Charles'  son  and  his 
successor  on  the  Spanish  throne.  On  one  of  these  islands  Magellan 
was  killed  in  a  fight  with  the  natives. 

The  year  following  the  discovery  of  the  Philippines  a  single 
battered  ship  of  the  fleet,  the  Victoria,  with  eighteen  men  out  of 
the  original  crews  of  over  two  hundred  sailors,  entered  the  Spanish 
port  of  Seville.  The  globe  had  for  the  first  time  been  circum- 
navigated. The  most  adventurous  enterprise  of  which  record  has 
been  preserved  had  been  successfully  accomplished.  **  In  the  whole 
history  of  human  undertakings,"  says  Draper,  "  there  is  nothing 
that  exceeds,  if,  indeed,  there  is  anything  that  equals,  this  vayage 
of  Magellan's.    That  of  Columbus  dwindles  away  in  comparison." 

Equally  does  the  exploit  seem  to  have  impressed  the  imagi- 
nation of  Magellan's  own  age.  The  old  writer  Richard  Eden 
(b.  about  152 1)  refers  to  it  as  "a  thing  doubtless  so  strange  and 
marvelous  that,  as  the  like  was  never  done  before,  so  is  it  perhaps 
never  like  to  be  done  again ;  so  far  have  the  navigations  of  the 
Spaniards  excelled  the  voyage  of  Jason  and  the  Argonauts  to  the 
region  of  Colchis,  or  all  that  ever  were  before  "  ;  and  a  Spanish 
contemporary  declares,  "  Nothing  more  notable  in  navigation  has 
ever  been  heard  of  since  the  voyage  of  the  patriarch  Noah." 

The  results  of  the  achievement  were  greater  in  the  intellectual 
realm  than  in  the  commercial  or  the  political  domain.  It  revo- 
lutionized whole  systems  of  mediaeval  theory  and  belief ;  it  pushed 
aside  old  narrow  geographical  ideas ;  it  settled  forever  and  for  all 

»  The  Pacific  had  several  years  before  this  been  seen  at  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 


284      BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN   COLONIZATION 


men  the  question  as  to  the  shape  and  size  of  the  earth.  It  brought 
to  an  end  the  scholastic  controversy  concerning  the  antipodes, 
—  that  is,  whether  there  were  men  living  on  the  "under"  side 

of  the  earth.  The  state  of 
most  men's  minds  in  regard 
to  this  matter  had  till  then 
been  just  about  the  same 
as  is  ours  to-day  on  the 
question  whether  or  not 
the  planets  are  inhabited. 

309.  These  Voyages  and 
Geographical  Discoveries 
ushered  in  a  New  Epoch.  — 
By  some  geographers  civili- 
zation is  conceived  as  hav- 
ing passed  through  three 
stages,  —  the  potamic  or 
river  stage,  the  thalassic  or 
inland  sea  stage,  and  the 
oceanic  stage.  In  the  case 
of  our  own  civilization, 
whose  beginnings  we  seek 
in  Egypt  and  Babylonia, 
these  steps  or  stages  seem 
fairly  well  defined  and  mark  off  historical  times  into  three  great 
periods,  which  may  be  named  the  River  Epoch,  the  Sea  Epoch, 
and  the  Ocean  Epoch. 

The  River  Epoch  was  that  during  which  civilization  was 
confined  to  river  valleys,  like  those  of  the  Nile,  the  Tigris,  and 
the  Euphrates.  The  chief  cities  of  this  period,  as,  for  instance, 
Memphis  and  Thebes  in  Egypt,  Nineveh  and  Babylon  in  Meso- 
potamia, arose  on  the  banks  of  great  streams.  Rivers  were  the 
pathways  of  commerce.  Boats  were  small  and  the  art  of  sea 
navigation  was  practically  unknown. 

The  Sea  Epoch  was  that  during  which  the  Mediterranean  was 
the  theater  of  civilization.    It  was  ushered  in  by  the  Phoenicians, 


Fig.  55.  —  "The  Antipodes  in  Deri- 
sion." (From  Cosmas,  Christian 
Topography  ;  after  peazley,  The  Dawn 
of  Modern  Geography) 

Cosmas  lived  in  the  sixth  Christian  century.  In 
the  cut  here  reproduced  from  his  Topography, 
he  ridicules  the  idea  of  a  round  earth  with 
people  on  the  under  side  whose  heads  hang 
downwards.  The  views  of  Cosmas  as  to  the 
existence  of  an  antipodal  people  had  de- 
fenders throughout  the  mediaeval  centuries 


THE   FIVE   EARLY   COLONIAL  EMPIRES         285 

the  first  skillful  sea  navigators,  in  the  second  millennium  before 
our  era.  From  the  river  banks  the  seats  of  trade  and  population 
were  transferred  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  Tyre 
and  Sidon  and  Carthage  and  Ephesus  and  Miletus  and  Byzan- 
tium and  Corinth  and  Athens  and  Rome  arose  and  played  their 
parts  in  the  transactions  of  the  thalassic  age.  So  entirely  did  the 
events  of  this  age  center  in  and  about  the  Mediterranean  that  this 
sea  has  been  aptly  called  the  Forum  of  the  ancient  world. 

The  Ocean  Epoch  was  opened  up  by  the  voyages  and  geo- 
graphical discoveries  of  which  we  have  just  been  speaking.  In 
this  period  the  great  oceans  have  ceased  to  be  barriers  between 
the  nations,  and  have  become  instead  the  natural  highways  of 
the  world's  intercourse  and  commerce.^'' 

310.  The  Five  Early  Colonial  Empires. — One  of  the  most 
important  phases  of  the  earlier  history  of  this  Ocean  Epoch  was 
the  expansion  of  the  five  states  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  Europe 
—  namely,  Portugal,  Spain,  France,  the  Netherlands,  and  Eng- 
land—  each  into  a  great  empire,  embracing  colonies  and  depend- 
encies in  two  hemispheres.  This  expansion  of  Europe  into  Greater 
Europe  holds  somewhat  such  a  place  in  modern  history  as  the 
expansion  of  Hellas  into  Greater  Hellas  and  of  Rome  into  Greater 
Rome  holds  in  ancient  history. 

In  the  mutual  jealousies  and  the  conflicting  interests  of  these 
growing  colonial  empires  is  to  be  found  the  ground  and  cause 
of  many  of  the  great  wars  of  modern  times  since  the  close  of 
the  religious  wars  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
For  this  reason,  although  it  is  our  special  task  to  trace  the  lines 
of  the  historic  development  in  Europe,  we  shall  from  time  to 
time  call  the  reader's  attention  to  these  European  interests  out- 
side of  the  European  continent.  In  the  present  connection  a 
few  words  in  regard  to  Spanish  conquests  and  the  beginnings 
of  Spanish  colonization  in  the  New  World  will  suffice. 

311.  The  Conquest  of  Mexico  (15 19-15  21). — The  accounts 
of  Spanish  explorations  and  conquests  in  the  lands  opened  up 

W  The  Ocean  Epoch  may  be  conceived  as  embracing  two  periods, —  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific  period.  The  latter  is  just  opening.  See  Chapter  XLIII  on  tlie  expan- 
sion of  Europe. 


286      BEGINNINGS   OF  MODERN  COLONIZATION 

by  the  fortunate  voyage  of  Columbus  read  more  like  a  romance 
than  any  other  chapter  in  history.  They  tell  of  men  growing 
old  while  hunting  through  strange  lands  for  the  Fountain  of 
Youth;  of  expeditions  lost  for  years  to  the  knowledge  of  men, 
while  searching  beneath  gloomy  forests  for  El  Dorado ;  of  explo- 
rations upon  seas  and  amidst  mountains  never  before  looked  upon 
by  men  of  the  Old  World ;  of  voyages  on  ocean-like  rivers  which 
led  no  one  knew  where;  and  of  ancient  states  conquered  and 
their  enormous  accumulations  of  gold  and  silver  seized  by  a  few 
score  of  adventurous  knights. ^^ 

Perhaps  the  most  brilliant  exploit  in  which  the  Spanish  cava- 
liers engaged  during  this  period  of  daring  and  romantic  adventure 
was  the  conquest  of  Mexico.  Reports  of  a  rich  and  powerful 
"  Empire  "  upon  the  mainland  to  the  west  were  constantly  spread 
among  the  Spanish  colonists  who  very  soon  after  the  discovery  of 
the  New  World  settled  the  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  These 
stories  inflamed  the  imagination  of  adventurous  spirits  among  the 
settlers,  and  an  expedition,  consisting  of  five  or  six  hundred  foot 
soldiers  and  sixteen  horsemen,  was  organized  and  placed  under 
the  command  of  Hernando  Cortes  for  the  conquest  and  "con- 
version "  of  the  heathen  nation.  The  expedition  was  successful, 
and  soon  the  Spaniards  were  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  what 
now  constitutes  the  republic  of  Mexico. 

The  state  that  the  conquerors  destroyed  was  not  an  empire, 
as  termed  by  the  contemporary  Spanish  chroniclers,  but  rather 
a  sort  of  league  or  confederacy  —  something  like  the  Iroquois 
confederacy  in  the  North  —  formed  of  three  Indian  tribes.^^  Of 
these  the  Aztecs  were  the  leading  tribe  and  gave  name  to  the 
confederacy.  At  the  head  of  the  league  stood  a  sachem,  or 
war-chief,  who  bore  the  name  of  Montezuma. 


11  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  started  on  his  romantic  expedition  in  search  of  the  fabled 
spring  in  15 12;  Vasco  de  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific  in  1513;  Hernando  de  Soto, 
while  searching  for  a  rich  Indian  kingdom,  found  the  Mississippi  in  1541 ;  and  in  the 
same  year  Francisco  de  Orellana  descended  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes  to  the 
Napo,  floated  down  that  stream  to  the  Amazon,  and  then  drifted  on  down  to  the  sea. 

12  Prescott's  description  of  the  Mexican  state,  especially  as  to  its  political  organi- 
zation, is  misleading.    For  later  authorities  see  bibliography  at  end  of  the  chapter. 


S  the  Equator 


EXPLORATIONS   AND    COLONIES 
OF  THE  15TII,  16T1I,AND  ITTII  CENTURIES 

BRITISH  I  1     FRENCH  t 1      DANISH  H"^ 

SPANISH  I  I     PORTt'OIjESEI  I       PUTCH  f  I 

British  and  French  Rival  Claims  I  1 1  \ 


20        Longitude      40        Rast     from      60     Orvenwich       M 


THE  CONQUEST  OF   PERU  287 

The  Aztecs,  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America,  had 
reached  what  is  called  the  "middle  stage  of  barbarism,"  —  a 
stage  of  culture  which  the  Mediterranean  races  had  reached 
and  passed  probably  two  thousand  years  before  Christ.  They 
employed  a  system  of  picture-writing.  Their  religion  was  a  sort 
of  sun  worship.  They  were  cannibals  and  offered  human  victims 
in  their  sacrifices.  They  had  no  knowledge  of  the  horse  or  the 
ox,  or  of  any  other  useful  domesticated  animal  except  the  dog." 
They  cultivated  maize,  but  were  without  wheat,  oats,  or  barley. 
They  held  thair  lands  in  common,  and  lived  in  communal  or 
joint- tenement  houses,  which  were  large  enough  to  accommo- 
date from  ten  to  one  hundred  families.  It  was  these  immense 
structures  which  the  Spanish  writers  described  as  "  palaces  "  and 
"public  edifices."  These  buildings  were,  doubtless,  the- same  in 
plan  as  those  to  be  seen  at  the  present  day  among  the  Pueblo 
Indians  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the  United  States. 

312.  The  Conquest  of  Peru  (1532-1536).  —  Shortly  after  the 
conquest  of  the  Indians  of  Mexico  the  subjugation  of  the  Indians 
of  Peru  was  effected.  The  civilization  of  the  Peruvians  was  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  Mexicans.  It  has  been  compared,  as  to  several 
of  its  elements,  to  that  of  ancient  Assyria.  Not  only  were  the 
great  cities  of  the  empire  filled  with  splendid  temples  and  pal- 
aces, but  throughout  the  country  were  to  be  seen  magnificent 
works  of  public  utility,  such  as  roads,  bridges,  and  aqueducts. 
The  government  of  the  Incas,  the  royal  or  ruling  race,  was  a 
mild,  paternal  autocracy. 

Glowing  reports  of  the  enormous  wealth  of  the  Incas,  the 
commonest  articles  in  whose  palaces,  it  was  asserted,  were  of 
solid  gold,  reached  the  Spaniards  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  and  it  was  not  long  before  an  expedition,  consisting 

18  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  backwardness  in  civilization  of  the  native  races 
of  the  Americas  is  to  be  attributed  in  part  to  their  lack  of  useful  tame  animals.  See 
Fiske,  The  Discovery  of  America,  vol.  i,  p.  27.  The  native  fauna  of  the  New 
World  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Old  is  singularly  poor  in  tamable  species.  Aside 
from  the  llama,  the  alpaca,  and  the  turkey,  the  New  World  has  contributed  nothing 
of  essential  value  to  the  great  store  of  domesticated  stocks  which  constitute  the  basis 
of  so  large  a  part  of  modem  industry. 


288      BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  COLONIZATION 

of  less  than  two  hundred  men,  was  organized  for  the  conquest 
of  the  country.  The  leader  of  the  band  was  Francisco  Pizarro, 
an  iron-hearted,  cruel,  and  illiterate  adventurer. 

Through  treachery  Pizarro  made  a  prisoner  of  the  Inca,  Ata- 
hualpa.  The  captive  offered,  as  a  ransom  for  his  release,  to  fill 
the  room  in  which  he  was  confined  "  as  high  as  he  could  reach  " 
with  vessels  of  gold.  Pizarro  accepted  the  offer,  and  the  palaces 
and  temples  throughout  the  empire  were  stripped  of  their  golden 
vessels,  and  the  apartment  was  filled  with  the  precious  relics.  The 
value  of  the  treasure  is  estimated  at  over  ^15,000,000.  When 
this  vast  wealth  was  once  under  the  control  of  the  Spaniards, 
they  seized  it  all,  and  then  treacherously  put  the  Inca  to  death 
(1533)-  With  the  death  of  Atahualpa  the  power  of  the  Inca 
dynasty  passed  away  forever. 

313.  Beginnings  of  Spanish  Colonization  in  the  New  World.  — 
Not  until  more  than  one  hundred  years  after  the  discovery  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere  by  Columbus  was  there  estabhshed  a 
single  permanent  EngHsh  settlement  within  the  limits  of  what  is 
now  the  United  States;  but  into  those  parts  of  the  new  lands 
opened  up  by  Spanish  exploration  and  conquest  there  began  to 
pour  at  once  a  tremendous  stream  of  Spanish  adventurers  and 
colonists  in  search  of  fortune  and  fame.  Upon  the  West  India 
Islands,  in  Mexico,  in  Central  America,  all  along  the  Pacific  slope 
of  the  Andes,  and  everywhere  upon  the  lofty  and  pleasant  table- 
lands that  had  formed  the  heart  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas,  there 
sprang  up  rapidly  cities  as  centers  of  mining  and  agricultural 
industries,  of  commerce  and  of  trade.  Often,  as  in  the  case  of 
Mexico,  Quito,  and  Cuzco,  these  new  cities  were  simply  the 
renovated  and  rebuilt  towns  of  the  conquered  natives. 

Thus  did  a  Greater  Spain  grow  up  in  the  New  World.  Before 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  dominions  of  the  Spanish 
monarch  in  the  new  lands  formed  of  themselves  a  magnificent 
empire,  and  were  the  source,  chiefly  through  the  wealth  of  their 
gold  and  silver  mines,  of  a  large  revenue  to  the  royal  exchequer. 
It  was,  in  part,  the  treasures  derived  from  these  new  possessions 
that  enabled  the  sovereigns  of  Spain  to  play  the  important  part 


SUGGESTION  TO  TEACHERS  289 

they  did  in  the  affairs  of  Europe  during  the  century  following  the 
discovery  of  America.^* 

Having  thus  indicated  one  source  of  Spanish  greatness  and 
reputation,  it  will  be  one  of  our  aims  in  a  following  chapter  to 
give  some  idea  of  the  way  in  which  this  power  and  prestige  were 
used  by  the  Spanish  sovereigns  in  maintaining  the  supremacy  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  the  interests  of  Spain. 


Suggestion  to  Teachers  —  Comparative  Study 

In  no  way,  we  think,  will  the  teacher  be  able  to  give  his  pupils  so 
clear  an  idea  of  the  character  of  the  sixteenth  century  as  by  having 
them  make  a  comparative  study  of  that  century  and  the  nineteenth. 
The  striking  parallels  which  they  will  discover  between  the  two 
periods  will  be  sure  to  suggest  to  them  that  "the  wonderful  nine- 
teenth century,"  as  it  is  called  by  Alfred  Russel  Wallace,  like  the 
sixteenth,  may  be  a  transition  period,  a  period  which  will  be  regarded 
by  the  future  historian  as  we  regard  the  sixteenth,  —  as  the  beginning 
of  a  new  age  in  history.  Having  gained  this  viewpoint,  they  will  see 
all  the  events,  movements,  and  enterprises  of  the  earlier  period  under 

14  After  having  robbed  the  Indians  of  their  wealth  in  gold  and  silver,  the  slow 
accumulations  of  centuries,  the  Spaniards  further  enriched  themselves  by  the  enforced 
labor  of  the  unfortunate  natives.  Unused  to  such  toil  as  was  exacted  of  them  under 
the  lash  of  worse  than  Egyptian  taskmasters,  the  Indians  wasted  away  by  millions 
in  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  upon  the  sugar  plantations  of  the  West  Indies. 
More  than  half  of  the  native  population  of  Peru  is  thought  to  have  been  consumed 
in  the  Peruvian  mines.  "  During  fifty  years,"  says  a  recent  writer,  "  the  Spaniards 
uniformly  conquered  and  enslaved  [the  natives] ;  put  them  to  forced  labour,  to  which 
they  were  physically  unequal;  and  on  the  least  resistance  or  other  provocation, 
massacred  them  in  great  numbers.  One  estimate  says  that  in  these  years  40,000,000 
of  the  native  Americans  perished  by  violence :  the  lowest  nukes  the  number  10,000,- 
000 ;  and  it  is  to  be  feared  the  former  is  nearer  the  truth.  It  is  certain  that  the  islands 
of  the  West  Indies  once  contained  nearly  6,000,000  of  a  race  now  quite  extinct ; 
and  that  in  Hayti  alone  they  sank,  in  fifteen  years,  from  1,000,000  to  60,000,  and,  in 
fifty  years,  to  200"  (Payne,  European  Colonies,  pp.  89,  90).  As  a  substitute  for 
native  labor,  negroes  were  introduced.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  African  slave 
trade  in  the  New  World.  At  the  outset  the  traffic  was  approved  by  a  benevolent 
bishop  named  Las  Casas  (1474-1566),  known  as  the  "  Apostle  of  the  Indians."  Before 
his  death,  however,  I^s  Casas  came  to  recognize  the  wickedness  of  negro  as  well  as 
of  Indian  slavery,  and  to  regret  that  he  had  ever  expressed  approval  of  the  plan  of 
substituting  one  for  the  other.  See  Fiske,  The  Discovery  of  America,  vol.  ii,  pp. 
454-458. 


290      BEGINNINGS  OF   MODERN   COLONIZATION 

a  familiar  light.    The  following  will  suggest  in  what  realms  parallels 
may  be  sought : 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

The  New  Learning.  Great  intellec- 
tual activity. 

The  Reformation.  Revision  of  creeds. 
Relation  of  the  religious  move- 
ment to  the  Renaissance. 


c.  The  unification  of  great  nations, — 

England,  France,  Spain. 

d.  The  expansion  of  Europe;  the  par- 

tition of  the  New  World  and  of 
Southern  Asia.  The  formation  of 
colonial  empires,  —  Portuguese, 
Spanish,  Dutch,  French,  and  Eng- 
lish. 

e.  Great  geographical    and    astronom- 

ical discoveries  (Columbus,  Coper- 
nicus), which  reveal  the  universe 
as  infinite  in  sface.  Man's  concep- 
tions concerning  the  earth  and  its 
place  in  the  universe  revolution- 
ized. 

/.  Great  inventions,  now  first  hit  upon  or 
brought  into  general  use,  —  print- 
ing, gunpowder,  and  the  mariner's 
compass.  Political,  social,  and 
economic  revolutions  caused  or 
promoted  by  them. 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

The  New  Sciences,  Great  intellectual 
activity. 

The  New  Theology.  Revision  of 
creeds.  Relation  of  this  movement 
to  the  birth  of  the  new  scientific 
spirit. 

The  unification  of  great  nations, — 
Germany,  Italy. 

The  expansion  of  Europe;  the  par- 
tition of  Africa  and  of  Oceania. 
The  formation  of  new  colonial 
empires,  —  EngUsh,  French,  Ger- 
man, Belgian,  and  American. 

Great  geological  and  biological  dis- 
coveries (^Evolution  —  Lyell,  Dar- 
win), which  reveal  the  universe  as 
infinite  in  time.  Man's  conceptions 
as  to  his  origin  and  his  place  in 
the  plan  of  creation  revolutionized. 

Great  inventions,  —  the  steam  rail- 
way, the  ocean  steamship,  the  elec- 
tric telegraph,  electric  motor,  etc. 
Pohtical,  social,  and  economic  revo- 
lutions caused  or  furthered  by  their 
introduction. 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Cathay  and  the  Way  Thither  (ed.  by 
Colonel  Yule).  The  student  here  learns  with  what  knowledge  of  Eastern 
Asia  Columbus  and  the  others  set  out,  and  what  they  expected  to  find. 
The  Journal  of  Christopher  Columbus  (Hakluyt  Society  publications).  Old 
South  Leaflets,  Nos.  29,  31-36,  39,  71,  89,  90,  102.  The  First  Three  Eng- 
lish Books  on  America  (ed.  by  Edward  Arber).  This  work  possesses  a  special 
fascination.  "  One  is  able  therein,"  as  says  the  editor,  "  to  look  out  on  the 
New  World  as  its  discoverers  and  first  explorers  looked  upon  it." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Keane,  The  Evolution  of  Geography,  chaps,  v-viii. 
Beazley,  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator.  There  are  numerous  lives  of  Colum- 
bus: WiNSOR's,  Irving's,  C,  K.  Adams',  and  Markham's  can  be  recom- 
mended. GuiLLEMARD,  The  Life  of  Ferdinand  Magellan.  FiSKE,  The 
Discovery  of  America.   There  is  not  a  chapter  here  that  will  fail  to  interest 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  291 

and  charm  young  readers.  The  Cambridge  Modern  History^  vol.  i,  chap,  i, 
"The  Age  of  Discovery";  and  chap,  ii,  "The  New  World."  Bourne, 
Essays  in  Historical  Criticism^  Essay  No.  6,  "Prince  Henry  the  Naviga- 
tor," and  Essay  No.  7,  "  The  Demarcation  Line  of  Pope  Alexander  VI." 
Prescott,  Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Conquest  of  Peru  ;  should  be  read  in 
connection  with  later  works.  Stephens,  Albuquerque.  Payne,  History 
of  the  New  World  called  America^  vol.  i,  pp.  303-364;  for  the  relation  of  the 
aboriginal  civilizations  of  the  Americans  to  their  animal  and  plant  life. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. —  i.  Copernicus  and  the  slow  acceptance 
of  his  theory.  See  A.  D.  White,  A  History  of  the  Warfare  of  Science 
and  Theology,  vol.  i,  chap.  iii.  2.  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator.  3.  The 
legend  of  Prester  John.  4.  The  Naming  of  America.  See  article  by  Pro- 
fessor E.  G.  Bourne,  in  The  American  Historical  Review  for  October,  1904. 
5.  Civilization  of  the  Aztecs.     6.  Civilization  of  the  Peruvians. 


CHAPTER   XX 
THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  REFORMATION 

314.  Introductory  Statement.  —  When  the  Modern  Age  opened 
the  European  peoples  were  on  the  eve  of  a  great  rehgious  revolu- 
tion. This  was  a  dual  movement.  It  was  an  insurrection  against 
the  Papacy,  resulting  in  the  severance  by  half  the  nations  of 
Europe  of  the  bonds  which  throughout  the  mediaeval  time  had 
united  them  to  the  ecclesiastical  empire  of  the  Roman  pontiffs. 
Since  the  secession  movement  was  successful,  it  is  rightly  called 
a  revolution,  —  the  Protestant  Revolution. 

But  the  movement  was  something  more  than  a  successful 
rebellion  against  ecclesiastical  authority.  It  was,  as  we  shall 
learn,  caused  in  large  part  by  the  existence  of  certain  evils  and 
abuses  in  the  Church,  and  resulted  in  a  great  renovation  of  the 
religious  and  moral  life  of  Western  Christendom.  Hence  it  is 
properly  spoken  of  as  a  reform,  —  as  the  Reformation. 

That  the  movement  was  a  dual  one  should  be  carefully  noted, 
for  it  is  only  when  regarded  from  both  the  indicated  points  of 
view  that  its  complex  phenomena  can  be  intelligently  observed 
and  rightly  interpreted.  In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  speak  of 
the  causes  and  the  beginnings  of  the  revolution ;  in  succeeding 
chapters  we  shall  follow  the  vicissitudes  of  its  fortunes  in  the 
principal  countries  of  Northern  Europe. 

315.  Causes  of  the  Reformation Our  first  endeavor  must  be 

to  get  some  sort  of  comprehension  of  what  caused  the  northern 
nations  of  Europe  first  to  become  dissatisfied  with  the  state  of 
things  ecclesiastical  and  religious,  and  then  to  secede  from  the 
ancient  Church.    There  were  various  causes. 

One  cause  was  the  Renaissance,  that  great  intellectual  awaken- 
ing which  marked  the  close  of  the  mediaeval  and  the  opening  of 

292 


CAUSES   OF  THE  REFORMATION  293 

the  modem  epoch.  As  we  have  already  learned,  the  revival  of 
the  liberal  culture  of  classical  antiquity  evoked  a  critical,  self- 
reliant  spirit  which  was  profoundly  antagonistic  to  the  whole 
mediaeval  system  of  ideas  and  practices.  We  shall  see  in  a  moment 
how  it  was  the  antagonism  which  developed  between  the  pro- 
moters of  the  New  Learning  and  the  upholders  of  the  scholastic 
theology  that  helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  great  schism. 

A  second  cause  of  the  revolution  was  the  existence  in  the 
Church  of  most  serious  scandals  and  abuses.  Religion  instead  of 
being  a  thing  of  the  heart  had  become,  in  a  lamentable  degree, 
merely  a  matter  of  ceremonies  and  outer  observances.  In  prac- 
tice, if  not  in  theory,  with  many  religion  was  regarded  as  one 
thing  and  morality  as  quite  another.  The  necessity  of  the  amend- 
ment of  this  state  of  things,  of  the  thorough  reform  of  the  Church 
in  both  "  head  and  members,"  was  recognized  by  all  earnest  and 
spiritually  minded  men.  The  only  difference  of  opinion  among 
such  was  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  work  of  renovation  should 
be  effected,  whether  from  within  or  from  without,  by  reform  or 
by  revolution. 

A  third  cause  was  jealousy  of  the  Papacy  on  the  part  of  the 
temporal  princes,  and  the  clash  of  papal  claims  with  the  rising 
sentiment  of  national  patriotism.  It  is  true  that  the  claims  to 
temporal  supremacy  put  forward  by  some  of  the  mediaeval  popes 
were  no  longer  maintained ;  still  there  remained  a  very  large  field 
embracing  matters  such  as  appointment  or  nomination  to  Church 
offices,  the  taxation  of  the  clergy  and  of  Church  property,  ques- 
tions concerning  marriages,  wills,  and  so  on,  which  the  popes  as 
the  guardians  of  religion  claimed  the  right  to  regulate  or  to  review. 
Thus  the  nations  were  really  very  far  from  being  independent. 
As  respects  many  matters  which  we  now  regard  as  attaching  to 
national  sovereignty,  they  were  virtually  provinces  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical world-empire  centered  at  Rome. 

The  situation  might  be  illustrated  by  a  comparison  with  that 
in  a  federal  commonwealth  like  our  own.  Just  as  in  our  Union 
every  person  owes  allegiance  to  two  authorities,  that  of  his  State 
and  that  of  the  Federal  Government,  so  in  mediaeval  times  every 


294  BEGINNINGS   OF  THE   REFORMATION 

person  owed  allegiance  to  two  authorities,  —  to  his  own  king  and 
to  the  Roman  pontiff.  And  as  before  our  Civil  War  it  was  often 
difficult  for  one  to  determine  whether  his  first  duty  was  to  his 
own  State  or  to  the  Federal  Government,  so  before  the  Protestant 
Revolution  it  was  often  difficult  for  one  to  decide  to  which  he 
owed  superior  allegiance,  —  to  his  own  prince  or  to  the  Pope.  As 
regards  the  monks  and  the  other  clergy,  the  question  was  apt 
to  be  decided  in  favor  of  the  papal  see,  for  they  were  prone  to 
regard  themselves  as  subjects  of  the  Pope  rather  than  as  subjects 
of  the  king  under  whose  rule  they  lived. 

But  it  was  at  the  point  where  the  papal  supremacy  interfered 
with  the  financial  interests  of  the  lay  governments  that  the  most 
friction  and  trouble  developed.  As  head  of  the  Church  the  popes 
were  drawing  an  immense  revenue  from  every  state  embraced 
within  the  ecclesiastical  empire.  A  large  part  of  the  landed  prop- 
erty of  Europe  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Church,  and  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  vast  revenues  derived  from  it  was,  in  the  form 
of  annates  and  contributions  of  the  clergy,  drawn  into  the  Roman 
treasury.  Furthermore,  through  the  system  of  papal  indulgences 
(sec.  320)  vast  additional  sums  were  collected  for  papal  use  in  all 
the  different  countries.  In  some  countries  the  direct  and  indirect 
contributions  of  the  people  to  the  papal  see  probably  exceeded 
the  taxes  which  they  paid  to  their  own  government.  Moreover, 
it  was  a  matter  of  notoriety  that  the  immense  sums  drawn  to  Rome 
were  not  always  used  in  the  promotion  of  religious  objects,  but, 
in  the  hands  of  unworthy  pontiffs,  like  Alexander  VI,  were  used 
to  further  personal  ambitions  or  to  promote  the  pohtical  fortunes 
of  the  Papacy. 

This  state  of  things  culminating  just  at  the  time  when  the 
sentiment  of  nationality  was  awakening  in  several  of  the  different 
countries,  and  just  when  the  secular  governments,  growing  stronger, 
were  assuming  new  functions  and  were  requiring  larger  revenues 
for  the  maintenance  of  their  standing  armies  and  for  other  public 
purposes,  it  was  inevitable  that  among  the  civil  rulers  the  situation 
should  come  to  be  regarded  with  feelings  of  ill-will  and  impatience. 
It  is  doubtless  true  that  in  several  of  the  northern  countries  it 


THE   OXFORD   HUMANIST   REFORMERS         295 

was  this  condition  of  things  which  had  more  to  do  in  bringing 
about  the  secession  from  Rome  than  had  the  desire  of  religious 
freedom  or  of  moral  reform. 

The  circumstances  marking  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution, 
which  we  shall  now  proceed  to  consider,  will  afford  a  commentary 
on  this  brief  statement  of  the  causes  which  produced  it. 

316.  The  Northern  Humanists  as  Precursors  of  the  Reformation. 
—  In  our  study  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  we  noted  how  the 
revival,  which  in  Italy  had  been  in  its  essence  a  restoration  of 
classical  literature  and  culture,  on  crossing  the  Alps  became 
equally  a  restoration  of  Hebrew-Christian  antiquity,  and  thus  also 
became  one  of  the  deepest  lying  causes  of  the  Protestant  Revolu- 
tion (sec.  301).  This  relation  of  humanism  to  the  Reformation 
will  best  be  revealed  by  the  presentation  of  a  few  facts  illustrative 
of  the  spirit  and  aims  of  the  humanists  of  the  North. 

.317.  The  Oxford  Humanist  Reformers. — One  of  the  earliest 
centers  of  humanism  in  the  North  was  Oxford  in  England.  Here 
we  find,  just  as  the  old  age  was  merging  into  the  new,  a  celebrated 
group  of  humanists.  Among  them  three  men,  Colet,  Erasmus, 
and  More,  stand  preeminent  as  promoters  of  the  New  Learning. 

John  Colet  (1466-1519)  was  leader  and  master  of  the  little 
band.  His  generous  enthusiasm  was  kindled  in  Italy.  It  was  an 
important  event  in  the  history  of  the  Reformation  when  Colet 
crossed  the  Alps  to  learn  Greek  at  the  feet  of  the  Greek  exiles ; 
for  on  his  return  to  England  he  brought  back  with  him  not 
only  an  increased  love  for  the  classical  learning  but  a  fervent  zeal 
for  religious  reform,  inspired,  perhaps,  by  the  stirring  eloquence 
of  Savonarola.  His  lectures  at  Oxford  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  are 
said  to  have  seemed  to  his  listeners  almost  like  a  new  revela- 
tion. The  great  influence  of  Colet  upon  the  world  was  exerted 
for  the  most  part  indirectly,  —  through  Erasmus  and  More,  his 
disciples  and  fellow-workers. 

Desiderius  Erasmus  (i467?-i536)  of  Rotterdam  went  to  Eng- 
land to  learn  Greek.  There  he  came  into  close  friendship  with 
Colet,  More,  and  other  lovers  of  learning,  with  whom  he  declared 
he  could  have  been  happy  in  Scythia.    He  was  the  leader  of  the 


296 


BEGINNINGS    OF   THE   REFORMATION 


humanistic  movement  in  the  North,  as  Petrarch  was  the  father 
of  the  movement  in  the  South.  His  celebrated  satire  entitled 
MoricB  Encomium,  or  "Praise  of  Folly"  (1509),  was  directed 
against  the  foibles  of  all  classes  of  society,  but  particularly  against 
the  sins  of  "  unholy  men  in  holy  orders."  A  little  later  (in  15 16) 
Erasmus  published  his  Novum  Instrumentum,  the  Greek  text  of 

the  New  Testament 
with  a  Latin  version. 
These  publications 
must  be  given  a 
prominent  place 
among  the  agencies 
which  prepared  the 
minds  and  hearts  of 
the  northern  peo- 
ples for  the  Refor- 
mation. 

Thomas    More 

(14 7  8-1  5  3 5)  was 
declared  by  Colet 
to  be  the  sole  gen- 
ius in  all  England. 
He  was  a  man  with 
whom  men  were 
said  to  "fall  in 
love."  As  the 
author  of  Utopia  he  is,  perhaps,  after  Erasmus,  the  best  known 
of  all  the  humanists  of  the  North.  His  work,  while  closely  associ- 
ated with  the  religious  and  social  history  of  the  Reformation  period 
in  England,  had  less  significance  than  that  of  either  Colet  or 
Erasmus  for  the  reform  movement  at  large,  and  it  is  in  connec- 
tion with  Enghsh  history  that  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to 
it  again  (sec.  377). 

Than  this  early  Oxford  movement,  nothing  better  illustrates 
the  relation  of  the  humanistic  revival  in  the  North  to  the  religious 
reform.    Here  the  humanist  was  the  reformer.    But  the  Oxford 


Fig.  56. 


Erasmus.    (After  a  painting  by 
Holbein) 


GERMAN   HUMANISM  297 

reformers,  it  should  be  carefully  noted,  were  not  Protestant  reform- 
ers. They  believed  in  the  divine  character  of  the  papal  supremacy. 
They  wished  indeed  to  reform  the  Papacy,  but  not  to  destroy  it. 
They  did  not  wish  to  see  the  mediaeval  unity  of  Christendom 
broken.  They  had  no  quarrel  with  the  creed  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Erasmus  denounced  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  and  More 
died  a  martyr's  death  rather  than  deny  the  papal  supremacy. 

318.  The  German  Humanists;  John  Reuchlin.  —  Even  before 
the  influence  of  the  Italian  humanistic  revival  had  begun  to  make 
itself  felt  in  Germany,  there  had  already  sprung  up  in  that  coun- 
try a  movement,  primarily  intellectual,  which  owed  little  or  noth- 
ing to  that  which  at  the  same  time  was  running  its  course  in  the 
southern  land.  This  movement  in  its  earlier  stages  was  repre- 
sented by  an  association  known  as  the  "  Brethren  of  the  Common 
Life."  The  members  of  this  union  founded  schools  and  labored 
to  render  the  education  of  youth  practical  and  conducive  to  true 
piety.  In  these  schools  were  nurtured  some  of  the  best  scholars 
and  best  men  of  the  time.^ 

Before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  this  native  movement, 
coming  in  contact  with  Italian  humanism,  received  a  great 
impulse  therefrom,  and  developed  rapidly  and  spread  widely. 
The  printing  press  poured  out  a  flood  of  books.  New  universities 
were  founded  and  became  propagating  centers  of  the  liberal  cul- 
ture of  the  Renaissance.  As  was  inevitable  a  conflict  straightway 
sprang  up  between  the  monastic  theologians,  who  were  the  cham- 
pions of  the  old  Scholasticism,  and  the  promoters  of  the  New 
Learning.  It  was  the  first  phase  in  modern  times  of  the  age-long 
warfare  between  Theology  and  Science. 

The  first  blows  exchanged  by  the  two  parties  were  given  in  a 
controversy  in  which  the  real  principle  involved  was  the  freedom 
of  scholars  in  their  investigations  and  the  limits  of  theological 
authority  in  matters  of  scholarship.    The  war  raged  around  the 

1  Three  of  the  most  eminent  representatives  of  this  early  German  revival  were 
Thomas  i  Kempis  (d.  1471),  the  reputed  author  of  The  Imitation  of  Christ ;  Jacob 
Wimpheling(i45o-i528);  and  Sebastian  limnt  (1458-1521),  who  in  his  poem  Narren- 
schiff^  or  "  Ship  of  Fools,"  satirized  with  keenest  wit  evils  in  both  State  and  Church. 


298  BEGINNINGS   OF  THE   REFORMATION 

person  of  the  eminent  humanist  John  Reuchlin  (145  5-15  2  2),  the 
same  whom  we  have  seen  in  the  closing  years  of  the  fifteenth 
century  trudging  over  the  Alps  in  order  to  study  Greek  at  the 
feet  of  the  Italian  masters  (sec.  291). 

Hostilities  had  arisen  in  this  way.  It  had  been  proposed  by 
haters  of  the  Jews  that  their  books  should  be  taken  from  them 
and  burned,  on  the  ground  that  these  works  were  unfriendly  to 
Christianity.  Reuchlin,  who  was  the  best  Hebrew  scholar  of  his 
time,  was  asked,  by  the  authorities  before  whom  the  matter  had 
been  brought,  for  his  opinion  on  the  proposal.  He  advised 
against  it,  and  embraced  the  opportunity  to  say  that  much  of  the 
Jewish  literature  might  be  read  by  Christians  with  great  advan- 
tage to  themselves.  This  caused  Reuchlin  to  be  bitterly  attacked 
by  the  clerical  party.  The  theological  faculties  of  many  of  the 
German  universities  and  that  of  the  University  of  Paris  con- 
demned his  views,  while  the  humanists,  among  others  Erasmus, 
sent  him  letters  of  approval  and  encouragement.  Some  of  these 
Reuchlin  published  under  the  title  of  Epistolcd  Clarorum 
Virorum,  or  "Letters  from  Illustrious  Men." 

The  appearance  of  this  collection  suggested  to  some  of 
Reuchlin's  friends  —  the  celebrated  humanist  and  picturesque 
knight  poet,  Ulrich  von  Hutten  (1488-1523),  was  among  them 
— the  putting  out  of  a  work  bearing  the  title  Epistolce  Obscuro- 
rum  Vh'orum,  or  "Letters  of  Obscure  Men"  (15 15-15 17).  Jhis 
was  a  series  of  fictitious  letters,  written  in  "  choicest  bad  Latin  " 
and  crowded  with  all  sorts  of  absurdities,  in  which  the  party 
opposed  to  Reuchlin  were  made  the  subjects  of  rollicking  satire 
and  merciless  ridicule.  To  the  humanists  it  was  "capital  fun,"  as 
More  wrote  to  Erasmus. 

319.  The  Humanistic  Movement  becomes  a  Religious  Reform. 
—  The  attacks  of  the  humanists  on  the  theologians  had  been 
inspired  primarily  not  so  much  by  religious  feeling  or  moral  indig- 
nation as  by  a  love  of  sound  scholarship  and  contempt  for  the 
ignorance  and  pedantry  of  the  opposers  of  the  New  Learning. 

The  controversy  now  assumed  a  more  serious  phase.  It  took  on 
the  character  of  a  religious  debate,  became  a  matter  of  conscience, 


INDULGENCES;   PURGATORY;   JUBILEES        299 

also  became  mixed  with  political  matters,  and  then  finally  devel- 
oped into  open  war  between  the  two  parties.  The  simple  narration 
of  events  as  they  unfolded  in  Germany  will  best  convey  an  idea 
of  how  circumstances,  and  the  appearance  of  a  great  man  with 
deep  convictions  and  violent  passions,  gave  this  new  trend  to  the 
historic  movement. 

320.  Indulgences  ;  Purgatory ;  Jubilees.  —  Since  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  debate  in  its  new  form  was  papal  indulgences,  a 
word  concerning  these  will  here  be  necessary  to  render  intelligible 
the  opening  episodes  of  the  great  revolution. 

An  indulgence,  as  understood  and  defined  by  German  theo- 
logians of  Luther's  time,  was  the  remission  of  that  temporal  pun- 
ishment which  often  remains  due  on  account  of  sin  after  its  guilt 
has  been  forgiven.^  It  was  granted  on  the  performance  of  some 
work  of  piety,  charity,  or  mercy,  which  often  included  an  alms  to 
the  poor  or  a  gift  of  money  to  promote  some  good  work,  and 
took  effect  only  upon  certain  conditions,  among  which  was  that 
of  confession  of  sin  and  sincere  repentance. 

Since  much  of  the  opposition  to  indulgences  arose  from  their 
application  to  souls  in  purgatory  and  to  abuses  arising  in  this 
connection,  a  word  of  explanation  is  here  also  necessary. 

According  to  Catholic  teaching,  the  other  world  embraces  three 
regions,  —  hell,  purgatory,  and  heaven.  This  belief  is  embodied 
in  the  great  poem  of  the  mediaeval  ages,  Dante's  Divine  Comedy. 
Purgatory  is  a  place  or  state  intermediate  between  heaven  and 
hell,  where  souls  destined  for  eternal  bliss  are  cleansed  through 
suifering.  This  belief  in  an  intermediate  place  of  punishment 
came  to  be  of  historical  significance  because,  according  to  Catholic 

2  The  following  is  the  definition  given  by  Johann  von  Paltz,  a  contemporary  of 
Luther,  in  his  authoritative  treatise  on  indulgences  (Caelifodina,  ed.  of  151 1) :  Indul- 
gentia  est  remissio  poena  temporalis  debitce  peccatis  actualibus  pcenitentium  non 
remissce  in  absolutione  sacramentali :  facta  a  prcelato  ecclesice  rationabiliter  et  ex 
rationabili  causa :  per  recompensationem  de  poena  indebita  justorum.  "  An  indul- 
gence is  a  remission  of  that  temporal  penalty  deserved  by  the  actual  sins  of  peni- 
tents which  has  not  been  remitted  in  sacramental  absolution,  —  a  remission  granted 
by  a  prelate  of  the  Church,  in  rational  manner  and  for  rational  cause,  on  the  ground 
of  the  penalty  already  paid  by  the  undeserved  punishment  of  the  just."  By  "  tem- 
poral "  punishment  is  meant  penances  imposed  by  the  Church  and  the  temporary 
pains  of  purgatory,  as  opposed  to  the  eternal  punishment  of  hell. 


300  BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   REFORMATION 

doctrine,  souls  in  this  place  of  purification  can  be  helped  and 
their  probation  shortened  by  the  prayers  and  good  works  of  their 
surviving  friends  in  their  behalf.  Thus  Dante  on  the  terraces  of 
the  Mount  of  Purification  met  spirits  who  told  him  that  their 
allotted  time  of  suffering  had  been  shortened  by  the  mediatorial 
prayers  of  their  friends.  The  vast  endowments  of  the  mediaeval 
monasteries  were  in  large  part  given  that  Masses  might  be  said  for 
the  repose  of  the  souls  of  the  donors.  And  not  only  were  interces- 
sory prayers  counted  capable  of  releasing  souls  from  purgatory, 
but  the  indulgence  was  deemed  valid  also  for  the  dead  as  well  as 
for  the  living. 

Before  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  indulgences  had  been  fre- 
quently granted  by  various  pontiffs,  with  different  objects  in  view. 
Thus  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades  plenary  ^  indulgences  were  offered 
to  all  who  assumed  the  cross.  Indulgences  were  also  often  resorted 
to  as  a  means  of  raising  money  for  the  construction  and  mainte- 
nance of  churches,  convents,  and  bridges,  and  for  the  promotion 
of  other  local  undertakings.  A  great  part  of  the  money  for  the 
building  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  was  obtained  in  this  manner. 

During  the  later  mediaeval  period  the  system  received  a  vast 
extension  through  the  use  of  the  indulgence  to  draw  pilgrims  to 
Rome.  In  the  year  1300  Pope  Boniface  VIII  proclaimed  a 
jubilee,  which  was  to  be  celebrated  thereafter  every  hundredth 
year,  and  offered  plenary  indulgence  to  all  who,  during  the  year, 
should,  in  the'  proper  spirit,  visit  the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  in  Rome.  The  crowds  drawn  to  the  capital  by  this 
inducement  exceed  belief.  It  seemed  as  though  all  Christendom 
were  thronging  into  the  Holy  City.  In  following  times  the 
interval  between  one  jubilee  and  the  next  was  successively 
shortened  until  the  term  was  reduced  to  twenty-five  years.  These 
recurring  jubilees  form  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  later  Middle  Ages.  By  multiplying  the  offer- 
ings of  the  faithful  they  brought  vast  sums  into  the  papal  treasury, 
and  thus  greatly  enhanced  the  power  and  influence  of  the  holy  see. 

3  A  plenary  or  full  indulgence  remits  to  a  penitent  the  whole  of  the  temporal  pun- 
ishment to  which  he  is  liable  at  the  time  of  receiving  the  remission. 


TETZEL  AND   PREACHING  OF  INDULGENCES      301 

321.  Tetzel  and  the  Preaching  of  Indulgences.  —  Leo  X,  upon 
his  election  to  the  papal  dignity  in  15 13,  found  the  coffers  of  the 
Church  almost  empty,  and  being  in  pressing  need  of  money  to 
carry  on  his  various  undertakings,  among  which  was  work  upon 
St.  Peter's,  he  had  recourse  to  the  now  common  expedient  of  a 
grant  of  indulgences.  He  delegated  the  power  of  dispensing 
these  in  a  great  part  of  Germany  to  Archbishop  Albert  of  Mainz. 
As  his  deputy,  Albert  employed  a  Dominican  friar  by  the  name 
of  John  Tetzel. 

The  archbishop  was  unfortunate  in  the  selection  of  his  agent. 
Tetzel  carried  out  his  commission  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  rise  to 
a  great  scandal.  The  language  that  he  and  his  subordinates  used 
in  exhorting  the  people  to  comply  with  the  conditions  of  gaining 
the  indulgences  —  one  of  which  was  a  donation  of  money  —  was 
unseemly  and  exaggerated. 

The  result  was  that  erroneous  views  as  to  the  effect  of  indul- 
gences began  to  spread  among  the  ignorant  and  credulous,  many 
being  so  far  misled  as  to  think  that  if  they  only  contributed  this 
money  to  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  they  would  be 
exempt  from  all  penalty  for  sins,  paying  little  heed  to  the  other 
conditions,  such  as  sorrow  for  sin  and  purpose  of  amendment. 
Hence  serious  persons  were  led  to  declaim  against  the  procedure 
of  the  zealous  friar.  These  protests  were  the  near  mutterings  of 
a  storm  that  had  long  been  gathering,  and  that  was  soon  to  shake 
all  Europe  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Mediterranean. 

322.  Martin  Luther;  his  Pilgrimage  to  Rome.  —  Foremost 
among  those  who  opposed  and  denounced  the  methods  used  by 
Tetzel  was  Martin  Luther,  an  Augustinian  monk  and  teacher  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg.  This  great  reformer 
was  bom  in  Saxony  in  1483.  He  was  of  humble  parentage,  his 
father  being  a  poor  miner.  Just  as  a  career  planned  by  his  father 
in  the  profession  of  the  law  was  opening  before  him,  he  suddenly 
turned  his  back  upon  the  world  and  entered  a  convent. 

Before  Tetzel  appeared  in  Germany,  Luther  had  already  earned 
a  wide  reputation  for  learning  and  piety.  A  few  years  before  this 
(in  15 11)  he  had  made,  in  the  interest  of  his  order,  a  memorable 


302 


BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   REFORMATION 


journey  to  Rome.  His  reverence  for  Rome  and  the  Pope  was 
at  that  time  unimpaired.  Rome  was  in  his  eyes  as  sacred  as  Jeru- 
salem.   The  Pope  he  regarded  as  God's  representative  on  earth. 

He  had  no  doubts  about 
purgatory ;  he  was  al- 
most sorry  that  his 
parents  were  not  dead 
that  he  might,  at  the 
holy  places  in  Rome, 
pray  their  souls  out  of 
that  place  of  suffering. 
But  the  simple  Ger- 
man monk  saw  things  at 
Rome  which  gave  his 
reverence  a  rude  shock. 
He  had  expected  to  see 
every  one  "  awed  in  per- 
petual reverence  by  the 
holy  atmosphere  of  the 
place."  Instead,  he 
found  luxury  and  skep- 
ticism,—  often  open 
profligacy  and  irrever- 
ence for  holy  things. 
All  this  produced  a 
deep  impression  upon 
the  serious-minded  monk.  The  seed  had  been  sown  which  was 
destined  to  yield  a  great  harvest. 

323.  The  Ninety-Five  Theses  (15 17). —  It  was  six  years  after 
Luther's  visit  to  Rome  when  Tetzel  began  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Wittenberg,  where  Luther  was,  the  preaching  of  indulgences 
in  the  scandalous  manner  to  which  we  have  just  alluded.  The 
people  were  running  in  great  crowds  after  the  preacher  of  indul- 
gences. Luther  was  greatly  distressed.  Not  being  able  to  get  any 
one  in  authority  to  intervene  to  put  a  stop  to  the  scandal,  he 
resolved  to  take  hold  of  the  matter  himself.    Accordingly  he  drew 


Fig.  57.  —  Martin  Luther.  (After  the 
portrait  by  Lucas  Cranach,  the  elder; 
Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence) 


LUTHER'S  ADDRESS  303 

up  ninety-five  theses  bearing  on  indulgences,  and  nailed  them 
upon  the  door  of  the  castle  church  at  Wittenberg.  It  was  a  cus- 
tom of  those  times  for  a  scholar  thus  to  post  propositions  which 
he  was  willing  to  maintain  against  any  and  all  comers.  An  exam- 
ination of  the  theses  shows  that  Luther  at  this  time  still  held  the 
generally  accepted  view  both  as  to  purgatory  and  the  validity  of 
indulgences,  and  that  his  protest  was  aimed  only  at  abuses. 

By  means  of  the  press  the  theses  were  spread  broadcast.  They 
were  eagerly  read  and  commented  upon  by  all  classes,  particularly 
in  Germany.  Tetzel  issued  counter-propositions.  Learned  theo- 
logians* entered  the  lists  against  the  presumptuous  monk.  The 
air  was  thick  with  controversial  leaflets.  At  first  Pope  Leo  had 
been  inclined  to  make  light  of  the  whole  matter,  declaring  that 
it  was  "a  mere  squabble  of  monks,"  but  at  length  he  felt  con- 
strained to  take  decisive  measures  against  Luther.  The  monk 
was  to  be  silenced  by  means  of  a  papal  bull. 

324.  Luther's  "Address  to  the  Christian  Nobility  of  the  German 
Nation"  (July,  1520).  —  Luther  heard  that  the  bull  was  soon  to 
be  launched  against  him.  He  anticipated  its  arrival  by  the  issu- 
ance to  the  German  nobility  of  a  remarkable  address,  which  has 
been  called  "The  Manifesto  of  the  Reformation."  This  was 
beyond  question  the  most  significant  historically  of  all  the  pro- 
ductions of  this  age  of  theses  and  counter-theses,  of  bulls  and 
bans,  of  manifestoes  and  appeals.  It  was  practically  a  German 
declaration  of  independence  of  Rome. 

Luther  demanded,  among  other  things,  that  payment  to  the 
Pope  of  annates^  should  be  forbidden  by  the  princes,  nobles, 

*  Prominent  among  these  disputants  were  Cardinal  Cajetan  (1469-1534)  and  John 
Eck  (1486-1543). 

6  Annates,  or  first  fruits,  were  the  first  year's  revenue,  or  some  portion  of  the  first 
year's  revenue,  of  a  benefice  paid  to  the  Pope  by  a  bishop,  abbot,  or  other  ecclesiastic 
for  the  papal  confirmation  in  his  office.  This  was  a  most  important  source  of  reve- 
nue to  the  Roman  court.  The  temporal  princes  naturally  regarded  these  payments 
by  their  subjects  to  the  Pope  with  great  jealousy,  since  in  this  way  immense  sums 
of  money  passed  out  of  their  dominions  and  into  the  Roman  treasury.  Consequently 
this  subject  of  annates  was  a  source  of  endless  disagreement  and  controversy  between 
the  civil  governments  of  Europe  and  the  Papacy.  In  England  the  prohibition  of  the 
payment  of  first  fruits  to  the  Pope  was  one  of  the  earliest  steps  taken  in  the  separa- 
tion from  Rome.   See  sec.  370. 


304  BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   REFORMATION 

and  cities,  or  that  they  should  be  wholly  abolished ;  that  "  no 
episcopal  cloak  and  no  confirmation  of  an  appointment  should 
be  obtained  from  Rome  " ;  that  the  Pope  should  have  no  power 
whatever  over  the  Emperor,  ^'  save  to  anoint  and  crown  him  at 
the  altar";  and  that  the  secular  clergy  should  be  free  to  marry 
or  not  to  marry.^ 

325.  Luther  burns  the  Papal  Bull  (Dec.  10,  1520).  —  At  length 
a  copy  of  the  papal  bull  came  into  Luther's  hands.  Forty-one 
propositions  selected  from  his  writings  were  therein  condemned 
either  as  "  heretical "  or  as  "  scandalous,"  and  all  persons  were 
forbidden  to  read  his  books,  which  were  ordered  to  be  burned ; 
and  he  himself,  if  he  did  not  retract  his  errors  within  sixty  days, 
was,  together  with  all  his  adherents,  to  be  regarded  as  having 
"  incurred  the  penalty  due  for  heresy." 

Luther  now  took  a  startling  determination.  He  resolved  to 
burn  the  papal  bull.  A  fire  was  kindled  outside  one  of  the 
gates  of  Wittenberg,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  great  throng  of 
doctors,  students,  and  citizens,  Luther  cast  the  bull,  together  with 
the  papal  decretals  and  some  books  of  his  opponents,  into  the 
flames. 

The  audacious  proceeding  raised  a  terrible  storm,  which  raged 
"  high  as  the  heavens,  wide  as  the  earth."  Luther  wrote  a  friend 
that  he  believed  the  tempest  could  never  be  stilled  before  the 
day  of  judgment. 

326.  The  Diet  of  Worms  (15 21).  —  Affairs  had  now  assumed  a 
threatening  aspect.  All  Germany  was  in  a  state  of  revolt.  The 
papal  supremacy  was  imperiled.  The  papal  ban  having  failed 
to  produce  any  effect.  Pope  Leo  now  invoked  the  aid  of  the 
recently  elected  Emperor  Charles  V  in  extirpating  the  spreading 
heresy.  He  wished  Luther  to  be  sent  to  Rome  for  trial  there. 
Luther's  friends,  however,  persuaded  Charles  not  to  accede  to  the 
Pope's  request,  but  to  permit  Luther  to  be  heard  in  Germany. 

6  Luther  was  not  at  this  time  ready  to  release  monks  from  their  vows.  Gradually, 
however,  his  views  changed  and  he  came  to  regard  the  celibacy  of  the  monks  as 
opposed  to  Scripture  teachings.  In  the  year  1525,  acting  upon  his  maturer  views,  he 
married  Catharine  Bora,  a  former  nun.  This  violation  by  Luther  of  his  monastic 
vows  was  made  the  subject  of  bitter  reproach  against  him  by  his  enemies. 


THE   DIET   OF   WORMS  305 

Accordingly  Luther  received  an  imperial  summons  to  appear  at 
Worms  before  an  assembly  of  the  princes,  nobles,  and  clergy  of 
Germany  to  be  convened  for  the  purpose  of  deliberating  upon 
the  affairs  of  the  country,  and  especially  upon  matters  touching  the 
great  religious  controversy. 

Luther's  journey  to  Worms  was  a  triumphal  progress.  The 
eyes  of  all  Germany  were  upon  him.  The  crowds  that  lined  the 
streets  of  the  towns  through  which  he  passed  showed  how  pro- 
foundly the  German  heart  had  been  stirred.  At  Worms  the  roofs 
of  the  houses  along  the  streets  traversed  by  the  monk  in  his 
entrance  into  the  city  were  loaded  with  his  sympathizers.' 

When  Luther  first  appeared  before  the  brilliant  and  august 
assembly  he  was  visibly  embarrassed.  But  he  soon  recovered 
his  composure.  His  books  were  placed  before  him,  and  he  was 
asked  whether  he  would  retract  what  he  had  written  therein.  He 
requested  a  day's  time  to  consider  his  answer.  The  next  day, 
brought  again  before  the  Diet,  he  replied  in  substance  :  "  To 
revoke  these  writings  would  be  to  give  new  force  and  audacity  to 
the  Roman  tyranny.  I  cannot,  I  will  not,  retract  anything,  unless 
what  I  have  written  shall  be  shown  to  be  contrary  to  Holy  Scrip- 
ture or  to  plain  reason,  for  to  act  against  conscience  is  neither 
safe  nor  upright."  His  closing  words  were  impressive  :  "I  can  do 
no  otherwise ;  here  I  stand,  God  help  me.  Amen." 

Although  some  wished  to  deliver  the  reformer  to  the  flames, 
the  safe-conduct  of  the  Emperor  under  which  he  had  come  to 
the  Diet  protected  him.  So  Luther  was  allowed  to  depart  in 
safety,  but  was  followed  by  the  ban  of  the  Empire. 

327.  Luther  at  the  Wartburg  (15 21-15  22).  —  Luther,  how- 
ever, had  powerful  friends,  among  whom  was  his  own  prince, 
Frederick  the  Wise,  P^lector  of  Saxony.  Solicitous  for  the  safety 
of  the  reformer,  the  prince  caused  him  to  be  seized  on  his  way 
from  the  Diet  by  a  company  of  masked  horsemen,  who  carried 

7  As  Luther  neared  Worms  it  was  whispered  to  him  that  treason  against  him  was 
being  planned  within  the  city.  His  friends,  alarmed  at  this  report,  tried  to  dissuade 
him  from  exposing  his  Hfe  by  going  on.  It  was  then  he  made  his  famous  declara- 
tion, "  I  would  go  though  there  were  as  many  devils  there  as  there  are  tiles  on  the 
roofs  of  the  houses." 


306  BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   REFORMATION 

him  to  the  castle  of  the  Wartburg,  where  he  was  kept  about  a 
year,  his  retreat  being  known  only  to  a  few  friends. 

During  this  period  of  forced  retirement  from  the  world  Luther 
was  busy  writing  pamphlets  and  translating  the  Bible.  Appeal 
had  been  made  to  the  Scriptures,  —  "  Prove  it  from  the  Scrip- 
tures," "There  it  is  written,"  was  the  constant  challenge  of  the 
reformers  to  their  opponents,  —  hence  it  was  necessary  that  the 
Scriptures  should  be  accessible  in  a  language  understood  by  all.® 
It  was  hard  work,  as  Luther  put  it,  to  make  the  old  prophets 
speak  German,  but  he  made  them  speak  it  in  a  way  which  has 
fixed  to  this  day  the  attention  of  the  German  nation. 

In  giving  Germany  this  translation  of  the  Bible,  Luther  ren- 
dered some  such  service  to  the  German  tongue  as  Dante  ren- 
dered to  the  Italian  through  his  Divine  Comedy.  Fixing  its 
literary  forms,  he  virtually  created  the  German  language  out  of 
a  chaos  of  dialects. 

328.  The  Peasants'  War  (1524-1525).  —  Before  quite  a  year 
had  passed  Luther  was  drawn  from  the  Wartburg  by  the  troubles 
caused  by  certain  radical  reformers  whose  preaching  was  occa- 
sioning tumult  and  violence,  and  thereby  bringing  into  discredit 
the  whole  reform  movement.  Luther's  sudden  appearance  at 
Wittenberg  gave  a  temporary  check  to  the  agitation. 

But  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years  the  trouble  broke  out 
afresh,  and  in  a  more  complex  and  aggravated  form.  The  peas- 
ants of  Suabia  and  Franconia,  stung  to  madness  by  the  oppres- 
sions of  their  feudal  lords,  stirred  by  the  religious  excitement 
that  filled  the  air,  and  influenced  by  the  incendiary  preaching 
of  their  prophets  Carlstadt  and  Miinzer,  rose  in  revolt  against 
the  nobles  and  the  priests,  —  against  all  in  authority.^  Castles 
and  monasteries  were  sacked  and  burned,  and  horrible  outrages 
were  committed.  The  rebelHon  was  finally  crushed,  but  not 
until  a  hundred  thousand  lives  had  been  sacrificed,  a  large  part 
of  South  Germany  devastated,  and  great  reproach  cast  upon  the 

8  There  had  been  before  this  translations  of  the  Bible  into  German,  but  the  editions 
had  been  small  and  the  circulation  limited. 

9  The  demands  of  the  peasants  were  embodied  in  a  document  known  as  the 
Twelve  Articles.     See  Translations  and  Reprints  (Univ.  of  Penn.),  vol.  ii,  No.  6. 


SECULARIZATION   OF   CHURCH   PROPERTY      307 

reformers,  whose  teachings  were  held  by  their  enemies  to  be  the 
whole  cause  of  the  ferment.^" 

329.  The  Secularization  of  Church  Property.  —  But  in  spite  of 
all  these  discrediting  movements  the  reform  made  rapid  progress. 
Nothing  contributed  more  to  win  over  the  lay  princes  to  the  views 
of  Luther  than  his  recommendation  that  the  monasteries  should 
be  suppressed  and  their  property  confiscated  and  devoted  to  the 
maintenance  of  churches,  schools,  and  charities." 

The  lay  rulers  were  quick  to  act  upon  this  suggestion,  and  to 
go  far  beyond  it.  Within  a  very  few  years  after  the  appearance 
of  Luther's  address  to  the  German  nobility  and  another  treatise 
of  his  on  monastic  vows  (1522),  wherein  he  pronounced  such 
vows  to  be  contrary  to  true  Christian  principles,  there  were  con- 
fiscations of  ecclesiastical  property  in  all  the  German  states  that 
had  become  Protestant. 

In  Sweden,  in  which  country  the  doctrines  of  Luther  gained 
an  early  foothold,  almost  all  the  property  of  the  old  Church 
was,  by  an  act  of  the  National  Diet,  given  into  the  hands  of  the 
king,  Gustavus  Vasa  (1524).  This  wealth  contributed  greatly  to 
enhance  the  power  and  prestige  of  the  Swedish  monarchy. 

In  England,  King  Henry  VIII,  under  circumstances  which  we 
shall  consider  in  another  chapter,  suppressed  the  monasteries 
and  diverted  to  secular  uses  the  greater  part  of  their  wealth. 

But  the  classical  instance  of  the  secularizing  of  Church  prop- 
erty during  this  period  is  afforded  by  the  case  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  (sec.  154).-  At  the  beginning  of  the  Protestant  revolt 
these  monk  knights  ruled  over  from  two  to  three  million  subjects. 
When  the  reform  movement  began  to  spread  over  Germany  the 
Grand  Master  of  the  order,  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  turned  Protes- 
tant, and  converted  the  domains  of  the  fraternity  into  an  hereditary 

1"  About  a  decade  after  the  suppression  of  the  Peasants'  Revolt  the  religious 
excitement  of  the  time  brought  into  existence  the  so-called  New  Zion,  or  Anabaptist 
kingdom  of  MUnster,  a  sort  of  theocracy,  of  which  the  head  was  John  of  Leyden 
(i5io?-i536).  There  was  in  this  movement  a  most  startling  exhibition  of  religious 
fanaticism.  Like  the  rebellion  of  the  peasants,  it  tended  greatly  to  discredit  the 
genuine  reform  party. 

11  All  such  taking  over  of  Church  property  by  the  state  was  called  "seculariza- 
tion."' 


308  BEGINNINGS    OF   THE   REFORMATION 

principality  under  the  name  of  the  Duchy  of  Prussia  (1525).  The 
knights  married  and  became  nobles.  Thus  was  created  out  of 
ecclesiastical  lands  a  most  important  secular  state. 

330.  The  Reformers  are  called  Protestants;  the  Augsburg 
Confession.  —  The  rapid  progress  of  the  revolution  alarmed  the 
upholders  of  the  ancient  Church.  In  the  year  1529  there  gath- 
ered an  assembly  known  as  the  Second  Diet  of  Spires  to  consider 
the  matter.  The  action  of  the  Catholic  majority  of  this  body 
took  away  from  the  Protestant  princes  and  cities  the  right  they 
had  hitherto  enjoyed  of  determining  what  form  of  religion  should 
be  followed  in  their  domains,  and  forbade  the  teaching  of  certain 
of  the  new  doctrines  until  a  Church  council  should  have  pro- 
nounced authoritatively  upon  them. 

Six  of  the  German  princes  and  a  large  number  of  the  cities  of 
the  Empire  issued  a  formal  protest  against  the  action  of  the  Diet, 
denying  the  power  or  right  of  a  majority  to  bind  the  minority  in 
matters  of  religion  and  conscience.  Because  of  this  protest^  the 
reformers  from  this  time  began  to  be  known  as  Protestants. 

The  year  following  that  in  which  this  protest  was  made  the 
adherents  of  Luther,  at  the  request  of  the  Emperor  Charles,  laid 
before  another  Diet  assembled  at  Augsburg  (1530)  their  formula 
of  belief,  known  as  the  Augsburg  Confession.  It  was  drawn  up  by 
the  eminent  scholar  Melanchthon,  and  came  to  form  the  basis 
of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

331.  The  Catholic  Reaction;  its  Causes  and  Agents. — Even 
before  the  death  of  Luther,  which  occurred  in  the  year  1546,^^ 
the  Reformation  had  gained  a  strong  foothold  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  Western  Christendom,  save  in  Spain  and  Italy,  and 
even  in  these  parts  the  new  doctrines  had  made  some  progress. 
But  several  causes  now  conspired  to  check  the  hitherto  trium- 
phant advance  of  Protestantism  and  to  enable  the  old  Church  to 
regain  much  of  the  ground  that  had  been  lost.    Chief  among 

12  After  the  death  of  Luther  the  leadership  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany  fell 
to  Philip  Melanchthon  (1497-1560),  one  of  Luther's  friends  and  fellow-workers. 
Melanchthon's  disposition  was  exactly  the  opposite  of  Luther's.  He  often  reproved 
Luther  for  his  indiscretion  and  vehemence,  and  was  constantly  laboring  to  effect, 
through  mutual  concessions,  a  reconciliation  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants. 


DIVISIONS  AMONG   PROTESTANTS 


309 


these  were  the  divisions  among  the  Protestants,  the  Counter- 
Reform  in  the  CathoHc  Church,  the  increased  activity  of  the 
Inquisition,  the  rise  of  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits,  and  Spain's 
zealous  championship  of  Cathohcism. 

332 .  Divisions  among  the  Protestants.  —  Early  in  their  contest 
with  the  Roman  see  the  Protestants  became  divided  into  three 
mutually  hostile  sects, —  Lutherans,  Zwinglians,  and  Calvinists. 

The  creed  of  the  Lutherans  came  to  prevail  very  generally  in 
North  Germany,  and  was  received  in  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden.  It  also  spread  into  the  Netherlands,  but  there  it  was 
soon  overshadowed  by  Calvinism.  Of  all  the  Protestant  sects  the 
Lutherans  made  the  least  departure  from  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  Zwinglians,  followers  of  Huldreich  ZwingU  (i 484-1 531), 
differed  from  the  Lutherans  particularly  in  their  views  regarding 
the  Eucharist  and  in  the  mat- 
ter of  church  organization. 
Their  creed  became  dominant 
in  the  greater  part  of  German 
Switzerland,  and  from  there 
spread  into  Southern  Ger- 
many. 

The  Calvinists  were  follow- 
ers of  John  Calvin  (1509- 
1564),  a  Frenchman  by  birth, 
who,  forced  to  flee  from 
France  on  account  of  per- 
secution, found  a  refuge  at 
Geneva,^'  which  city  he  made 
the  center  of  a  movement  even 
more  extended  and  historic- 
ally important  than  that  having  its  point  of  departure  at  Witten- 
berg.   We  can  best  remember  the  wide  range  of  Calvinism  and  its 

18  Under  the  influence  of  Calvin,  Geneva  became  a  sort  of  theocratic  state,  wth 
the  reformer  as  a  Protestant  pope.  The  laws  and  regulations  of  this  little  city-state 
recall  those  of  the  later  Puritan  commonwealth  in  England.  Calvinism  was  every- 
where the  same.  It  was  a  sort  of  revival  of  the  theocracy  of  the  ancient  Hebrews. 
Calvin  has  been  well  called  the  "  Prophet  of  the  Old  Covenant." 


Fig.  58. —  John  Calvin.     (After 
a  painting  by  Holbein) 


3IO  BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   REFORMATION 

remarkable  influence  upon  the  history  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  by  keeping  in  mind  that  the  French  Huguenots, 
the  Scotch  Covenanters,  the  Dutch  Netherlanders  (in  large  part), 
the  English  Puritans,  and  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  were  all  Calvinists.-^* 

These  great  Protestant  communions  finally  broke  up  into  a 
large  number  of  denominations  or  churches,  each  holding  to 
some  minor  point  of  doctrine  or  adhering  to  some  form  of  wor- 
ship disregarded  by  the  others,  yet  all  agreeing  in  the  central 
doctrine  of  the  Reformation,  "  justification  by  faith  alone." 

Now,  the  contentions  between  these  different  sects  were  sharp 
and  bitter.  The  liberal-minded  reformer  had  occasion  to  lament 
the  same  state  of  things  as  that  which  troubled  the  Apostle  Paul 
in  the  early  days  of  Christianity.  One  said,  I  am  of  Luther ; 
another  said,  I  am  of  Calvin;  and  another  said,  I  am  of  Zwingli. 
Even  Luther  himself  denounced  ZwingU  as  a  heretic ;  and  the 
Calvinists  would  have  no  dealings  with  the  Lutherans. 

The  influence  of  these  sectarian  strifes  and  divisions  upon  the 
progress  of  the  reform  movement  was  most  disastrous.  They 
weakened  the  Protestant  party  in  the  presence  of  a  united  and 
vigilant  enemy.  They  afforded  the  Catholics  a  strong  and 
effective  argument  against  the  entire  movement  as  tending  to 
uncertainty  and  discord. 

333.  The  Catholic  Counter-Reform  ;  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545- 
1563);  Carlo  Borromeo.  —  As  we  have  seen,  it  was  the  existence 
of  acknowledged  evils  and  scandals  in  the  old  Church  that  had 
contributed  greatly  to  undermine  its  authority  and  to  weaken  its 
hold  upon  the  reverence  and  the  consciences  of  men.  It  was  the 
correction  of  these  evils  and  the  removal  of  these  scandals  which 
did  much  to  restore  its  lost  influence  and  authority. 

This  reform,  which  even  before  the  rise  of  Protestantism  had 
already  begun  within  the  Catholic  Church,  was  carried  out  in 
great  measure  by  the  memorable  Council  of  Trent  (i 545-1 563). 

14  AH  these  are  great  names  in  the  history  of  political  liberty.  The  undeniably 
favorable  influence  of  Calvinism  upon  civil  liberty  is  doubtless  to  be  attributed  not 
so  much  to  its  creed  as  to  the  democratic  constitution  of  the  Calvinistic  churches. 
Each  church  forms  a  little  democracy,  and  naturally  ecclesiastical  democracy  has 
fostered  political  democracy. 


THE  CATHOLIC  COUNTER-REFORM  311 

This  body,  the  most  important  Church  assembly  since  that  of 
Nicaea,  a.d.  325,  with  the  voice  of  authority  passed  upon  all  the 
points  that  had  been  raised  by  the  reformers.  It  declared  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  Church  to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the  Bible ;  it 
reasserted  the  divine  character  of  the  Papacy ;  it  condemned  as 
heresy  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone.  It 
made  everything  so  clear  that  no  one,  not  even  a  wayfaring  man, 
need  err  either  in  doctrine  or  in  duty.  It  also  demanded  that 
the  lives  of  all  priests  and  bishops  should  be  an  exemplification 
of  Christian  purity  and  morality. 

These  measures  of  the  council  helped  greatly  to  check  the 
Protestant  movement.  The  correction  of  the  abuses  that  had  had 
so  much  to  do  in  causing  the  great  schism,  smoothed  the  way  for 
the  return  to  the  ancient  Church  of  thousands  who  had  become 
alarmed  at  the  dangers  into  which  society  seemed  to  drift  when 
once  it  cast  loose  from  anchorage  in  the  safe  harbor  of  tradition 
and  authority. 

The  spirit  in  which  the  Council  of  Trent  had  done  its  work 
finds  illustration  in  the  exalted  character  and  devoted  life  of 
the  Italian  reformer,  Carlo  Borromeo  (i 538-1 588).  In  him  the 
reforming  spirit  of  the  great  council  was  incarnate.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Milan,  and  took  as  his  model  the  holy  Ambrose, 
who,  twelve  centuries  before,  in  the  corrupt  times  of  the  failing 
Roman  Empire,  had  won  sainthood  in  that  same  see.  He  reno- 
vated and  restored  the  desecrated  and  deserted  churches,  reformed 
the  lax  and  dissolute  lives  of  the  clergy,  restored  discipline  in  the 
religious  orders,  and  established  schools  and  colleges.  It  was  due 
largely  to  his  zealous  labors  and  to  the  happy  contagion  of  his 
holy  example  that  a  new  spiritual  life  was  created  in  Milan  and 
the  regions  round  about,  that  popular  veneration  for  the  ancient 
Church  was  again  evoked,  that  the  progress  of  Protestantism  in 
Italy  was  stayed,  and  that  the  wavering  were  held  firm  in  their 
allegiance  to  the  Papacy  and  many  who  had  already  been  led  away 
by  the  Protestant  heresy  were  brought  back  to  the  ancient  fold. 

334.  The  Inquisition. — The  Catholic  Church,  having  purified 
itself  and  defined  clearly  its  articles   of  faith,  demanded  of  all 


312 


BEGINNINGS   OF  THE   REFORMATION 


a  more  implicit  obedience  than  hitherto.  The  Inquisition  now 
assumed  new  vigor  and  activity,  and  heresy  was  sternly  dealt 
with.  The  tribunal  was  assisted  in  the  execution  of  its  sentences 
by  the  secular  authorities  in  all  the  Romance  countries,  but 
outside  of  these  it  was  not  generally  recognized  by  the  temporal 
princes,  though  it  did  succeed  in  establishing  itself  for  a  time  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  some  parts  of  Germany.  Death,  usually 
by  burning,  and  loss  of  property  were  the  penalty  of  obstinate 
heresy.  Without  doubt  the  Inquisition  did  much  to  check  the 
advance  of  the  Reformation  in  Southern  Europe,  aiding  especially 
in  holding  Italy  and  Spain  obedient  to  the  ancient  Church. 

At  this  point,  in  connection  with  the  persecutions  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion, we  should  not  fail  to  recall  that  in  the  sixteenth  century  a 
refusal  to  conform  to  the  established  worship  was  regarded  by  the 
great  majority  of  Protestants,  as  well  as  of  Catholics,  as  a  species 
of  treason  against  society,  and  was  dealt  with  accordingly.  Thus 
at  Geneva  wq  find  Calvin  bending  all  his  energies  to  the  trial  and 

execution  of  Servetus,  because 
he  published  views  that  the 
Calvinists  thought  heretical ; 
and  in  England  we  see  the 
Anglican  Protestants  waging 
the  most  cruel,  bitter,  and  per- 
sistent persecutions,  not  only 
against  the  Catholics,  but  also 
against  all  Protestants  who 
refused  to  conform  to  the 
Established  Church. 

335.  The  Society  of  the 
Jesuits  ;   Ignatius  of  Ld^ole  ; 
Francis  Xavier.  — The  Society 
of  the  Jesuits,  or  the  Company 
of   Jesus,    was   another   most 
powerful  auxiliary  concerned  in  the  reestabUshment  of  the  threat- 
ened authority  of  the  papal  see.    The  founder  of  the  fraternity  was 
Ignatius  of  Loyola   (1491-1556),  a  native   of  Spain.     Ignatius 


Fig.  59.  —  Ignatius  of  Loyola 
(After  a  painting  by  Rubens) 


IGNATIUS    LOYOLA  313 

was  the  embodiment  of  Spanish  religious  zeal.  His  object  was  to 
form  a  society  the  devotion  and  energy  of  whose  members  should 
meet  the  ardor  and  activity  of  the  reformers.  The  new  society 
was  instituted  by  a  papal  bull  in  1540. 

Ignatius  before  he  became  a  priest  was  a  soldier,  and  it  was 
this  circumstance  which  lent  a  military  cast  to  his  society.  Indeed, 
the  military  principle  so  characterizes  it  that  it  has  been  described 
as  "a  military  organization  for  religious  purposes."  This  pre- 
dominance of  the  military  principle  in  the  society  should  be  borne 
carefully  in  mind  in  any  study  of  the  character  and  the  activity 
of  the  Jesuits.  Like  the  soldier,  each  member  of  the  society  is 
required  to  submit  his  own  will  to  that  of  his  superior,  and  is  taught 
to  regard  seK- renunciation  and  obedience  as  cardinal  virtues. 

It  was  particularly  as  educators  that  the  Jesuits  made  their  influ- 
ence felt  upon  society.  Their  aim  here  was  to  fill  the  world  with 
schools  and  colleges,  just  as  a  conquered  country  might  be  occu- 
pied with  military  garrisons.  Ignatius  left  behind  him  a  full  hun- 
dred colleges  and  seminaries ;  within  a  century  and  a  half  after  his 
death  the  order  had  founded  over  seven  hundred. 

As  the  well-disciplined,  watchful,  and  uncompromising  foes  of 
the  Protestants,  now  divided  into  many  and  often  hostile  sects, 
the  Jesuits  did  so  much  to  bring  about  a  reaction  that  Macaulay 
declares,  "  The  history  of  the  Jesuits  is  the  history  of  the  Catholic 
Reaction."  It  was  largely  through  their  direct  or  indirect  agency 
that  Hungary,  Poland,  Bohemia,  and  South  Germany,  after  they 
had  been  invaded  by  Protestantism  and  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree  drawn  away  from  the  old  faith,  were  won  back  to  the 
Catholic  Church  and  again  bound  by  stronger  ties  than  ever  to 
the  Papacy.  By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  this  great  work 
of  recovery  had  been  in  the  main  accomplished.  This  regaining 
of  these  debatable  countries  for  Catholicism  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  important  matters  in  the  religious  history  of  Europe. 

And  not  only  did  the  labors  of  the  Jesuits  contribute  thus 
greatly  to  the  retrieving  of  the  papal  fortunes  in  Europe,  but  they 
were  also  instrumental  in  extending  the  authority  and  spreading 
the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church  into  all  other  parts  of  the 


314  BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   REFORMATION 

world.  Most  distinguished  of  all  the  missionaries  of  the  society 
to  pagan  lands  was  the  saintly  Francis  Xavier  (150 6- 1552), 
known  as  the  "Apostle  of  the  Indies."  His  charity  was  meas- 
ureless, his  courage  heroic.  He  thought  that  he  should  be  as 
ready  to  face  danger  in  quest  of  souls  as  others  were  in  quest  of 
"  aromatic  groves  and  mines  of  gold."  His  labors  in  India,  Japan, 
and  other  lands  of  the  Far  East  were  attended  with  astonishing 
results. 

336.  Spain's  Zealous  Championship  of  Catholicism.  —  Just  as 
England  became  the  champion  and  the  bulwark  of  Protestantism, 
so  did  Spain  become  the  champion  and  the  bulwark  of  Catholi- 
cism. The  Spanish  sovereigns,  as  we  shall  see,  constituted  them- 
selves the  guardians  of  Catholic  orthodoxy,  and  put  forth  all  their 
strength  to  uproot  the  reformed  faith  not  only  in  their  own  domains 
but  also  in  other  lands.  Their  strenuous  efforts  to  reestablish  the 
old  religious  unity  caused  them  to  become  most  important  instru- 
ments of  the  Catholic  Restoration. 

337.  The  Hundred  Years  of  Religious  Wars. — The  action  taken 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  made  impossible  a  reconciliation  between 
the  two  parties.  The  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  not  yet 
been  reached  before  the  increasing  bitterness  of  their  controversy 
led  to  an  appeal  to  force.  Then  followed  a  hundred  years  of 
religious  wars.  During  this  time  neither  party  laid  aside  the 
sword.  The  Schmalkaldic  War  in  Germany  between  Charles  V 
and  the  Protestant  princes,  the  fierce  struggle  in  the  Netherlands 
between  Philip  II  of  Spain  and  his  revolted  subjects,  the  Hugue- 
not wars  in  France,  the  launching  of  the  Spanish  Armada  against 
Protestant  England,  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  Germany,  —  all 
these  were  simply  different  acts  of  the  long  and  terrible  drama. 
In  this  protracted  combat  Protestantism  was  fighting  desperately 
for  the  right  to  live;  the  Papacy  was  fighting  to  put  down 
secession,  to  force  the  seceded  states  back  into  the  old  ecclesias- 
tical empire,  to  restore  the  broken  unity  of  Christendom. 

In  the  chapters  immediately  following  this  we  shall  trace  in 
broad  outline  the  vicissitudes  in  the  fortunes  of  the  rival  creeds 
in  the  leading  European  countries.    To  what  we  have  here  said 


OUTCOMES    OF    THE   REVOLT  315 

concerning  the  beginnings  of  the  Revolution  we  will  in  a  closing 
paragraph  add  only  a  single  word  touching  its  results. 

338.  Outcomes  of  the  Revolt. — The  outcome  of  the  Protes- 
tant Revolution  as  a  revolution  was,  very  broadly  stated,  the  sep- 
aration from  the  Catholic  Church  of  North  Germany,  Denmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  England,  and  Scotland,  along  with  parts  of 
Switzerland  and  of  the  Netherlands,  —  in  the  main,  nations  of 
Teutonic  race.  The  great  Romance  nations,  namely,  France, 
Spain,  and  Italy,  together  with  South  Germany,  Poland,  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  and  Ireland,  adhered  to  the  ancient  Church,  or,  if  for 
a  period  shaken  in  their  loyalty,  ultimately  returned  to  their  old 
allegiance.  ^^ 

What  this  separation  from  Rome  meant  in  the  political  realm 
is  well  stated  by  Seebohm  :  "  It  was  the  claiming  by  the  civil 
power  in  each  nation  of  those  rights  which  the  Pope  had  hitherto 
claimed  within  it  as  head  of  the  great  ecclesiastical  empire.  The 
clergy  and  monks  had  hitherto  been  regarded  more  or  less  as 
foreigners,  —  that  is,  as  subjects  of  the  Pope's  ecclesiastical  empire. 
Where  there  was  a  revolt  from  Rome  the  allegiance  of  these  per- 
sons to  the  Pope  was  annulled,  and  the  civil  power  claimed  as  full 
a  sovereignty  over  them  as  it  had  over  its  lay  subjects.  Matters 
relating  to  marriage  and  wills  still  for  the  most  part  remained 
under  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  but  then,  as  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  themselves  became  national  courts  and  ceased  to  be  Roman 
or  papal,  all  these  matters  came  under  the  control  of  the  civil 
power." 

In  a  word,  the  secession  meant  that  the  nations  thus  breaking 
the  ties  which  formerly  united  them  to  Rome  now  became  — 
what  they  were  not  during  mediaeval  times  —  absolutely  inde- 
pendent or  sovereign  powers,  self-centered  and  self-governed  in 
their  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  in  their  political  life. 

In  a  spiritual  or  religious  point  of  view,  this  severance  by  the 
northern  nations  of  the  bonds  that  formerly  united  them  to  the 

16  It  is  because  the  Reformation  was  espoused  so  generally  by  the  Teutonic  peoples 
and  Catholicism  adhered  to  so  generally  by  the  Latin  nations  that  Protestantism  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  Teutonic  Christianity  and  Catholicism  as  Latin  Christianity. 


3l6  BEGINNINGS   OF  THE  REFORMATION 

ecclesiastical  empire  of  Rome  meant  a  transfer  of  their  allegiance 
from  the  Church  to  the  Bible,  The  decrees  of  popes  and  the 
decisions  of  Church  councils  were  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as 
having  divine  and  binding  force ;  the  Scriptures  alone  were  to 
be  held  as  possessing  divine  and  infallible  authority,  and,  the- 
oretically, this  rule  and  standard  of  faith  and  practice  each 
individual  was  to  interpret  for  himself. 

Another  important  result  of  the  Reformation  was  a  certain 
impulse  given  the  world  in  the  direction  of  religious  toleration. 
It  is  true  that  the  reformers,  in  spite  of  their  insistence  for  them- 
selves upon  the  right  of  private  judgment  in  religious  matters, 
did  not  in  practice  concede  this  right  to  others,  and  when  they 
had  the  power  became,  very  inconsistently,  most  zealous  perse- 
cutors. They  believed  with  the  Catholics  that  heresy  should  be 
punished,  only  they  defined  heresy  differently.  Throughout  the 
sixteenth  century  intolerance,  in  the  words  of  the  historian  Lin- 
gard,  was  "a  part  of  the  public  law  of  Christendom."  Never- 
theless the  proclamation  of  the  principle  of  private  judgment  in 
religious  affairs,  through  a  logical  necessity,  came  ultimately  to 
exert  a  favorable  influence  upon  toleration ;  for  you  cannot 
accord  to  a  man  the  right  to  form  his  own  judgment  respecting 
a  matter  and  at  the  same  time  affix  a  penalty  to  his  reaching 
any  save  a  prescribed  conclusion.  Consequently  among  the  vari- 
ous agencies,  such  as  modern  science,  the  advance  of  the  world 
in  general  intelligence,  and  closer  intercourse  among  the  nations, 
which  during  the  past  three  centuries  have  brought  in  the  benefi- 
cent principle  of  religious  toleration,  the  Reformation  of  the 
sixteenth  century  must  be  given  a  prominent  place. 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  First  Principles  of  the  Reformation 
(ed.  by  Wace  and  Buchheim).  Read  Luther's  "Address  to  the  Nobility  of 
the  German  Nation."  The  address  makes  a  vivid  revelation,  not  only  of 
the  religious  situation  in  Germany  at  this  time,  but  also  of  the  character 
of  the  man  who  here  makes  himself  the  spokesman  of  the  German  nation. 
Whitcomb,  Literary  Source-Book  of  the  German  Renaissance.  Historical 
Leaflets  (Crozer  Theological  Seminary,  Chester,  Penn.),  No.  2,  *'  Tetzel's 
Theses  on  Indulgences."    Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  ii.  No.  6,  "  Period 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  317 

of  the  Early  Reformation  in  Germany  "  (ed.  by  James  Harvey  Robinson  and 
Merrick  Whitcomb) ;  and  vol.  iii,  No.  3,  '*  Period  of  the  Later  Reformation  " 
(ed.  by  Merrick  Whitcomb). 

Secondary  Works.  —  Seebohm,  The  Oxford  Reformers.  A  volume  of 
rare  freshness  and  charm  on  the  fellow-work  and  influence  of  the  Oxford 
reformers,  —  Colet,  Erasmus,  and  More.  Beard,  Martin  Luther  and  the 
Reformation  in  Germany  (to  1520).  Kostlin,  Life  of  Luther.  Emerton, 
Desiderius  Ei'asmus.  For  a  wider  survey,  from  the  Protestant  point  of 
view,  of  the  reform  movement:  Fisher,  The  Reformation  ;  Hausser,  The 
Period  of  the  Reformation  ;  and  Seehohm,  The  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revo- 
lution. For  the  history  of  the  movement  from  the  Catholic  side :  Spal- 
ding, The  History  of  the  Protestant  Reformation;  and  Alzog,  Universal 
Church  History,  vol.  iii,  pp.  1-460.  Henderson,  A  Short  History  of  Ger- 
many, vol.  i,  chaps,  x-xvi.  Janssen,  History  of  the  German  People  at  the 
Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  vols,  iii  and  iv.  The  Cambridge  Modern  History, 
vol.  i,  chap,  xix,  and  vol.  ii,  chaps,  iv-viii.  Whitcomb,  A  History  of  Modern 
Europe,  pp.  33-64.  Robinson,  An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Western 
Europe,  chaps,  xxv  and  xxvi.  Froude,  Lectures  on  the  Council  of  Trent. 
Hughes,  Loyola  and  the  Educational  System  of  the  fesuits.  Symonds,  The 
Catholic  Reaction,  vol.  i. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Erasmus  and  his  Praise  of  Folly.  2.  John 
Reuchlin.  3.  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms.  4.  Melanchthon.  5.  Calvin 
and  Servetus.     6.  Carlo  Borromeo.     7.  Ignatius  of  Loyola. 


CHAPTER   XXI 


THE   ASCENDANCY  OF   SPAIN;   HER   RELATION   TO   THE 
CATHOLIC   REACTION 

I.    Reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V  (15 19-15  56) 

339.  Charles'  Dominions.  —  In  the  year  1500  there  was  born  in 
the  city  of  Ghent,  in  the  Netherlands,  a  prince  who  was  destined 
to  play  a  great  part  in  the  history  of  the  sixteenth  century.  This 
was  Charles,  son  of  Philip  the  Handsome,  Archduke  of  Austria, 

and  Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Spain,  —  later  to 
be  known  to  fame  as  the  Emperor 
Charles  V. 

Charles  was  "the  converging 
point  and  heir  of  four  great  royal 
lines,  which  had  become  united 
by  a  series  of  happy  matrimonial 
alliances."  These  were  the  houses 
of  Austria,  Burgundy,  Castile,  and 
Aragon.  Before  Charles  had  com- 
pleted his  nineteenth  year  there 
were  heaped  upon  his  head, 
through  the  removal  by  death  of 
his  ancestors,  the  crowns  of  the 
four  dynasties. 

But  great  as  was  the  number  of  the  hereditary  crowns  of  the 
young  prince,  there  was  straightway  added  to  them  (in  15 19), 
by  the  vote  of  the  Electors  of  Germany,  the  crown  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire.  After  this  election  he  was  known  as  the  E?nperor 
Charles  V;  hitherto  he  had  borne  the  title  of  Carlos  I  of  Spain. 

318 


--^^ 


Fig.  60.  —  Emperor  Charles  V 
(After  a  painting  by  Holbein) 


BALANCE   OF    POWER    DISTURBED    BY   SPAIN      319 

340.  The  Balance  of  Power  is  disturbed  by  Spain.  —  When 
Charles  VIII  of  France,  just  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
made  his  memorable  invasion  of  Italy,  the  other  states  became 
alarmed  lest  France  should  gain  an  undue  weight  in  European 
affairs,  and  to  prevent  this  formed  an  alliance  to  keep  France 
within  her  proper  boundaries  (sec.  240).  This  was  practically  the 
origin  of  the  celebrated  system  of  the  balance  of  power  among 
the  European  states.'^ 

From  that  time  to  the  present  this  balance  of  power  idea  has 
lain  at  the  bottom  of  much  European  diplomacy.  It  has  been 
the  concern  of  statesmen  to  see  to  it  that  no  one  of  the  nations 
should  acquire  an  overweight  of  power  or  influence,  and  thereby 
endanger  the  independence  of  the  others.  But  notwithstanding 
this  interested  vigilance  there  has  been  a  constant  tendency  to  a 
disturbance  of  the  equihbrium  of  the  European  system  of  states 
through  the  overgrowth  of  this  or  that  member  of  it.  Thus  in 
the  seventeenth  century  France  under  Louis  XIV,  and  then  again 
in  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  under  Napoleon, 
acquired  such  an  ascendancy  as  to  imperil  the  liberties  of  the 
continent.  The  alliances  formed,  treaties  solemnly  sworn  to, 
and  wars  fought  to  prevent  such  disturbances  of  the  balance  of 
power  or  to  restore  the  equilibrium  already  impaired,  make  up 
a  great  part  of  the  political  history  of  Europe  in  modern  times. 

Now,  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  the  overshadowing  great- 
ness of  Spain  that  aroused  the  fears  of  Europe.  Her  preponder- 
ance disturbed  alarmingly  the  equilibrium  of  the  European  system, 
and  this  very  largely  determined  the  policies  and  actions  of  the 
other  states.  Here  we  have  the  key  to  much  of  the  political  his- 
tory of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V  and  of  that  of  his  son 
and  successor  on  the  Spanish  throne,  Philip  II. 

341.  Charles  and  the  Reformation.  —  But  important  as  is  the 
poHtical  side  of  Charles'  reign,  it  is  his  relation  to  the  Lutheran 


1  There  was,  however,  no  general  official  recognition  of  such  a  doctrine  until  1668, 
when  the  Triple  Alliance  (Sir  William  Temple's  Treaty)  was  formed  between  the 
English,  the  Dutch,  and  the  Swedes  to  prevent  Louis  XIV  from  making  himself 
master  of  the  Low  Countries. 


320  THE  ASCENDANCY   OF   SPAIN 

movement  which  constitutes  for  us  the  significant  feature  of  his 
life  and  work.  Fortunately  for  the  Catholic  Church,  the  young 
Emperor  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Catholic  party,  and 
not  only  during  his  own  reign  employed  the  strength  and  resources 
of  his  empire  in  extirpating  the  heresy  of  the  reformers,  but  also 
transmitted  this  policy  to  his  successors  upon  the  Spanish  throne. 
Charles,  in  declaring  for  the  old  faith  and  against  the  new, 
was  swayed  both  by  conviction  and  by  considerations  of  policy. 
Although  suspicious  and  jealous  of  the  Papacy,  he  was  strongly 
attached  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  creed,  and  sincerely  be- 
lieved that  the  first  duty  of  a  prince  was  to  uproot  heresy  in 
his  dominions.  Then,  again,  as  head  of  the  Empire,  Charles  was 
impelled  in  the  same  direction.  For  he  held  the  prevalent  view 
of  his  age,  that  no  state  could  tolerate  two  creeds,  that  political 
unity  required  religious  unity ;  and  this  maxim  he  applied  not  only 
to  Spain  and  his  other  hereditary  possessions,  but  to  his  dominions 
as  a  whole,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  tried  to  suppress  the  reformed 
faith  in  Germany  as  well  as  elsewhere. 

342 .  His  Two  Chief  Enemies.  —  Had  Charles  been  free  from 
the  outset  to  devote  all  his  energies  to  the  work  of  suppressing  the 
Lutheran  heresy,  it  is  difficult  to  see  what  could  have  saved  the 
reform  doctrines  within  his  dominions  from  extirpation.  But, 
fortunately  for  the  cause  of  the  reformers,  Charles'  attention, 
during  all  the  first  part  of  his  reign,  was  drawn  away  from  the 
serious  consideration  of  Church  questions  by  the  attacks  upon  his 
dominions  of  two  of  the  most  powerful  monarchs  of  the  times,  — 
Francis  I  (15 15-1547)  of  France,  and  Solyman  the  Magnificent 
(15 20-1 566),  Sultan  of  Turkey.  Time  and  again,  when  Charles 
was  inclined  to  proceed  to  severe  measures  against  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  the  threatening  movements  of  one  or  both 
of  these  enemies,  at  times  acting  in  concert  and  alliance,  forced 
him  to  postpone  his  proposed  crusade  against  heretics  for  a 
campaign  against  foreign  foes. 

343.  Rivalry  and  Wars  between  Charles  and  Francis  (1521- 

1544) Francis  I  was  the  rival  of  Charles  in  the  contest  for  the 

imperial  dignity.    When  the  Electors  of  Germany  conferred  the 


•  •*«••    •  • 


WARS   liKTVVEEN    CHARLES  AND   FRANCIS       32 1 

title  upon  the  Spanish  monarch,  Francis  was  sorely  disappointed, 
and  during  all  the  remainder  of  his  reign  kept  up  a  jealous  and 
almost  incessant  warfare  with  Charles,  whose  enormous  posses- 
sions now  nearly  surrounded  the  French  kingdom.  Italy  was  the 
field  of  much  of  the  fighting,  as  the  securing  of  dominion  in  that 
peninsula  was  a  chief  aim  of  each  of  the  rivals.^ 

What  is  known  as  the  First  War  between  Francis  and  the 
Emperor  broke  out  in  1521.^  The  war  was  full  of  misfortunes  for 
Francis.  His  army  was  driven  out  of  Northern  Italy  by  the  imperial 
forces ;  his  most  skillful  and  trusted  commander,  the  Constable 
Bourbon,  turned  traitor  and  went  over  to  Charles ;  and  another 
of  his  most  valiant  nobles,  the  celebrated  Chevalier  Bayard,  the 
knight  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche^  "  without  fear  and  without 
reproach,"  was  killed ;  while,  to  crown  all,  Francis,  who  had  led  a 
large  army  into  Italy  to  retrieve  his  misfortunes,  was,  after  suffer- 
ing a  crushing  defeat  at  Pavia,  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  (1525). 
In  a  letter  to  his  mother  informing  her  of  the  disaster,  he  wrote, 
"  Nothing  is  left  me  in  all  the  world  save  honor  and  life."  *  He 
was  liberated  by  the  Peace  of  Madrid  (1526). 

The  most  memorable  incident  of  the  Second  War  between 
Francis  and  the  Emperor  was  the  sack  of  Rome  by  an  imperial 
army,  made  up  chiefly  of  Lutherans.  Rome  had  not  witnessed 
such  scenes  since  the  terrible  days  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals. 

2  Table  of  Wars 

First  War  (ended  by  Peace  Third  War  (ended  by  Truce 

of  Madrid) 1521-1526  of  Nice) 153^1538 

Second  War  (ended  by  Fourth  War  (ended  by  Peace 

Ladies'  Peace)     .     .     .     1527-1529  of  Crespy)   ,    .    .    .    .     1542-1544 

«  Before  beginning  the  war  Francis  cast  about  for  an  ally.  The  young  king  of 
England,  Henry  VIII,  seemed  the  most  desirable  friend.  He  accordingly  invited 
Henry  to  a  conference  in  France,  at  which  was  to  be  considered  the  matter  of  an 
alliance  against  the  Emperor.  The  two  kings,  each  attended  by  a  magnificent  train 
of  courtiers,  met  near  Calais  (1520).  The  meeting  is  known  in  history  as  "  The  Field 
of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,"  because  of  the  prodigal  richness  of  the  costumes  and  appoint- 
ments of  the  chiefs  and  their  attendants.  "  Many,"  says  a  contemporary  writer, 
"  bore  thither  their  mills,  their  forests,  and  their  meadows  on  their  backs."  Nothing 
came  of  the  interview,  and  Charles  finally  won  Henry  over  to  his  side. 

*  From  this  message  comes  the  laconic  saying,  "  All  is  lost  save  honor." 


322  THE   ASCENDANCY   OF   SPAIN 

In  the  Third  War  Francis  shocked  all  Christendom  by  forming 
an  alliance  with  the  Turkish  Sultan,  who  ravaged  with  his  fleets 
the  Italian  coasts  and  sold  his  plunder  in  the  port  of  Marseilles. 
Francis  defended  his  course  by  saying  that  when  wolves  attacked 
his  flock  he  had  a  right  to  set  the  dogs  upon  them.  The  tremen- 
dous outcry  caused  by  this  alliance  between  a  Christian  king  and 
the  infidel  Sultan,  whereas  now  it  is  thought  the  most  natural  thing 
in  the  world  for  Christian  governments,  following  purely  commer- 
cial or  political  interests  alone,  to  become  allies  of  the  Sublime 
Porte,  illustrates  how  times  have  changed  and  men  with  them. 

The  Fourth  IVar,  the  last  between  the  rivals,  resulted  in  noth- 
ing decisive  for  either  side,  and  the  struggle  was  ended  by  the 
Peace  of  Crespy  (1544). 

344.  Results  of  the  Wars  between  Francis  and  Charles.  — The 
direct  and  indirect  consequences  of  the  protracted  combat  between 
Francis  and  Charles  were  many  and  far-reaching. 

First,  Francis'  opposition  to  Charles  had  prevented  him  from 
reducing  France  to  a  mere  dependency  of  Spain  and  from  crush- 
ing the  political  and  religious  liberties  of  Germany,  and  had 
thereby  prevented  him  from  destroying  the  European  equilibrium 
and  setting  up  on  the  Continent  an  Austro-Spanish  tyranny. 

Second,  Protestantism  had  been  given  time  to  intrench  itself 
so  firmly  in  North  Germany  and  in  other  countries  as  to  render 
ineffectual  all  later  efforts  for  its  destruction. 

Third,  by  preventing  united  action  on  the  part  of  the  Christian 
princes,  and  by  encouraging  shameful  alliances  between  Christian 
and  Moslem,  these  quarrels  had  really  been  the  occasion  of  the 
severe  losses  which  Christendom  during  this  period  suffered  at  the 
hands  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Hungary  had  been  ravaged  with 
fire  and  sword  ;  Rhodes  had  been  captured  and  the  Mediterranean 
made  almost  a  Turkish  lake.^ 

5  The  worst  feature  of  this  advance  of  the  Sultan's  authority  in  the  Mediterranean 
was  the  growth,  under  his  protection,  of  the  power  of  the  Algerian  pirates.  One  of 
the  chief  strongholds  of  the  pirates  on  the  African  coast  was  Tunis,  which  was  held 
by  the  famous  Barbarossa.  In  the  interval  between  his  second  and  third  wars  with 
Francis,  Charles,  with  a  large  army  and  fleet,  made  an  assault  upon  this  place, 
defeated  the  corsair,  and  set  free  20,000  Christian  captives. 


PERSECUTION   OF   THE   WALDENSES  323 

Fourth,  these  wars,  having  had  Italy  as  their  chief  theater,  had 
been  a  frightful  scourge  to  that  land  and  had  blighted  there  all  the 
fair  promises  of  the  Renaissance  ;  but  at  the  same  time  the  storm 
had  wafted  the  precious  seeds  of  the  revived  arts  and  letters  beyond 
the  mountains  into  France  and  other  northern  lands.  The  French 
Renaissance  dates  from  these  Italian  wars. 

345.  Persecution  of  the  Waldenses  by  Francis  (1545).  —  It  was 
the  religious  situation  that  had  much  to  do  in  leading  Charles 
and  Francis  to  compose  their  quarrel  by  the  Peace  of  Crespy. 
The  treaty  contained  secret  articles  in  which  each  agreed  to  aid 
the  other  and  to  cooperate  with  other  Catholic  sovereigns  in  the 
extirpation  of  heresy  and  in  the  maintenance  of  the  religious  unity 
of  Christendom.  From  this  time  on  to  the  end  of  their  respective 
reigns  both  were  chiefly  busied  in  carrying  into  effect  this  secret 
agreement. 

The  severest  blow  dealt  the  heretics  of  his  kingdom  by  Henry 
fell  upon  the  Vaudois,  or  Waldenses,®  the  simple,  inoffensive  inhab- 
itants of  a  number  of  hamlets  in  the  Alpine  regions  of  Piedmont 
and  Provence.  These  people  during  the  later  mediaeval  time  had 
fallen  into  what  the  Church  regarded  as  heretical  ways,  and  just 
now  they  were  mingling  with  their  own  heresies  those  of  the 
Protestant  reformers.  Thousands  were  put  to  death  by  the  sword, 
thousands  more  were  burned  at  the  stake.  At  a  later  time  other 
persecutions  fell  upon  them,  until  finally  only  a  miserable  rem- 
nant, who  found  an  asylum  among  the  mountains,  were  left  to 
hand  down  their  faith  to  modern  times. 

346.  Charles'  Wars  with  the  Protestant  German  Princes.  — 
Charles,  on  his  part,  turned  his  attention  to  the  reformers  in  Ger- 
many. Inspired  by  the  religious  motives  and  convictions  of  which 
we  have  already  spoken,  and  apprehensive,  further,  of  the  effect 
upon  his  authority  in  Germany  of  the  growth  there  of  such  an 
empire  within  an  empire  as  the  Protestant  princes  and  free  cities 
—  now  united  in  a  union  known  as  the  Schmalkaldic  League  — 
were  becoming,  he  resolved  to  crush  the  whole  reform  movement. 

6  So  called  from  the  founder  of  the  sect,  Peter  Waldo,  or  Pierre  de  Vaux,  who 
lived  in  the  later  years  of  the  twelfth  century. 


324  THE   ASCENDANCY    OF   SPAIN 

Accordingly,  in  the  very  year  that  Luther  died  (1546),  the 
Emperor,  aided  by  the  German  Catholics,  attacked  the  Protestant 
league.  He  was  at  first  successful,  but  in  the  end  the  war  proved 
the  most  disastrous  and  humiliating  to  him  of  any  in  which  he 
had  engaged.  Severe  defeats  of  his  armies  finally  constrained  him 
to  give  up  his  undertaking  to  make  all  his  German  subjects  think 
alike  in  matters  of  religion. 

347.  The  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555).  —  In  the  cele- 
brated Diet  of  Augsburg,  convened  in  1555  to  compose  the  dis- 
tracted affairs  of  the  German  states,  it  was  arranged  and  agreed 
that  every  prince  should  be  allowed  to  choose  between  the  Cath- 
olic religion  and  the  Augsburg  Confession,'^  and  should  have  the 
right  to  make  his  rehgion  the  religion  of  his  people.^  This,  it 
will  be  noted,  was  simply  toleration  as  concerns  princes  or  gov- 
ernments. The  people  individually  had  no  freedom  of  choice ; 
every  subject  must  follow  his  prince,  and  think  and  believe  as  he 
thought  and  believed. 

To  this  article,  however,  the  Diet  made  one  important  excep- 
tion. The  Catholics  insisted  that  ecclesiastical  princes,  i.e.  bishops 
and  abbots,  on  becoming  Protestants,  should  give  up  their  offices 
and  revenues ;  and  this  important  clause,  under  the  name  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Reservation,  was  finally  made  a  part  of  the  treaty. 

It  is  important  that  this  Treaty  of  Augsburg  should  be  kept 
carefully  in  mind,  for  the  reason  that  it  was  through  mutual  mis- 
understandings of  its  provisions  and  violations  of  its  articles  by 
both  parties  that  the  way  was  paved  for  the  terrible  Thirty  Years' 
War  (Chapter  XXV). 

348.  Charles  sets  up  the  Inquisition  in  the  Netherlands.  —  In 
the  Low  Countries  Charles  had  a  freer  hand  in  dealing  with 
heresy  than  he  had  in  Germany,  since  in  these  provinces  he  exer- 
cised the  authority  of  an  hereditary  prince  and  could  employ 
measures   of  repression  which   he   could    not    resort    to    in    the 

''  The  Augsburg  Confession,  it  will  be  recalled,  was  the  formula  of  belief  of  the 
adherents  of  Luther  (sec.  330).  The  Peace  of  Augsburg  made  no  provision  for  the 
Calvinists  (sec.  332),  since  there  were  then  few  of  them  in  Germany. 

8  The  free  imperial  cities  were  not  given  this  right.  Within  them  each  party  must 
tolerate  the  other. 


ABDICATION   OF   CHARLES  325 

German  states.  Accordingly  we  find  him  in  the  year  1550  setting 
up  the  Inquisition  here  and  sustaining  it  with  all  his  authority. 
Concerning  the  results  of  his  efforts  we  shall  speak  a  little  farther 
on  (sec.  399). 

349.  His  Abdication.  — While  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  arrang- 
ing the  religious  peace,  the  Emperor  Charles  was  enacting  the  part 
of  a  second  Diocletian.  There  had  long  been  forming  in  his  mind 
the  purpose  of  spending  his  last  days  in  monastic  seclusion.  The 
disappointing  issue  of  his  contest  with  the  Protestant  princes  of 
Germany,  the  weight  of  advancing  years,  together  with  menacing 
troubles  which  began  *'to  thicken  like  dark  clouds  about  the 
evening  of  his  reign,"  now  led  the  Emperor  to  carry  this  resolu- 
tion into  effect.  Accordingly  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son 
Philip  the  crown  of  the  Netherlands^  (i555)>  and  that  of  Spain 
and  its  colonies  (1556),  and  then  retired  to  the  monastery  of 
Yuste,  situated  in  a  secluded  region  in  Western  Spain. 

The  departure  of  the  self-deposed  monarch  from  Ghent  to  the 
place  of  his  exile  is  thus  contrasted,  by  the  pen  of  a  graceful  his- 
torian, with  his  embarkation  from  the  Netherlands  more  than  a 
third  of  a  century  before,  to  receive  the  crown  of  Spain  and  the 
Indies,  which  had  just  descended  to  him  by  the  death  of  his 
grandfather  Ferdinand  :  "  He  was  then  in  the  morning  of  life ; 
just  entering  on  a  career  as  splendid  as  ever  opened  to  young 
ambition.  How  different  must  have  been  the  reflections  which 
now  crowded  on  his  mind,  as,  with  wasted  health,  and  spirits 
sorely  depressed,  he  now  embarked  on  the  same  voyage  !  He  had 
run  the  race  of  glory,  had  won  the  prize,  and  found  that  all  was 
vanity.  He  was  now  returning  to  the  goal  whence  he  had  started, 
anxious  only  to  reach  some  quiet  spot  where  he  might  lay  down 
his  weary  limbs  and  be  at  rest  "  (Prescott). 

There  is  a  tradition  which  tells  how  Charles,  after  vainly  en- 
deavoring to  make  some  clocks  that  he  had  about  him  at  Yuste 


0  Philip  had  received  the  crown  of  Naples  the  preceding  year  (1554),  in  order  that 
his  titular  dignity  might  be  the  same  as  that  of  Queen  Mary  of  England,  to  whom  he 
was  that  year  united  in  marriage.  The  imperial  crown  went  to  Charles'  brother,  the 
Archduke  Ferdinand. 


326 


THE   ASCENDANCY   OF   SPAIN 


run  together,  made  the  following  reflection:  "How  foolish  I  have 
been  to  think  I  could  make  all  men  believe  alike  about  religion, 
when  here  I  cannot  make  even  two  clocks  keep  the  same  time." 
This  story  is  probably  mythical.  Charles  seems  never  to  have 
doubted  either  the  practicability  or  the  policy  of  securing  uni- 
formity of  behef  by  force.  While  in  retirement  at  Yuste  he 
expressed  the  deepest  regret  that  he  did  not  burn  Luther  at 
Worms.  He  was  constantly  urging  Philip  to  use  greater  severity  in 
dealing  with  his  heretic  subjects,  and  could  scarcely  restrain  him- 
self from  leaving  his  retreat  in  order  to  engage  personally  in  the 
work  of  eradicating  the  pestilent  doctrines  which  he  heard  were 
spreading  in  Spain. 


H,    Spain  under  Philip  II  (15 56-1 598) 

350.  Philip's  Character  and  his  Principles  of  Government.  — 

PhiHp,  unlike  his  father,  was  a  representative  Spaniard.  He  typi- 
fied and  embodied  in  himself  the  traits,  ideals,  and  aspirations 
of  the  Spanish  race,  just  as  Luther  typified  and  embodied  those  of 

the  German  race.  His  mind  was  the 
mind,  his  conscience  was  the  con- 
science, of  the  Spanish  people. 

Like  the  true  Spaniard,  Philip 
possessed  a  deeply  religious  nature. 
He  beUeved  as  sincerely  as  ever  did 
the  Puritan  Cromwell  that  he  was 
God's  chosen  instrument  for  the 
working  out  of  his  eternal  designs. 
But  in  order  that  he  might  do  what 
God  would  have  done  in  the  world, 
he  conceived  it  to  be  necessary  that 
he  should  have  absolute  power.  A 
necessary  basis  of  this  absolute 
power,  in  Phihp's  conception,  as  in 
that  of  his  father  Charles,  was  religious  unity.  Disunion  in  the 
Church   meant  disunion  in   the  state.     Hence   one   of  Philip's 


Fig.  6r.  — Philip  II.    (After 
a  painting  by  Titian) 


PHILIP'S    DOMAINS   AND    REVENUES  327 

instruments  of  government  was  the  Inquisition.  He  employed  it 
in  the  suppression  of  heresy,  not  simply  because  he  was  a  sincere 
Catholic  and  believed  that  heresy  was  willful  sin  and  should  be 
sternly  dealt  with,  but  primarily  because  heresy,  in  his  view,  was 
rebellion  against  the  state. 

Philip  possessed  unusual  administrative  ability.  He  was  an 
incessant  worker  and  busied  himself  with  the  endless  details  of 
government.  He  left  nothing  to  the  discretion  of  others.  He  did 
everything  himself.  His  secretaries  were  mere  clerks.  He  him- 
self handled  every  dispatch.  His  generals  awaited  and  followed 
his  minute  orders.  He  even  regulated,  or  tried  to  regulate,  the 
private  affairs  of  his  subjects,  —  told  them  how  to  dress,  when 
they  might  use  carriages,  and  how  and  where  to  educate  their 
children.  Under  this  system  there  was  in  the  kingdom  but  one 
brain  to  plan  and  one  will  to  direct.  All  local  freedom  and  all 
individual  initiative  were  crushed  out.  This  fatally  centralized 
system  of  absolute  government  Philip  bequeathed  to  his  suc- 
cessors, and  thus  contributed  greatly  to  determine  the  unhappy 
destiny  of  the  Spanish  people. 

351.  Philip's  Domains  and  Revenues. — With  the  abdication 
of  Charles  V  the  imperial  crown  passed  out  of  the  Spanish  line 
of  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  Yet  the  dominions  of  Philip  were 
scarcely  less  extensive  than  those  over  which  his  father  had  ruled. 
All  the  hereditary  possessions  of  the  Spanish  crown  were  of  course 
his.  Then  just  before  the  abdication  of  his  father  gave  him  these 
domains  he  had  become  king-consort  of  England  by  marriage  with 
Mary  Tudor ;  and  about  the  middle  of  his  reign  he  acquired 
Portugal  and  added  to  his  empire  its  rich  dependencies  in  Africa 
and  the  East  Indies.-  After  this  accession  of  territory,  Philip's 
sovereignty  was  owned,  it  has  been  estimated,  by  more  than  one 
hundred  million  persons,  —  probably  as  large  a  number  as  the 
Roman  Empire  contained  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  extent. 

Philip's  revenues,  too,  were  as  ample  as  his  domains.  The 
mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru  poured  into  the  royal  coffers  a  steady 
stream  of  the  precious  metals ;  the  looms  of  Flanders  created 
untold  wealth  for  their  Spanish  master ;  while  frequent  and  heavy 


328  THE   ASCENDANCY    OF    SPAIN 

taxes  levied  upon  the  provinces  and  cities  of  the  peninsula  still 
further  augmented  the  royal  income. 

But  notwithstanding  that  Philip's  dominions  were  so  extensive, 
his  resources  so  enormous,  and  many  of  the  outward  circumstances 
of  his  reign  so  striking  and  brilliant,  there  were  throughout  the 
period  causes  at  work  which  were  rapidly  undermining  the  great- 
ness of  Spain  and  preparing  her  fall.  By  wasteful  wars  and  extrav- 
agant buildings  Philip  managed  to  dissipate  the  royal  treasures ; 
and  by  a  narrow,  blind,  and  suicidal  course  in  regard  to  his  Moorish, 
Jewish,  and  Protestant  subjects,  he  ruined  the  industries  of  the 
most  flourishing  of  the  provinces  of  Spain,  and  drove  the  Nether- 
lands into  a  desperate  revolt,  which  ended  in  the  separation  of  the 
most  valuable  of  those  provinces  from  the  Spanish  crown. 

As  the  most  important  matters  of  Philip's  reign  —  namely,  his 
war  against  the  revolted  Netherlands  and  his  attempt  upon  Eng- 
land with  his  "Invincible  Armada" — belong  properly  to  the 
respective  histories  of  England  and  the  Netherlands,  and  will  be 
treated  of  in  connection  with  the  affairs  of  those  countries,  we 
shall  give  here  very  little  space  to  the  history  of  the  period. 

352.  Philip's  War  with  France.  — Philip  took  up  his  father's 
quarrel  with  France.  He  was  aided  by  the  English,  who  were 
persuaded  to  this  step  by  their  queen,  Mary  Tudor,  now  the  wife, 
it  will  be  recalled,  of  Philip.  Fortune  favored  Philip.  The  French 
were  defeated  in  two  great  battles, ^^  and  were  forced  to  agree  to 
a  treaty  (Peace  of  Cateau-Cambr^sis,  1559)  so  advantageous  to 
Spain  as  to  give  Philip  great  distinction  in  the  eyes  of  all  Europe. 

In  the  negotiation  of  this  treaty  between  Philip  and  Henry,  as 
in  the  Peace  of  Crespy  between  Charles  and  Francis  just  fifteen 

10  At  St.  Quentin  (1557),  an  important  town  in  North  France,  then  again  at  Grave- 
lines  (1558).  The  monument  built  by  Philip  to  commemorate  the  victory  of  St.  Quen- 
tin is  strikingly  illustrative  of  his  character.  Before  the  battle  he  vowed  to  erect 
to  St.  Lawrence  the  most  splendid  monastery  the  world  had  ever  seen,  if  he  would 
but  give  success  to  his  arms.  Philip  kept  his  vow  faithfully.  A  few  years  after  the 
battle  he  laid,  near  the  city  of  Madrid,  the  foundation  of  the  famous  Escorial,  —  "a 
palace,  a  monastery,  and  a  mausoleum."  The  edifice  was  built  in  the  form  of  a  grid- 
iron, from  the  circumstance  that  St.  Lawrence  suffered  martyrdom  by  being  broiled 
on  such  an  instrument.  It  is  the  Westminster  Abbey  of  Spain ;  it  holds  the  ashes  of 
all  the  Spanish  sovereigns  from  Charles  V  onward. 


rillLIP'S   CRUSADE   AGAINST  THE   MORISCOS      329 

years  before,  a  main  motive  with  both  sovereigns  was  anxiety  to 
be  free  to  engage  in  the  work  of  extirpating  heresy. 

353.  Philip's  Crusade  against  the  Moriscos  (15 70-15 71).  —  It 
will  be  recalled  that  upon  the  conquest  of  Granada  in  1492  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  Moors  were  assured  protection  in  all 
civil  rights  and  granted  religious  freedom.  Had  these  promises 
been  kept,  the  Moors,  docile  and  industrious  as  they  were,  would 
have  become  loyal  subjects  of  the  Spanish  crown,  and  an  element 
of  strength  in  the  Spanish  nation. 

But  the  Emperor  Charles  V  had  broken  faith  with  them.  Carry- 
ing out  his  policy  of  enforcing  religious  uniformity,  he  compelled 
them  to  embrace  Christianity.  They  submitted  to  baptism,  and 
outwardly  conformed  to  the  requirements  of  the  Church,  but 
secretly  they  held  to  their  own  faith,  and  maintained  their  ancient 
practices  and  traditions.  Having  been  baptized,  however,  they 
were  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church.  The  Inquisition 
dealt  cruelly  with  them  as  apostates  and  heretics. 

Philip  inherited  the  policy  of  his  father,  and  was  more  thorough- 
going in  carrying  it  out.  He  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty  to  impose 
upon  the  Moriscos  —  thus  they  were  called  after  their  conversion 
—  conditions  that  should  thoroughly  obliterate  all  traces  of  their 
ancient  faith  and  manners.  So  he  issued  a  decree  that  they  should 
no  longer  wear  their  native  garb  or  use  their  native  tongue,  and 
that  they  should  give  their  children  Christian  names  and  send  them 
to  Christian  schools.    A  determined  revolt  followed. 

The  uprising  was  suppressed  with  cniel  severity,  and  then, 
because  there  was  danger  that  if  left  in  these  coast  regions  they 
might  open  the  gates  of  the  country  to  the  Moslems  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, an  order  was  issued  which  condemned  all  the  Moriscos 
of  Granada  to  deportation  to  districts  in  the  center  and  the  north 
of  the  peninsula.  The  order  was  relentlessly  carried  out.  Men, 
women,  and  children,  all  who  were  of  Moorish  blood,  were  carried 
off  into  hopeless  exile. 

354.  Defeat  of  the  Turkish  Fleet  at  Lepanto  (157 1).  —  At  the 
very  moment  almost  that  Philip  was  dealing  Spain  a  fatal  blow  by 
his  cruel  treatment  of  his  Morisco  subjects,  he  was  rendering  a  great 


330  THE  ASCENDANCY   OF   SPAIN 

service  to  Christian  civilization  at  large.  This  he  did  by  helping 
to  stay  the  progress  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  in  the  Mediterranean. 
They  had  captured  the  important  island  of  Cyprus,  and  had 
assaulted  the  Hospitalers  at  Malta,  which  island  had  been  saved 
from  falHng  into  the  hands  of  the  infidels  only  by  the  splendid 
conduct  of  the  Knights.  All  Christendom  was  becoming  alarmed. 
An  alliance  was  formed,  embracing  the  Pope,  the  Venetians,  and 
Philip  II.  An  immense  fleet  was  equipped  and  put  under  the  com- 
mand of  Don  John  of  Austria,  PhiUp's  half-brother,  a  young  gen- 
eral whose  consummate  abiUty  had  been  recently  displayed  in  the 
crusade  against  the  Moors. 

The  Christian  fleet  met  the  Turkish  squadron  in  the  Gulf  of 
Lepanto,  on  the  western  coast  of  Greece.  The  battle  was  unequaled 
by  anything  the  Mediterranean  had  seen  since  the  naval  encounters 
of  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians  in  the  First  Punic  War.  The 
Ottoman  fleet  was  almost  totally  destroyed.  Thousands  of  Chris- 
tian captives,  who  were  found  chained  to  the  oars  of  the  Turkish 
galleys,  were  liberated.  All  Christendom  rejoiced  as  when  Jerusa- 
lem was  captured  by  the  first  crusaders. 

The  battle  of  Lepanto  holds  an  important  place  in  history, 
because  it  marks  the  turning  point  of  the  long  struggle  between 
the  Mohammedans  and  Christians,  which  had  now  been  going 
on  for  nearly  one  thousand  years.  Though  the  Moslems  had 
received  many  checks,  there  really  was  no  time  previous  to  this 
great  victory  when  the  Mohammedan  power,  represented  first 
by  the  Arabs  and  afterwards  by  the  Turks,  did  not  hang  like  a 
threatening  cloud  along  the  southern  or  eastern  border  of  Chris- 
tendom. The  victory  of  Lepanto  robbed  the  cloud  of  its  terrors. 
The  Ottoman  Turks,  though  they  afterwards  made  progress  in 
some  quarters,  never  recovered  the  prestige  they  lost  in  that 
disaster,  and  their  power  thenceforward  steadily  declined. 

355.  The  Acquisition  of  Portugal  by  Spain. — When  in  1580 
the  throne  of  Portugal  became  vacant  by  the  death  of  Dom 
Henry  the  Cardinal,  Philip  laid  claim  to  the  kingdom,  and  sent 
an  army,  led  by  the  able  Duke  of  Alva,  to  take  possession  of  the 
country.    For  sixty  years  Portugal  remained  in  captivity  to  Spain. 


DEATH    OF    PHILIP  33 1 

The  significance  of  this  acquisition  consisted  not  so  much  in 
the  extension  of  Spanish  authority  throughout  the  peninsula  as  in 
the  bringing  under  Spanish  control  of  the  colonial  possessions  of 
Portugal  in  South  America,  in  Africa,  and  in  the  East  Indies,  for 
this  soon  made  them  the  spoil  of  the  Dutch  and  the  English,  the 
enemies  and  the  commercial  rivals  of  Spain.  It  was  under  these 
circumstances  that  the  Dutch,  seizing  the  Spice  Islands  and  other 
former  possessions  of  Portugal,  laid  the  basis  of  their  great  empire 
in  the  Eastern  seas,  and  the  English  that  of  theirs  in  India. 

356.  The  Death  of  Philip  (1598).  —  In  the  year  1588  Philip 
made  his  memorable  attempt  with  the  so-called  "  Invincible 
Armada"  upon  England,  at  this  time  the  stronghold  of  Prot- 
estantism. As  we  shall  see  a  Httle  later,  he  failed  utterly  in  the 
undertaking.    Ten  years  after  this  death  ended  his  reign. 

Of  the  character  of  Philip  probably  no  juster  estimate  has 
ever  been  made  than  that  found  in  these  words  of  the  Dutch 
historian  Blok  :  "  Not  until  our  time  has  it  been  made  clear  that 
in  the  heart  of  this  politician,  full  of  political  cunning,  of  devilish 
revenge,  of  low  craft,  —  in  the  heart  of  this  little-spirited,  narrow, 
somber,  bitter  king,  —  there  were  also  world-wide  thoughts,  noble 
feelings  of  belief,  hearty  love,  rich  artistic  feeling,  and  devotion 
to  higher  ideals." 

357.  Later  Events:  the  Expulsion  of  the  Moriscos  (1609- 
1610);  Loss  of  the  Netherlands.  — From  the  death  of  Philip  II 
Spain  declined  in  power,  reputation,  and  influence.  This  was 
due  very  largely  to  the  bigotry  and  tyranny  of  her  nilers.  Thus 
under  Philip  III  (i 598-1 621)  a  severe  loss,  one  from  which  they 
never  recovered,  was  inflicted  upon  the  manufactures  and  other 
industries  of  the  country  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Moriscos. 

Philip  II,  it  will  be  recalled,  had  deported  the  whole  Morisco 
population  of  Granada  to  inland  provinces.  Now  all  Spain  was  to 
be  cleared  absolutely  of  the  "  evil  race."  Not  one  was  to  be  left 
upon  Spanish  soil.  Philip  really  believed  that  this  driving  out  of 
the  misbelievers  would  be  a  service  pleasing  to  God,  even  as  was 
the  driving  out  by  the  Hebrews  of  the  Canaanites  from  Pales- 
tine.   But  he  was  actuated  also  by  other  motives  in  expelling  the 


332  THE  ASCENDANCY    OF   SPAIN 

unhappy  Moriscos.  They  were  accused,  and  not  without  ground, 
so  desperate  had  oppression  and  persecution  rendered  them,  of 
plotting  with  their  co-reHgionists,  the  African  Moors  and  the  Otto- 
man Turks,  for  the  invasion  of  Spain,  and  thus  endangering  the 
peace  and  unity  of  the  land. 

Accordingly  during  the  years  1609  and  16 10  all  persons  of 
Moorish  descent  —  more  than  half  a  million  of  the  most  intel- 
ligent, skillful,  and  industrious  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  — 
were  driven  into  exile,  chiefly  to  North  Africa.  The  empty 
dwellings  and  neglected  fields  of  once  populous  and  gardenlike 
provinces  told  how  fatal  a  blow  Spain  had  inflicted  upon  herself. 
She  had  achieved  religious  unity  —  but  at  a  great  price. 

At  the  very  moment  that  Spain  was  being  so  deeply  wounded 
in  the  peninsula  she  received  an  incurable  hurt  in  her  outside 
possessions.  In  the  Truce  of  1609  (sec.  412)  she  was  forced 
virtually  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  Protestant  Neth- 
erlands, whose  revolt  against  the  tyranny  of  PhiHp  II  has  been 
mentioned.  In  the  secession  of  these  provinces  Spain  lost  her 
most  valuable  dependency. 

358.  Conclusion.  —  Spain  now  disappears  as  a  power  of  the 
first  rank  from  the  stage  of  history.  The  historian  Laurent  finely 
compares  her  withdrawal  from  the  theater  of  great  affairs  to 
Charles  V's  retirement  into  the  cloistral  soHtude  of  Yuste.  "  In  the 
sixteenth  century,"  he  says,  "  Spain  shone  in  the  first  rank  among 
the  great  powers ;  she  filled  the  Old  and  the  New  World  with  her 
name ;  then  she  retired  into  isolation,  as  Charles  V  at  the  end  of 
his  agitated  life  retired  within  the  solitude  of  a  monastery." 

Even  the  very  brief  review  which  we  have  made  of  her  sixteenth- 
century  history  will  not  fail  to  have  revealed  at  least  two  of  the  main 
causes  of  her  failure  and  quick  decadence  :  first,  a  false  imperial 
policy  in  Europe  which  involved  her  in  endless  and  fruitless  wars  ; 
and  second,  political  despotism  and  religious  intolerance. 


Selections  from  the  Sources. —  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  ill.  No.  3, 
"  Period  of  the  Later  Reformation  "  (ed.  by  Merrick  Whitcomb) ;  contains 
short  selections  bearing  on  several  of  the  matters  covered  by  this  chapter. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  333 

See  Brewer,  Reigtt  of  Henry  VIII,  vol.  ii,  pp.  120-126,  for  accounts  by 
eyewitnesses  of  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  imperial  army  in  1527. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Robertson,  History  of  the  Reign  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  the  Fifth.  Prescott,  History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  the  Second ; 
this  and  the  preceding  work  by  Robertson  are  reckoned  among  the  classics 
of  historical  literature.  Armstrong,  The  Emperor  Charles  V.  Stirling- 
Maxwell,  The  Cloister  Life  of  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth,  and  Don 
John  of  Austria  ;  works  combining  in  a  rare  degree  great  learning  and 
literary  charm.  Hume,  The  Spanish  People,  chaps,  ix-xi;  Spain:  its  Great- 
ness and  Decay,  and  Philip  II  of  Spain.  All  these  are  works  by  an  emi- 
nent scholar,  and  are  well  adapted  to  use  with  classes  of  young  readers. 
Lea,  The  Moriscos  of  Spain:  their  Conversion  and  Expulsion.  Stephens, 
Portugal,  chap,  xiii;  for  Portugal's  "Sixty  Years'  Captivity"  to  Spain.  See 
also  bibliography  for  Chapter  XXIII. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. —  i.  The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  2.  Siege 
of  Vienna  by  the  Ottoman  Turks  (1529).  3.  The  sack  of  Rome  in  1527. 
4.  The  Waldenses.  5.  The  Emperor  Charles  V  at  Yuste.  6.  The  Esco- 
rial.     7.  The  Expulsion  of  the  Moriscos  from  Spain. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE  TUDORS   AND   THE  ENGLISH  REFORMATION 

(1485-1603) 

I.    Introductory 

359.  The  Tudor  Period. — The  Tudor  period^  in  English  his- 
tory covers  the  sixteenth  century,  and  overlaps  a  little  the  preced- 
ing century  and  also  the  following.  It  was  an  eventful  and  stirring 
time  for  the  English  people.  It  witnessed  among  them  great  prog- 
ress in  art,  science,  and  trade,  and  a  literary  outburst  such  as  the 
world  had  not  seen  since  the  best  days  of  Athens.  But  the  great 
event  of  the  period  was  the  Reformation.  It  was  under  the  sov- 
ereigns of  this  house  that  England  was  severed  from  papal  Rome, 
and  Protestantism  became  firmly  established  in  the  island.  To 
tell  how  these  great  results  were  effected  will  be  our  chief  aim  in 
the  present  chapter. 

360.  The  English  Reformation  first  a  Revolt  and  then  a  Re- 
form ;  its  Premonitions.  —  The  Reformation  in  England  was,  more 
distinctly  than  elsewhere,  a  double  movement.  First,  England 
was  separated  violently  from  the  ecclesiastical  empire  of  Rome, 
but  without  any  essential  change  being  made  in  creed  or  form  of 
worship.    This  was  accomphshed  under  Henry  VIII. 

Second,  the  English  Church,  thus  rendered  independent  of 
Rome,  gradually  changed  its  creed  and  ritual.  This  was  effected 
chiefly  under  Edward  VI.  So  the  movement  was  first  a  revolt 
and  then  a  reform. 

In  so  far  as  it  was  a  secession  movement,  it  was  practically  merely 
the  culmination   of  an   age-long  controversy  between   England 

1  The  Tudor  sovereigns  were  Henry  VII  (1485-1509),  Henry  VIII  (1509-1547), 
Edward  VI  (1547-1553),  Mary  (1553-1558),  and  Elizabeth  (1558-1603). 

334 


REIGN    OF   HENRY  VII  335 

and  the  Papacy.'^  "  For  three  hundred  years,"  in  the  words  of 
the  historian  Green,  "  the  Pope  had  been  the  standing  grievance 
of  Englishmen."  Time  and  again  the  English  Parliament  had 
passed  acts  declaring  that  the  Pope  should  not  do  this  and  should 
not  do  that  in  England.  It  was  this  sensitiveness  of  Englishmen 
respecting  the  jurisdiction  in  England  of  a  foreign  potentate  that 
made  it  so  comparatively  easy  for  Henry  VIII,  during  the  first 
stir  and  excitement  of  the  reform  movement,  to  cut  England  loose 
from  the  papal  empire. 

In  so  far  as  the  movement  was  a  religious  reformation,  the  soil 
in  England  had  been  in  a  measure  prepared  for  the  seed  of  the 
reformed  faith  by  the  labors  of  the  humanists.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  significant  movement  of  the  Oxford  reformers, 
Colet,  Erasmus,  and  More  (sec.  317). 

II.    The  Reign  of  Henry  VII  (1485-1509) 

361.  Benevolences ;  the  Statute  of  Liveries. —  Henry  VII  and  his 
queen  united  the  long-disputed  titles  of  the  two  Roses  (sec.  223). 
But  the  bitter  feelings  engendered  by  the  contentions  of  the  rival 
families  still  existed.  Particularly  was  there  much  smothered  dis- 
content among  the  Yorkists,  which  manifested  itself  in  two  remark- 
able attempts  to  place  impostors  upon  the  throne,  both  of  which 
however  were  unsuccessful. 

Henry's  besetting  sins  were  avarice  and  a  love  of  despotic  rule. 
Much  of  his  attention  was  given  to  heaping  up  a  vast  treasure, 
which  he  left  to  his  successor.  One  device  adopted  by  the  king 
for  wringing  money  from  his  wealthy  subjects  was  what  were 
euphemistically  termed  "  Benevolences."  Magna  Carta  forbade  the 
king  to  impose  taxes  without  the  consent  of  the  Common  Council. 
But  Henry  did  not  like  to  convene  Parliament,  as  he  wished  to 
rule  like  the  kings  of  the  Continent,  guided  simply  by  his  own 
free  will.    So  benevolences  were  made  to  take  the  place  of  regular 

2  For  episodes  in  this  protracted  quarrel,  see  "  The  Martyrdom  of  Thomas 
Becket"  (sec.  208),  "  Pops  Innocent  III  and  King  Jolm  of  England"  (sec.  164),  and 
"  The  Revolt  of  Germany  and  England"  (sec.  169). 


336  THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 

taxes.  These  were  nothing  more  nor  less  than  gifts  extorted  from 
the  well-to-do  by  moral  pressure. 

One  of  Henry's  favorite  ministers,  Cardinal  Morton,  was  par- 
ticularly successful  in  his  appeals  for  gifts  of  this  kind.  To  those 
who  lived  splendidly  he  would  say  that  it  was  very  evident  they 
were  quite  able  to  make  a  generous  donation  to  their  sovereign ; 
while  to  others  who  lived  in  a  narrow  and  pinched  way  he  would 
represent  that  their  economical  mode  of  life  must  have  made  them 
wealthy.  This  teasing  dilemma  received  the  name  of  "  Morton's 
fork." 

The  king  found  still  another  source  of  revenue  in  raking  up 
long-forgotten  claims  of  the  crown,  and  in  imposing  fines  for  the 
violation  of  musty  laws  that  everybody  had  forgotten.  Among 
the  various  laws  executed  with  unusual  rigor,  not  more  to  sustain 
the  dignity  of  the  crown  than  to  increase  its  revenues,  was  one 
known  as  the  Statute  of  Liveries,  which  forbade  the  great  lords  to 
keep  liveried  or  uniformed  retainers.  This  statute  was  intended 
to  take  away  from  the  baronage  what  little  power  and  importance 
remained  to  them  after  the  ruin  wrought  by  the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 
Henry  watched  this  matter  very  closely,  and  greatly  increased  the 
receipts  of  the  royal  exchequer  by  the  enforcement  of  fines. 

362 .  Foreign  Matrimonial  Alliances.  — The  marriages  of  Henry's 
children  must  be  noted  by  us  here,  because  of  the  great  influence 
these  alliances  had  upon  the  after  course  of  P^nglish  history. 

A  common  fear  of  France  caused  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of 
Spain  and  Henry  to  form  a  protective  alliance.  To  secure  the 
permanency  of  the  union  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  cement  it  by 
a  marriage  bond.  The  Infanta  Catherine  was  accordingly  betrothed 
to  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales.  Unfortunately,  the  prince  died  soon 
after  the  celebration  of  the  nuptials. 

The  Spanish  sovereigns,  still  anxious  to  retain  the  advantages 
of  an  English  alliance,  now  urged  that  the  young  widow  be 
espoused  by  Arthur's  brother  Henry.  A  rule  of  the  Church,  how- 
ever, which  forbade  a  man  to  marry  his  brother's  widow,  stood 
in  the  way  of  this  arrangement;  but  the  queen  mother  Isabella 
secured  from  Pope  Julius  II  a  decree  granting  permission  in  this 


MARITIME   DISCOVERIES  337 

case,  and  so  the  young  widow  was  betrothed  to  Prince  Henry. 
This  alHance  of  the  royal  families  of  luigland  and  Spain  led  to 
many  important  consequences,  as  we  shall  learn. 

To  relieve  England  of  danger  on  her  northern  frontier,  Henry 
steadily  pursued  the  policy  of  a  marriage  alliance  with  Scotland. 
His  wishes  were  realized  when  his  elder  daughter  Margaret  became 
the  wife  of  James  IV,  king  of  that  realm.  This  was  a  most  fortunate 
marriage,  and  finally  led  to  the  happy  union  of  the  two  countries 
under  a  single  crown. 

363.  Maritime  Discoveries.  —  It  was  during  this  reign  that 
great  geographical  discoveries  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  the 
world.  Columbus  announced  to  Europe  the  existence  of  land  to 
the  west ;  Vasco  da  Gama  sailed  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  found  a  water  path  to  the  East  Indies. 

In  the  year  of  this  last  enterprise  Henry  commissioned  John 
Cabot,  a  Venetian  navigator  doing  business  in  England,  and  his 
sons  to  make  explorations  in  the  western  and  northern  seas.  In 
his  westward  voyage  Cabot  ran  against  the  American  continent 
somewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  Newfoundland,  and  took  possession 
of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  English  sovereign  (1497).  He 
was  probably  the  first  European  to  look  upon  the  mainland  of  the 
New  World,  for  Columbus  up  to  this  time  had  seen  only  the 
islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Upon  this  discovery  and  other  alleged  discoveries  and  explora- 
tions of  John  Cabot  and  his  son  Sebastian  the  English  based 
their  claim  to  the  whole  of  the  American  coast  from  Labrador 
down  to  Florida.  This  claim  included  the  best  part  of  North 
America,  —  what  was  destined  to  be  the  third  and  most  spacious 
home  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 

III.   England  severed  from  the  Papacy  by 
Henry  VIII  (i 509-1547) 

364.  Cardinal  Wolsey.  —  Henry  VII  died  in  1509,  leaving  his 
throne  to  his  son  Henry,  an  energetic  and  headstrong  youth  of 
eighteen  years.    We  must  here  at  the  opening  of  the  young  king's 


338  THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 

reign ^  introduce  his  greatest  minister,  Thomas  Wolsey  (1475?- 
1530).  This  man  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  characters  of 
his  generation,  —  "  probably  the  greatest  political  genius,"  says 
Bishop  Creighton,  "  whom  England  has  ever  produced."  He  was, 
as  Holinshed  characterizes  him,  "very  eloquent,  and  full  of  wit; 
but  passingly  ambitious."  Henry  elevated  him  to  the  office  of 
Archbishop  of  York,  and  made  him  Lord  Chancellor  of  the  realm ; 
the  Pope  made  him  a  cardinal,  and  afterwards  papal  legate  in 
England.  He  was  now  virtually  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  both 
State  and  Church. 

Wolsey  was  a  patriot,  —  the  best  patriot  of  his  time.  But  he 
conceived  the  great  need  of  England,  still  feeling  the  effects  of 
the  old  feudal  turbulency,  to  be  a  single,  strong,  firm  hand  at  the 
helm ;  hence  his  first  aim  was  to  make  the  royal  power  supreme 
and  absolute.  His  second  aim  was  to  make  England  the  center 
of  European  politics,  the  mediator  between  the  rival  powers  of 
France,  Spain,  and  the  Papacy.  He  attained  in  a  fair  measure 
both  these  ends;  he  enabled  Henry  to  rule  as  well  as  to  reign, 
and  secured  for  England  great  prestige  in  Europe. 

365.  Henry  as  "  Defender  of  the  Faith."  —  It  was  in  the  eighth 
year  of  Henry  VIII's  reign  that  Martin  Luther  tacked  upon  the 
door  of  the  Wittenberg  church  his  famous  ninety-five  theses. 
England  was  stirred  with  the  rest  of  Western  Christendom. 
When,  a  little  later,  Luther  attacked  directly  the  papal  power, 
Henry  wrote  a  Latin  treatise  refuting  the  arguments  of  the  auda- 
cious monk. 

The  Pope,  Leo  X,  rewarded  Henry's  Catholic  zeal  by  confer- 
ring upon  him  the  title  of  "Defender  of  the  Faith"  (152 1). 
This  title  was  retained  by  Henry  after  the  secession  of  the  Church 
of  England  from  the  papal  see,  and  is  borne  by  his  latest  successor 

8  In  15 12,  joining  what  was  known  as  the  Holy  League, — a  union  against  the 
French  king,  of  which  the  Pops  was  the  head,  —  Henry  made  his  first  campaign  in 
France.  While  Henry  was  across  the  Channel,  James  IV  of  Scotland  thought  to 
give  aid  to  the  French  king  by  invading  England.  The  Scottish  army  was  met  by 
the  English  force  at  Flodden.  beneath  the  Cheviot  Hills,  and  completely  overwhelmed 
(15 13).  King  James  was  killed,  and  the  flower  of  the  Scottish  nobiHty  was  left  dead 
upon  the  field.  It  was  the  most  terrible  disaster  that  had  ever  befallen  the  Scottish 
nation.    Scott's  poem  Marmion,  a  Tale  of  Flodden  Field,  commemorates  the  battle. 


HENRY   SEEKS   DIVORCE   FROM   CATHERINE      339 

to-day,  although  he  is  "defender"  of  quite  a  different  faith  from 
that  in  the  defense  of  which  Henry  first  earned  the  title. 

366.  Henry  seeks  to  be  divorced  from  Catherine. — We  have  now 
to  relate  some  circumstances  which  very  soon  changed  Henry 
from  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  Papacy  into  a  bitter  enemy. 
Henry's  marriage  with  Catherine  of  Aragon  had  been  prompted 


1^  '^^K^^*^  ''ir*    WP^^^^ 

9 

1 

^M 

1          , .  '" 

"^^Tsf 

■       1 

^^^^Hv^Yvl'^^^"^ 

y^yf!^ 

^%l 

-**. 

Fig.  62.  —  Henry  Vlli.    (Alter  a  painting  by  Holbein) 


by  policy  and  not  by  love.  Of  the  five  children  born  of  the  union, 
all  had  died  save  a  sickly  daughter  named  Mary.  In  these  suc- 
cessive afflictions  which  left  him  without  a  son  to  succeed  him, 
Henry  saw  or  feigned  to  see  a  sign  of  Heaven's  displeasure 
because  he  had  taken  to  wife  the  widow  of  his  brother.  And  now 
a  new  circumstance  arose,  if  it  had  not  existed  for  some  time 
previous  to  this.  Henry  fell  in  love  with  Anne  Boleyn,  a  beauti- 
ful and  vivacious  maid  of  honor  in  the  queen's  household.  This 
new  affection  so  greatly  quickened  the  king's  conscience  that  he 


340  THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 

soon  became  fully  convinced  that  it  was  his  duty  to  put  Catherine 
aside.  Accordingly  Henry  asked  the  Pope,  Clement  VII,  to  grant 
him  a  divorce.  Clement  gave  no  immediate  decision,  but  after 
about  two  years'  delay,  influenced  by  the  Emperor  Charles,  he 
ordered  Henry  and  Catherine  both  to  appear  before  him  at  Rome. 

367.  The  Fall  of  Wolsey ;  his  Death  (1530).  —  Henry's  pa- 
tience was  now  completely  exhausted.  Becoming  persuaded  that 
Wolsey  was  not  exerting  himself  as  he  might  to  secure  the  divorce, 
he  banished  him  from  court.  The  hatred  of  Anne  Boleyn  and  of 
others,  for  Wolsey  had  many  enemies,  pursued  the  fallen  minister. 
Finally,  he  was  arrested  on  the  preposterous  charge  of  high  treason. 
While  on  his  way  to  London  the  unhappy  minister,  broken  in  spirit 
and  in  health,  was  prostrated  by  a  fatal  fever.  As  he  lay  dying  in 
the  arms  of  the  kind  monks  of  Leicester  Abbey,  he  uttered  these 
self-censuring  words  :  "  Had  I  served  my  God  as  diligently  as  I 
have  served  my  king,  He  would  not  have  given  me  over  in  my 
gray  hairs." 

Wolsey  had  indeed  sunk  his  priestly  office  in  that  of  the  states- 
man, and  as  a  statesman  he  had  often  stifled  the  scruples  of  con- 
science in  obedience  to  the  king's  unholy  wishes  and  commands. 

368.  The  Opinion  of  the  Universities.  — Just  before  Wolsey's 
disgrace  a  young  priest  of  Cambridge,  named  Thomas  Cranmer, 
had  suggested  that  the  universities  in  England  and  upon  the 
Continent  should  be  asked  to  give  their  opinion  on  the  validity 
of  the  king's  marriage  with  Catherine.  If  they  all  agreed  that  the 
union  was  invalid,  then  the  Pope  could  hardly  refuse  to  grant  the 
divorce.  The  plan  pleased  Henry,  and  to  the  universities,  accord- 
ingly, the  case  was  submitted.  But  the  opinions  of  the  learned 
doctors  were  so  conflicting,  and,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  Eng- 
lish universities,  so  manifestly  tainted  with  bribery,  that  nothing 
save  delay  resulted  from  this  plan  of  settlement. 

369.  Thomas  Cromwell.  —  A  man  of  great  power  and  mark  now 
rises  to  our  notice.  After  the  disgrace  of  Wolsey  an  attendant  of 
his  named  Thomas  Cromwell  rapidly  assumed  in  Henry's  regard 
the  place  from  which  the  cardinal  had  fallen.  For  the  space  of 
ten  years  this  strong  but  unscrupulous  man  shaped  the  policy 


FIRST   ACTS    IN   BREACH    WITH   ROME  341 

of  Henry's  government.  What  he  proposed  to  himself  was  the 
establishment  of  a  royal  despotism  upon  the  ruin  of  every  other 
power  in  the  state.  Man  of  iron  will  that  he  was,  Cromwell  pur- 
sued his  aims  with  such  terrible  relentlessness  that  the  period 
during  which  his  power  was  supreme  has  been  called  the  Eng- 
lish Reign  of  Terror.  The  executioner's  ax  was  often  wet  with 
the  blood  of  those  who  stood  in  his  way,  or  who  in  any  manner 
incurred  his  or  the  king's  displeasure. 

It  was  to  the  bold  suggestions  of  this  man  that  Henry  now  lis- 
tened. Cromwell's  advice  to  the  king  was  to  waste  no  more  time 
in  negotiating  with  the  Pope,  but  at  once  to  renounce  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Roman  pontiff,  proclaim  himself  supreme  head  of  the 
Church  in  England,  and  then  get  a  decree  of  divorce  from  his 
own  courts. 

370.  First  Acts  in  the  Breach  with  Rome  (1533-1534). — 
The  advice  of  Cromwell  was  acted  upon,  and  by  a  series  of  steps 
England  was  swiftly  carried  out  from  under  the  authority  of  the 
Roman  see.  Henry  first  virtually  cut  the  Gordian  knot  by  a 
secret  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  notwithstanding  a  papal  decree 
threatening  him  with  excommunication  should  he  dare  to  do  so. 

Parliament,  which  was  entirely  subservient  to  Henry's  wishes, 
now  passed  a  law  known  as  the  Act  in  Restraint  of  Appeals 
(1533),  which  made  it  a  crime  for  any  Englishman  to  carry  a 
case  out  of  the  realm  to  the  court  of  Rome.  This  was  to  pre^'ent 
Catherine  from  appealing  to  the  Pope  from  any  decision  which 
might  be  rendered  in  her  case  by  an  English  tribunal. 

Cranmer,  the  Cambridge  doctor  who  had  advised  the  king  to 
submit  the  question  of  the  validity  of  his  union  with  Catherine 
to  the  universities,  and  who  had  further  served  him  by  writing  a 
book  in  favor  of  the  divorce,  had,  in  accordance  with  the  new 
programme,  been  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  now 
formed  a  court,  tried  the  case,  and  of  course  declared  the  king's 
marriage  with  Catherine  null  and  void. 

The  following  year  (1534)  Henry  procured  from  Parliament  the 
passage  of  the  important  Act  of  Annates,  which  forbade  abso- 
lutely the  payment  to  Rome  of  the  first  fruits  of  archbishoprics 


342  THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 

and  bishoprics,  and  ordered  that  these  should  henceforth  be  paid 
to  the  English  crown. 

371.  The  Act  of  Supremacy  (1534).  —  At  Rome  the  acts  of 
Henry  and  his  ParHament  were  denounced  as  acts  of  impious 
usurpation.  The  Pope  issued  a  bull  excommunicating  Henry  and 
relieving  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 

Henry  now  took  the  final  and  decisive  step.  He  got  from  Par- 
liament the  celebrated  Act  of  Supremacy  (1534).  This  statute 
made  Henry  "  the  only  Supreme  Head  in  earth  of  the  Church 
of  England,"  vesting  in  him  absolute  control  of  its  offices  and 
affairs  and  turning  into  his  hands  the  revenue  which  had  hitherto 
flowed  into  Rome's  treasury.  A  denial  of  the  title  given  the  king 
by  the  statute  was  made  high  treason. 

Such  a  break  with  the  past  met  of  course  with  much  disapproval, 
and  many  persons  were  put  to  death  under  the  statute.  The  most 
illustrious  victims  of  this  tyranny  were  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of 
Rochester,  and  Sir  Thomas  More,  who  for  several  years  was  one 
of  Henry's .  chief  councilors.  Both  were  sent  to  the  block  (in 
1535)  because  they  refused  to  admit  the  validity  of  Henry's 
divorce  from  Catherine  and  to  acknowledge  the  royal  supremacy 
in  religious  matters.  The  execution  of  Thomas  More  particularly 
created  widespread  condemnation  and  dismay.  When  the  Emperor 
Charles  V  heard  what  Henry  had  done,  he  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  he  would  rather  have  lost  the  best  city  in  his  empire  than 
such  a  councilor ;  and  Erasmus  wrote  to  a  friend,  "  What  a  man 
has  England  and  what  a  friend  have  I  lost !  " 

372.  The  Suppression  of  the  Monasteries  (15 36-1 5 39).  —  The 
suppression  of  the  monasteries  was  one  of  Henry's  early  acts  as 
the  supreme  head  of  the  Church  in  England.  He  resolved  upon 
the  destruction  of  the  religious  houses  because,  in  the  first  place, 
he  coveted  their  wealth,  which  at  this  time  included  probably  one 
fifth  of  the  lands  of  the  realm.  Further,  the  monastic  orders  were 
openly  or  secretly  opposed  to  Henry's  claims  of  supremacy  in 
religious  matters ;  and  this  naturally  caused  him  to  regard  them 
with  jealousy  and  disfavor.  This  was  another  reason  with  him 
for  compassing  their  ruin. 


SUPPRESSION   OF  THE   MONASTERIES  343 

In  order  to  make  the  act  appear  as  reasonable  as  possible,  it 
was  planned  to  make  the  charge  of  immorality  its  ostensible 
ground.  Accordingly  two  royal  commissioners  were  appointed 
to  inspect  the  monasteries  and  make  a  report  upon  what  they 
might  see  and  learn.  If  we  may  believe  the  report,  the  smaller 
houses  were  conducted  in  a  most  shameful  manner.  The  larger 
houses,  however,  were  fairly  free  from  faults.  Many  of  them  served 
as  schools,  hospitals,  and  inns,  and  all  distributed  alms  to  the 
poor  who  knocked  at  their  gates. 

But  the  undoubted  usefulness  and  irreproachable  character  of 
these  larger  foundations  did  not  avail  to  avert  ruin  from  them 
also.  During  the  years  1537  to  1539  all  were  dissolved,  their  pos- 
sessors generally  surrendering  the  property  voluntarily  into  the 
hands  of  the  king  lest  a  worse  thing  than  the  loss  of  their  houses 
should  come  upon  them.  By  an  act  of  Parliament  in  1539  all 
monastic  property  was  given  to  the  crown. 

Altogether  there  were  six  hundred  and  forty-five  monasteries 
broken  up.  The  monastic  buildings  were  generally  dismantled; 
every  scrap  of  iron  or  lead  being  torn  from  them,  and  their  unpro- 
tected walls  left  to  sink  into  picturesque  ivy-clad  ruins.  Small 
pensions  were  granted  to  the  dispossessed  monks,  which  relieved 
in  a  measure  the  suffering  and  hardship  caused  by  the  proceeding. 

The  destruction  of  the  monasteries  was  a  signal  for  the  desecra- 
tion and  pillage  of  the  sacred  relics,  images,  and  shrines  with 
which  the  land  was  crowded.  The  destruction  of  the  famous 
pilgrim  shrine  of  Thomas  Becket  at  Canterbury  (sec.  208)  is  a 
typical  case.  The  saint,  because  he  had  upheld  the  supremacy 
of  the  Pope  against  King  Henry  II,  was  solemnly  tried  for 
treason  and  declared  a  traitor.  His  bones  were  then  dragged 
from  their  receptacle  and  burned,  and  the  rich  adornments  and 
offerings  of  the  shrine  —  great  cart  loads  of  jewels  and  other 
costly  things,  probably  the  real  secret  of  Henry's  wrath  against 
the  saint  —  were  confiscated  to  the  royal  use  (1538). 

A  portion  of  the  vast  wealth  which  came  into  Henry's  hands 
through  all  these  confiscations  was  used  in  founding  schools  and 
colleges  and  in  establishing  new  bishoprics,  and  a  part  was  devoted 


344  'fHE   ENGLISH    REFORMATION 

to  other  public  purposes ;  but  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the 
landed  property  was  sold  at  merely  nominal  prices  or  given  out- 
right to  the  favorites  of  the  king.  Many  of  the  leading  English 
families  of  to-day  trace  the  titles  of  their  estates  from  these  confis- 
cated lands  of  the  religious  houses.  Thus  a  new  aristocracy  was 
raised  up  whose  interests  led  them  to  oppose  any  return  to  Rome  ; 
for  in  such  an  event  their  estates  were  liable,  of  course,  to  be 
restored  to  the  monasteries. 

373.  Effects  upon  Parliament  of  the  Suppression  of  the  Monas- 
teries. —  The  effects  of  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  upon 
the  Upper  House  of  Parliament  were,  for  the  time  being,  most 
disastrous  to  the  cause  of  English  constitutional  liberty.  The 
House  of  Lords  had  hitherto  often  been  a  check  upon  the  royal 
power.  By  the  destruction  of  the  religious  houses  that  branch  of 
Parliament,  already  greatly  reduced  in  strength  by  the  decay  of  the 
temporal  peerage,  was  still  further  weakened  through  the  casting 
out  of  the  abbots  and  priors  who  held  seats  in  that  chamber.* 
At  the  same  time  the  spiritual  lords  who  were  left,  that  is  the 
two  archbishops  and  the  bishops,  became  mere  dependents  of  the 
king,  whom  the  Act  of  Supremacy  had  made  head  of  the  English 
Church  without  any  superior  on  earth. 

Thus  did  the  House  of  Lords  almost  cease  to  be  a  body  with  a 
mind  and  will  of  its  own.  Since  the  House  of  Commons  contained 
many  servile  nominees  of  the  king,  the  English  government  now 
became  something  like  an  absolute  monarchy. 

374.  Act  to  secure  Uniformity  of  Belief  (1539).  —  In  the  same 
year  that  Parliament  gave  into  Henry's  hands  the  last  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  monastic  orders,  it  passed  a  bill  drawn  in  conformity 
with  his  views  and  called  an  Act  for  abolishing  Diversity  of 
Opinions.  By  this  statute  the  teachings  of  the  old  Church  respect- 
ing the  real  presence  in  the  Eucharist,  the  celibacy  of  the  priest- 
hood, private  Masses,  confession  to  a  priest,  and  other  tenets  were 
approved  as  agreeable  to  the  laws  of  God,  and  it  was  made  a 
crime  for  any  person  to  hold,  to  teach,  or  to  practice  opinions 
opposed  to  any  of  these  dogmas. 

4  Twenty-six  abbots  and  two  priors  were  expelled. 


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HENRY'S   WIVES  345 

What  the  Church  in  England  should  be  called  under  Henry  it 
would  be  hard  to  say.  It  was  not  Protestant ;  and  it  was  just  as 
far  from  being  truly  Catholic.  That  it  was  distinctively  neither  the 
one  nor  the  other  is  shown  by  the  character  of  the  persecutions 
that  took  place.  Catholics  and  Protestants  alike  were  harassed 
and  put  to  death.  Thus  on  one  occasion  three  Catholics  who 
denied  that  the  king  was  the  rightful  head  of  the  Church  and  three 
Protestants  who  disputed  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence  in  the 
Eucharist  were  dragged  on  the  same  sled  to  the  place  of  execution. 

375.  Henry's  Wives.  —  Henry's  troubles  with  his  wives  form 
a  curious  and  shameful  page  in  the  history  of  England's  kings. 
Anne  Boleyn  retained  the  affections  of  her  royal  husband  only  a 
few  months.  She  was  charged  with  unfaithfulness  and  beheaded, 
leaving  a  daughter,  who  became  the  famous  Queen  Elizabeth.  The 
day  after  the  execution  of  Anne  the  king  married  Jane  Seymour, 
who  died  the  following  year.    She  left  a  son  by  the  name  of  Edward. 

The  fourth  marriage  of  the  king  was  to  Anne  of  Cleves,  who 
enjoyed  her  queenly  honors  only  a  few  months.^  The  king  becom- 
ing enamored  of  a  young  lady  named  Catherine  Howard,  Anne 
was  divorced  on  the  charge  of  a  previous  betrothal,  and  a  new 
alliance  formed.  But  Catherine  was  proved  guilty  of  misconduct 
before  her  marriage,  and  her  head  fell  upon  the  block.  The  sixth 
and  last  wife  of  this  amatory  monarch  was  Catherine  Parr.  She 
was  a  discreet  woman,  and  managed  to  outlive  her  husband. 

376.  Henry's  Death  and  Character ;  his  Work.  —  Henry  died 
in  1547.  Very  diverse  views  have  been  held  of  his  character. 
He  was   admittedly  meddlesome,   cruel,  arbitrary,  and  selfish. 

5  Thomas  Cromwell  had  arranged  this  marriage;  because  it  had  proved  so  unsatis- 
factory to  Henry,  he  withdrew  his  favor  from  him,  and  very  soon,  on  the  charge  of 
his  having  taken  bribes  and  of  other  misconduct,  sent  him  to  the  block  (1540).  In 
this,  as  in  similar  cases,  the  king  acted  under  the  forms  of  law.  He  secured  from  the 
subservient  Parliament  a  bill  of  attainder,  which  is  an  act  passed  like  an  ordinarj- 
statute.  Before  Cromwell's  time,  the  accused  had  a  right  to  be  heard  in  his  own 
defense.  But  Cromwell,  to  please  his  master,  had  brought  it  about  that  Parliament 
could  venture  to  condemn  a  person  without  a  hearing.  It  was  poetic  justice  that 
made  Cromwell  himself  a  victim  of  this  instrument  of  tyranny.  Because  of  the  mis- 
use by  the  English  Parliament  of  this  power,  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  in  enumerating  the  powers  of  Congress,  inserted  this  clause:  "  No  bill 
of  attainder  . . .  shall  be  passed." 


34^ 


THE  ENGLISH   REFORMATION 


Even  if  the  English  people  are  indebted  to  him  for  their  national 
independent  Church,  still  they  owe  him  for  this  no  gratitude ; 
for  what  he  did  here  proceeded  primarily  from  the  most  ignoble 
impulses  and  motives,  and  not  from  regard  for  the  spiritual  wel- 
fare of  his  subjects  or  from  sympathy  with  religious  reform. 

In  another  sphere,  however,  Henry  accomplished  a  work  which 
entitles  him  to  the  grateful  remembrance  of  a  people  who  pride 
themselves  on  their  mastery  of  the  sea.  He  had  the  vision  to  dis- 
cern that  England's  dominion  must  be  sought  not  on  the  Euro- 
pean Continent  but  on  the  ocean.  Hence  he  took  a  deep  interest 
in  naval  affairs.  At  a  time  when  the  continental  sovereigns  were 
creating  standing  armies,  he,  as  it  has  been  put,  created  for  England 
a  **  standing  navy."    He  brought  to  perfection  the  sailing  war  ship, 

and  gave  it  precedence  over  the 
oared  vessel,  which  up  to  this  time 
had  held  the  chief  place  in  the 
world's  war  navies.  Thus  under 
Henry  the  English  navy,  in  the 
words  of  an  eminent  naval  author- 
ity, "was  becoming  an  entirely 
new  thing,  a  thing  the  world  had 
never  seen  before."  The  change 
was  somewhat  like  that  effected 
when  the  steamship  replaced  the 
sailing  vessel. 

377.  Literature  under  Henry 
VIII;  Mora's  Utopia, — The  most 
prominent  literary  figure  of  this 
period  is  Sir  Thomas  More.  The 
work  upon  which  his  fame  as  a  writer  mainly  rests  is  his  Utopia, 
or  "  Nowhere,"  a  romance  hke  Plato's  Republic  or  Sir  Philip 
Sidney's  Arcadia.  It  pictures  an  imaginary  kingdom  away  on  an 
island  in  the  New  World,  then  just  discovered,  where  the  laws, 
manners,  and  customs  of  the  people  were  represented  as  being 
ideally  perfect.  It  was  the  wretchedness  of  the  lower  classes,  the 
religious  intolerance,  the  despotic  government  of  the  times  which 


Fig,  63.  —  Sir  Thomas  More 
(After  the  painting  by  Holbein) 


SIR  THOMAS   MORE'S   "UTOPIA"  347 

inspired  the  Utopia,  The  great  mass  of  the  people  were  living  in  mis- 
erable mud  hovels,  like  those  of  the  Irish  tenants  of  to-day.  Society 
was  simply  "  a  conspiracy  of  the  rich  against  the  poor."  The  gov- 
ernment of  Henry  and  his  ministers  resembled  an  Oriental  tyranny. 

It  was  this  state  of  things  that  forced  from  the  sensitive  soul  of 
More  this  complaint.  "  No  such  cry  of  pity  for  the  poor,"  says 
Green,  "  had  been  heard  since  the  days  of  Piers  Plowman." 
But  More's  was  not  simply  such  a  cry  of  despair  as  was  that  of 
Langland.  He  saw  a  better  future  ;  and  with  a  view  of  reforming 
them,  pointed  out  the  existing  ills  of  society.  He  did  this  by 
telling  how  things  were  in  "  Nowhere,"  —  how  the  houses  and 
grounds  were  all  inviting,  the  streets  broad  and  clean  ;  how  every- 
body was  taught  to  read  and  write,  and  no  one  obliged  to  work 
more  than  six  hours  a  day ;  how  drinking  houses,  brawls,  and 
wars  were  unknown ;  how  the  criminal  classes  were  treated  with 
the  view  of  effecting  their  reformation  ;  how  in  this  happy  republic 
every  person  had  a  part  in  the  government,  and  was  allowed  to 
follow  what  religion  he  chose. 

In  this  wise  way  More  suggested  improvements  in  social,  polit- 
ical, and  religious  matters.  He  did  not  expect,  however,  that 
Henry  would  follow  all  his  suggestions,  —  indeed.  More  himself, 
before  his  death,  materially  changed  his  views  regarding  religious 
toleration,  —  for  he  closes  his  account  of  the  Utopians  with  this 
admission  :  "  I  confess  that  many  things  in  the  commonwealth  of 
Utopia  I  rather  wish  than  hope  to  see  adopted  in  our  own." 

IV.    Changes  in  Creed  and  Ritual  under 
Edward  VI  (1547-15  5  3) 

378.  Events  at  the  Accession In  accordance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  a  Succession  Act  passed  in  Henry's  reign,  his  only  son, 
Edward,  by  Jane  Seymour,  succeeded  him.  As  Edward  was  but 
a  mere  child  of  nine  years,  the  government  was  conducted  by  a 
council  of  regency,  made  up  both  of  reformers  and  Catholics ;  but 
the  reformers  usurped  authority  in  the  body  and  conducted  the 
government  in  the  interest  of  their  party. 


348  THE    ENGLISH    REFORMATION 

The  young  king  was  carefully  taught  the  doctrines  of  the 
reformers,  and  many  changes  were  made  in  the  creed  and  serv- 
ice of  the  English  Church,  which  carried  it  farther  away  from 
the  Church  of  Rome.  It  is  these  changes  in  the  rehgion  that 
constitute  the  events  most  worthy  of  our  attention. 

379.  Changes  in  the  Religion.  —  Under  the  new  regime  all 
pictures  and  images  and  crosses  were  cleared  from  the  churches ; 
the  frescoes  were  covered  with  whitewash,  and  the  stained-glass 
windows  were  broken  in  pieces;  the  robe  and  the  surplice  were 
cast  away ;  the  use  of  tapers,  holy  water,  and  incense  was  discon- 
tinued; the  veneration  of  the  Virgin  and  the  keeping  of  saints' 
days  were  prohibited  ;  belief  in  purgatory  was  denounced  as  a  vain 
superstition  kept  up  for  purposes  of  gain,  and  prayers  for  the  dead 
were  interdicted  ;  the  real  or  bodily  presence  of  Christ  in  the  bread 
and  wine  of  the  sacrament  was  denied;  the  prohibition  against 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy  was  annulled ;  and  the  services  of  the 
Church,  which  hitherto  —  save  as  to  some  portion  of  them  during 
the  last  three  years  of  Henry's  reign  —  had  been  conducted  in 
Latin,  were  ordered  to  be  said  in  the  language  of  the  people. 

In  order  that  the  provision  last  mentioned  might  be  effectually 
carried  out,  the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  prepared 
by  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  the  first  copy  issued  in  1549.  This 
book,  which  was  in  the  main  simply  a  translation  of  the  old  Latin 
Missal  and  Breviary,  with  the  subsequent  change  of  a  word  here 
and  a  passage  there  to  keep  it  in  accord  with  the  growing  new 
doctrines,  is  the  same  that  is  used  in  the  Anglican  Church  at  the 
present  time. 

In  1552  were  published  the  famous  Forty-two  Articles  of  Reli- 
gion, which  formed  a  compendious  creed  of  the  reformed  faith. 
These  articles,  reduced  finally  to  thirty-nine,  form  the  present 
standard  of  faith  and  doctrine  in  the  Church  of  England. 

380.  Persecutions  to  secure  Uniformity.  —  These  sweeping 
changes  and  innovations  in  the  old  creed  and  in  the  services  of 
the  Church  would  have  worked  little  hardship  or  wrong  had  only 
everybody,  as  in  More's  happy  republic,  been  left  free  to  favor 
and  follow  what  religion  he  would.    But  unfortunately  it  was  only 


ACCESSION   OF   MARY  349 

away  in  "  Nowhere  "  that  men  were  allowed  perfect  freedom  of 
conscience  and  worship.  The  idea  of  toleration  had  not  yet  dawned 
upon  the  world,  save  in  the  happier  moments  of  some  such  gener- 
ous and  wide-horizoned  soul  as  his  that  conceived  the  Utopia. 

By  royal  edict  all  preachers  and  teachers  were  forced  to  sign 
the  Forty-two  Articles;  and  severe  laws,  known  as  Acts  for  the 
Uniformity  of  Service,  punished  with  severe  penalties  any  de- 
parture from  the  forms  of  the  new  prayer  book.  Even  the  Prin- 
cess Mary,  who  remained  a  conscientious  adherent  of  the  old 
faith,  was  harassed  and  persecuted  because  she  would  have  the 
Catholic  service  in  her  own  private  chapel. 

Many  persons  during  the  reign  were  imprisoned  for  refusing  to 
conform  to  the  new  worship ;  while  two  at  least  were  given  to  the 
flames  as  "  heretics  and  contemners  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer."  Probably  a  large  majority  of  the  English  people  were  at 
this  time  still  good  Catholics  at  heart. 

V.    Reaction  under  Mary  (i 553-1 558) 

381.  Accession  of  Mary;  her  Marriage  to  Philip  of  Spain. — 

Upon  the  death  of  Edward  an  attempt  was  made,  in  the  interest 
of  the  Protestant  party,  to  place  upon  the  throne  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
a  grandniece  of  Henry  VIII ;  but  the  people,  knowing  that  Mary 
was  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne,  rallied  about  hej-,  and  she  was 
proclaimed  queen  amidst  great  demonstrations  of  loyalty.  Soon 
after  her  accession  she  was  married  to  Philip  II  of  Spain. 

This  marriage  had  been  planned  by  Philip's  father,  the  Emperor 
Charles  V,  in  the  hope  that  thereby  England  might  become  actu- 
ally or  in  effect  a  part  of  the  Spanish  empire.  Had  the  marriage 
worked  out  in  this  way  and  England  been  secured  as  an  ally  of 
the  papal  party  in  the  great  combat  between  Catholicism  and 
Protestantism,  the  issue  of  the  struggle  might  have  been  very 
different  from  what  it  was. 

382.  Reconciliation  with  Rome  (1554).  —  The  majority  of  the 
English  prelates  had  never  in  their  hearts  approved  the  recent 
ecclesiastical  changes.    Their  zeal  for  the  ancient  Church,  allied 


350  THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 

with  Mary's,  now  quickly  brought  about  the  full  re  establishment 
of  the  Catholic  worship  throughout  the  realm.  Parliament  voted 
that  the  nation  should  return  to  its  obedience  to  the  papal  see ; 
and  then  the  members  of  both  Houses  fell  upon  their  knees  to 
receive  at  the  hands  of  the  papal  legate  absolution  from  the  sin  of 
heresy  and  schism.  The  sincerity  of  their  repentance  was  attested 
by  their  repeal  of  all  the  acts  by  which  the  new  worship  had 
been  set  up  in  the  land.  The  joy  at  Rome  was  unbounded.  The 
prodigal  had  returned  to  his  father's  house. 

But  not  quite  everything  done  by  the  reformers  was  undone. 
Parliament  refused  to  restore  the  confiscated  Church  lands,  which 
was  very  natural,  as  much  of  this  property  was  now  in  the  hands 
of  the  lords  and  commoners.  Mary,  however,  in  her  zeal  for 
the  ancient  faith,  restored  a  great  part  of  the  property  still  in 
the  possession  of  the  crown,  and  refounded  many  of  the  ruined 
monasteries  and  abbeys. 

383.  The  Martyrs:  Latimer  and  Ridley  (1555),  and  Cranmer 
(1556).  —  With  the  reestablishment  of  the  Catholic  worship,  the 
Protestants  in  their  turn  were  subjected  to  persecution.  Alto- 
gether, between  two  and  three  hundred  persons  suffered  death 
during  this  reign  on  account  of  their  religion.  The  three  most 
eminent  martyrs  were  Latimer,  Ridley,  and  Cranmer.  Latimer 
and  Ridley  were  burned  at  the  same  stake.  As  the  torch  was 
applied  to  the  fagots,  the  aged  Latimer  —  he  was  seventy  years 
old  —  encouraged  his  companion  with  these  memorable  words  : 
"Be  of  good  comfort,  Master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man ;  we  shall 
this  day,  by  God's  grace,  light  such  a  candle  in  England  as  I 
trust  shall  never  be  put  out." 

Mary  should  not  be  judged  harshly  for  the  part  she  took  in  the 
persecutions  that  disfigured  her  reign.  It  was  not  her  fault,  but 
the  fault  of  the  age,  that  these  things  were  done.  Punishment  of 
heresy  was  then  regarded,  by  almost  all  Catholics  and  Protestants 
ahke,  as  a  duty  which  could  be  neglected  by  those  in  authority 
only  at  the  peril  of  Heaven's  displeasure. 

384.  The  Loss  of  Calais  (1558).  — The  marriage  of  Philip  and 
Mary  had  been  earnestly  wished  for  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V, 


ELIZABETH  35 1 

in  order  that  Philip,  in  those  wars  with  France  which  he  well 
knew  must  be  a  part  of  the  legacy  he  should  transmit  to  his  son, 
might  have  the  powerful  aid  of  England.  This  was  Philip's  chief 
reason  for  seeking  the  alliance,  and  in  due  time  he  called  upon 
Mary  for  assistance  in  a  war  against  the  French  king.  The  Eng- 
lish people  were  very  reluctant  to  take  any  part  in  the  quarrel ; 
but  Mary's  council  at  last  yielded  to  her  urgent  solicitations,  and 
aid  was  extended  to  Philip.  The  result  was  the  mortifying  loss  to 
England  of  Calais,  which  the  French,  by  an  unexpected  attack, 
snatched  out  of  the  hands  of  its  garrison  (1558). 

VI.    Final  Establishment  of  Protestantism  under 
Elizabeth  (15  58-1603) 

385.  The  Queen.  —  Elizabeth,  who  was  twenty-five  years  of  age 
when  the  death  of  Mary  called  her  to  the  throne,  was  the  daughter 
of  Henry  VIII  and  Anne  Boleyn.  She  seems  to  have  inherited 
the  characteristics  of  both  parents ;  hence  perhaps  the  inconsist- 
encies of  her  disposition.  She  possessed  a  masculine  intellect,  a 
strong  will,  admirable  judgment,  and  great  political  tact.  It  was 
these  qualities  which  rendered  her  reign  the  strongest  and  most 
illustrious  in  the  record  of  England's  sovereigns,  and  raised  the 
nation  from  a  position  of  comparative  insignificance  to  a  foremost 
place  among  the  states  of  Europe. 

Along  with  her  good  and  queenly  qualities  and  accomplish- 
ments, Elizabeth  had  many  unamiable  traits  and  unwomanly  ways. 
She  was  capricious,  treacherous,  unscrupulous,  and  ungrateful. 
Deception  and  falsehood  were  her  usual  weapons  in  diplomacy. 
"  In  the  profusion  and  recklessness  of  her  lies,"  declares  Green, 
"  Elizabeth  stood  without  a  peer  in  Christendom." 

Yet,  notwithstanding  all  the  faults  of  this  remarkable  woman, 
she  was  always  popular  with  her  subjects,  and  this  largely  for  the 
same  reason  that  Philip  II  was  popular  in  Spain,  —  because  she 
was  in  perfect  sympathy  with  her  people  and  represented  their 
ideals  and  aspirations.  Her  subjects'  strong  liking  is  embalmed  in 
the  familiar  title  they  bestowed  upon  her,  —  "  Good  Queen  Bess." 


352 


THE   ENGLISH    REFORMATION 


Elizabeth  never  married,  notwithstanding  Parliament  was  con- 
stantly urging  her  to  do  so,  and  suitors,  among  whom  was 
Philip  II  of  Spain,  were  as  numerous  as  those  who  sought  the 
hand  of  Penelope.    She  declared  —  very  late  in  her  reign,  however 

—  that  on  her  coro- 
nation day  she  was 
married  to  the  Eng- 
lish realm,  and  that 
she  would  have  no 
other  husband.  She 
remained  to  the  end 
the  "fair  Vestal 
throned  by  the 
West." 

386.  Her  Minis- 
ters. —  One  secret 
of  the  strength  and 
popularity  of  Eliza- 
beth's government 
was  the  admirable 
judgment  she  exer- 
cised in  her  choice 
of  advisers.  The 
courtiers  with  whom 
she  crowded  her 
receptions  might  be 

frivolous  persons ;  but 
Fig.  64.  —  Queen  Elizabeth.     (The  Ermine      u      4.   u  -i 

_        .     .         .        ...        -   .     -.  about  her  council 

board  she  gathered 
the  wisest  and  strong- 
est men  of  the  realm.  And  yet  Elizabeth's  government  was 
really  her  own.  We  now  know  that  her  advisers  did  not  have  as 
much  to  do  with  shaping  the  policies  of  the  reign  as  was  formerly 
believed. 

The  most  eminent  of  the  queen's  ministers  was  Sir  William 
Cecil   (Lord  Burghley),  a  man  of  great  sagacity  and  ceaseless 


M 

m 

■-^^^^S^^^^^M 

W: 

i5;i*^E 

^S^zi^^'^M 

'     ' ;     -^^Mdit"- 

t 

'^^^^^Mmm\ 

i 

^*-    ^ 

'Mil     ' 

w 

Portrait,  from  the  collection  of  the  Marquis 
of  Salisbury,  Hatfield  House) 


REESTABLISHMENT   OF   REFORMED   CHURCH      353 

industry,  and  a  vigilant  and  prudent  administrator.  He  stood  at 
the  head  of  the  queen's  council  for  forty  years.  His  son  Robert, 
Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  and  Sir  Francis  Walsingham  were  also  promi- 
nent among  the  queen's  advisers. 

387.  Reestablishment  of  the  Reformed  Church.  —  As  Mary 
undid  the  work  in  religion  of  Henry  and  Edward,  so  now  her 
work  was  undone  by  Elizabeth.  Elizabeth  favored  the  reformed 
faith  rather  from  policy  than  from  conviction.  It  was  to  the 
Protestants  alone  that  she  could  look  for  support ;  her  title  to  the 
crown  was  denied  by  every  true  Catholic  in  the  realm,  for  she  was 
the  child  of  that  marriage  which  the  Pope  had  forbidden  under 
pain  of  the  penalties  of  the  Church.  But  what  doubtless  con- 
tributed most  to  fix  her  in  the  determination  to  follow  Henry's 
policy  as  regards  the  Papacy  was  her  desire  to  possess  supreme 
authority  in  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  in  civil  matters. 

The  religious  houses  which  had  been  refounded  by  Mary  were 
again  dissolved,  and  Parliament  by  the  two  important  Acts  of 
Supremacy  and  Uniformity  (1559)  reestablished  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Church  in  England.  The  Act  of  Supremacy  required 
all  the  clergy,  and  every  person  holding  office  under  the  crown, 
to  take  an  oath  declaring  the  queen  to  be  the  supreme  governor 
of  the  realm  in  all  spiritual  as  well  as  in  all  temporal  things,  and 
renouncing  the  authority  or  jurisdiction  of  any  foreign  prince  or 
prelate.  For  refusing  to  deny  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope  many 
Catholics  during  Elizabeth's  reign  suffered  death,  and  many  more 
endured  within  the  Tower  the  worse  horrors  of  the  rack. 

The  Act  of  Uniformity  forbade  any  clergyman  to  use  any  but 
the  Anglican  liturgy,  and  required  every  person  to  attend  the 
Established  Church  on  Sunday  and  other  holy  days.  The  perse- 
cutions which  arose  under  this  law  caused  many  Catholics  to  seek 
freedom  of  worship  in  other  countries. 

388.  The  Protestant  Nonconformists  ;  Puritans  and  Separatists. 
—  The  Catholics  were  not  the  only  persons  among  Elizabeth's 
subjects  who  were  opposed  to  the  Anglican  worship.  There  were 
Protestant  nonconformists  —  the  Puritans  and  Separatists  —  who 
troubled  her  almost  as  much  as  the  Catholics. 


354  THE   ENGLISH    REFORMATION 

The  Puritans  were  so  named  because  they  desired  2, purer  form 
of  worship  than  the  AngUcan.  The  term  was  appHed  to  them  in 
derision;  but  the  sterling  character  of  those  thus  designated  at 
length  turned  the  epithet  of  reproach  into  a  badge  of  honorable 
distinction.  They  did  not  withdraw  from  the  Established  Church, 
but  remaining  within  its  pale  labored  to  reform  it  and  to  shape 
its  discipline  to  their  notions.  These  Puritans  were  destined  to 
play  a  prominent  part  in  the  later  affairs  of  England.  Under  the 
Stuarts,  as  we  shall  see,  they  became  strong  enough  to  overturn 
State  and  Church,  and  remold  both  to  suit  their  own  ideas. 

The  Separatists  were  still  more  zealous  reformers  than  the  Puri- 
tans. In  their  hatred  of  everything  that  bore  any  resemblance  to 
the  Catholic  worship,  they  flung  away  the  surplice  and  the  prayer 
book,  severed  all  connection  with  the  EstabUshed  Church,  and 
refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  it.  Under  the  Act  of  Uniform- 
ity they  were  persecuted  with  great  severity,  so  that  multitudes  were 
led  to  seek  an  asylum  upon  the  Continent.  It  was  from  among 
these  exiles  gathered  in  Holland  that  a  little  later  came  the  pas- 
sengers of  the  Mayflower  and  Speedwell^  —  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
who  laid  the  foundations  of  civil  Hberty  in  the  New  World. 

389.  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots.  — A  large  part  of  the  his- 
tory of  Elizabeth's  reign  is  intertwined  with  the  story  of  her 
cousin,  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots,  the  "  modern  Helen," 
*'  the  most  beautiful,  the  weakest,  the  most  attractive,  and  most 
attracted  of  women."  She  was  the  daughter  of  James  V  of  Scot- 
land, and  to  her  in  right  of  birth  —  according  to  all  Catholics, 
who  denied  the  validity  of  Henry's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn 
—  belonged  the  English  crown  next  after  Mary  Tudor. 

Upon  the  death,  in  1560,  of  her  husband,  Francis  II  of  France, 
Mary  gave  up  life  at  the  French  court  and  returned  to  her  native 
land.  She  was  now  in  her  nineteenth  year.  The  subtle  charm  of 
her  beauty  seems  to  have  bewitched  all  who  came  into  her  pres- 
ence, save  the  more  zealous  of  the  reformers,  who  could  never 
forget  that  their  young  sovereign  was  a  Catholic.  The  stern  old 
John  Knox  made  her  life  miserable.  He  called  her  a  "  Moabite," 
and  other  opprobrious  names,  till  she  wept  from  sheer  vexation. 


MARY   STUART,  QUEEN   OF  SCOTS 


355 


She  dared  not  punish  the  impudent  preacher,  for  she  knew  too 
well  the  strength  of  the  Protestant  feeling  among  her  subjects. 

Other  things  now  conspired  with  Mary's  hated  religion  to 
alienate  entirely  the  love  of  her  people.  Her  second  husband, 
Lord  Darnley,  was  murdered.  The  queen  was  suspected  of  hav- 
ing some  guilty  knowledge  of  the  affair.  She  was  imprisoned 
and  forced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  her  infant  son  James. 

Escaping  from  prison,  Mary  fled  into  England  (1568).  Here 
she  threw  herself  upon  the  generosity  of  her  cousin  Elizabeth, 


Fig. 65.  —  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
(After  a  modern  popular  painting. 
A  comparison  with  the  accom- 
panyingauthentic portrait  (Fig.  66) 
will  show  in  what  degree  the  sub- 
ject has  been  idealized) 


Fig.  66.  —  Mary  Stuart  as  Queen 
OF  France.^  (After  a  contempo- 
rary and  authentic  portrait  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris; 
from  Gust's  Noteson  the  Authentic 
Portraits  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots) 


and  entreated  aid  in  recovering  her  throne.  But  the  part  which 
she  was  generally  believed  to  have  had  in  the  murder  of  her 
husband,  her  disturbing  claims  to  the  English  throne,  and  the 
fact  that  she  was  a  Catholic  all  conspired  to  determine  her  fate. 
She  was  placed  in  confinement,  and  for  nineteen  years  remained 
a    prisoner.     During    all    this    time    Mary   was   the   center   of 


«  The  striking  resemblance  of  this  portrait  of  Mary  to  that  of  her  cousin  Elizabeth 
(Fig.  64)  will  be  noticed. 


356  THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 

innumerable  plots  on  the  part  of  the  Catholics,  which  aimed  at 
setting  her  upon  the  English  throne.  The  Pope,  Pius  V,  aided 
these  conspirators  by  a  bull  excommunicating  Elizabeth  and  releas- 
ing her  subjects  from  their  allegiance  (1570).  Finally,  a  carefully 
laid  conspiracy  to  assassinate  Elizabeth  and  place  Mary  on  the 
throne  was  unearthed.  The  Spanish  king,  Philip  II,  was  implicated. 
He  wrote,  "  The  affair  is  so  much  in  God's  service  that  it  certainly 
deserves  to  be  supported,  and  we  must  hope  that  our  Lord  will 
prosper  it,  unless  our  sins  be  an  impediment  thereto." 

Mary  was  tried  for  complicity  in  the  plot,  was  declared  guilty, 
and,  after  some  hesitation,  feigned  or  otherwise,  on  the  part  of 
Elizabeth,  was  ordered  to  the  block  (1587).  Even  after  Eliza- 
beth had  signed  the  warrant  for  her  execution  she  attempted  to 
evade  responsibility  in  the  matter  by  causing  a  suggestion  to  be 
made  to  Mary's  jailers  that  they  should  kill  her  secretly. 

390 .  The  ' '  Invincible  Armada  " ;  "  Britain '  s  Salamis  "(1588),  — 
The  execution  of  Mary  Stuart  led  immediately  to  the  memorable 
attempt  against  England  by  the  Spanish  Armada.  Before  her 
death  the  Queen  of  Scots  had  by  will  disinherited  her  son  and 
bequeathed  to  Philip  II  of  Spain  her  claims  to  the  English  crown. 
To  enforce  these  rights,  to  avenge  the  death  of  Mary,  to  punish 
Elizabeth  for  rendering  aid  to  his  rebellious  subjects  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  to  deal  a  fatal  blow  to  the  Reformation  in  Europe 
by  crushing  the  Protestants  of  England,  Philip  resolved  upon 
making  a  tremendous  effort  for  the  conquest  of  the  heretical 
island.  Vast  preparations  were  made  for  carrying  out  this  project, 
which  PhiHp  had  long  revolved  in  mind.  Great  fleets  were  gath- 
ered in  the  harbors  of  Spain,  and  a  large  army  was  assembled  in 
the  Netherlands  to  cooperate  with  the  naval  armament. 

Pope  Sixtus  V  encouraged  Philip  in  the  enterprise,  which  was 
thus  rendered  a  sort  of  crusade.  At  last  the  fleet,  consisting  of 
about  one  hundred  and  thirty  ships,  the  largest  naval  armament 
that  had  ever  appeared  upon  the  Atlantic,  and  boastfully  called 
the  "  Invincible  Armada,"  set  sail  from  Lisbon  for  the  Channel. 
The  approaching  danger  produced  a  perfect  fever  of  excitement 
in  England.    Never  did  Roman  citizens  rise  more  splendidly  to 


THE  "INVINCIBLE  ARMADA"  357 

avert  some  terrible  peril  threatening  the  republic  than  the  Eng- 
lish people  now  arose  as  a  single  man  to  defend  their  island 
realm  against  the  revengeful  and  ambitious  project  of  Spain. 
The  imminent  danger  served  to  unite  all  classes,  the  gentry 
and  the  yeomanry,  Protestants  and  Catholics.  The  latter  might 
intrigue  to  set  a  Mary  Stuart  on  the  English  throne,  but  they 
were  not  ready  to  betray  their  land  into  the  hands  of  the  hated 
Spaniards.  "  In  that  memorable  year,"  says  Hallam,  in  a  pas- 
sage where  his  usually  cold,  judicial  phrases  flame  into  eloquence, 
"  when  the  dark  cloud  gathered  around  our  coasts,  when  Europe 
stood  by  in  fearful  suspense  to  behold  what  should  be  the  result 
of  that  great  cast  in  the  game  of  human  politics,  what  the  craft 
of  Rome,  the  power  of  Philip,  the  genius  of  Farnese,  could 
achieve  against  the  island  queen  with  her  Drakes  and  Cecils  — 
in  that  agony  of  the  Protestant  faith  and  English  name,  they 
stood  the  trial  of  their  spirit  without  swerving  from  their  alle- 
giance. It  was  then  that  the  Catholics  in  every  county  repaired 
to  the  standard  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  imploring  that  they  might 
not  be  suspected  of  bartering  the  national  independence  for  their 
religion  itself." 

On  July  19,  1588,  the  Armada  was  first  descried  by  the  watch- 
men on  the  English  cliffs.  It  swept  up  the  Channel  in  the  form 
of  a  great  crescent,  seven  miles  in  width  from  tip  to  tip  of  horn. 
The  English  ships,  about  eighty  in  number,  whose  light  structure 
and  swift  movements,  together  with  the  superior  gunnery  of  their 
sailors,  gave  them  a  great  advantage  over  the  clumsy  Spanish  gal- 
leons, almost  immediately  began  to  impede  their  advance,  and  for 
seven  days  incessantly  harassed  the  Armada. 

One  night,  as  the  damaged  fleet  lay  off  the  harbor  of  Calais, 
the  English  sent  fire  ships  among  the  vessels,  whereby  a  number 
were  destroyed  and  a  panic  created  among  the  others.  A  deter- 
mined attack  the  next  day  by  Howard,  Drake,  and  Lord  Henry 
Seymour  inflicted  a  still  severer  loss  upon  the  fleet. 

The  Spaniards,  thinking  now  of  nothing  save  escape,  spread 
their  sails  in  flight,  proposing  to  get  away  by  sailing  northward 
around   the  British  Isles.    But  the  storms  of  the  northern  seas 


358 


THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 


dashed  many  of  the  remaining  ships  to  pieces  on  the  Scottish 
and  the  Irish  shores.  Barely  one  third  of  the  ships  of  the 
Armada  ever  reentered  the  harbors  whence  they  sailed.  When 
intelligence  of  the  woeful  disaster  was  carried  to  the  imperturb- 
able Philip,  he  simply  said,  "  God's  will  be  done ;  I  sent  my 
fleet  to  fight  against  the  English,  not  against  the  elements." 

Well  may  the  great  fight  in  the  Channel  which  shattered  the 
Armada  be  called  "Britain's  Salamis";  for  like  Athens'  Salamis 


Fig.  67.  —  Spanish  and  English  War  Vessels  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century.    (From  an  engraving) 

it  revealed  the  weakness  and  proclaimed  the  downfall  of  a  vast 
despotic  empire,  while  at  the  same  time  it  disclosed  the  strength 
and  announced  the  rise  of  a  new  free  state  destined  to  a  great 
future. 

But  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  concerned  other 
than  purely  English  and  Spanish  interests.  It  marked  the  turn- 
ing point  in  the  great  duel  between  Catholicism  and  Protes- 
tantism. It  set  definite  limits  to  the  Catholic  reaction.  It  not 
only  decided  that  England  was  to  remain  Protestant,  but  it  fore- 
shadowed the  independence  of  the  Protestant  Netherlands,  and 


MARITIME  AND  COLONIAL  ENTERPRISES      359 

assured,  or  at  least  greatly  helped  to  assure,  the  future  of  Prot- 
estantism in  Scandinavia  and  in  North  Germany. 

39 1 .  Philip  tampers  with  the  Irish ;  the  Tyrone  Rebellion  (15  94- 
1603).  —  Having  failed  in  his  direct  attack  upon  England,  Philip 
now  sought  to  harass  Elizabeth  by  giving  aid  to  her  Irish  enemies. 

Ireland  had  never  been  thoroughly  subjugated  by  the  English, 
and  the  native  tribes  were  in  a  state  of  chronic  revolt  against  the 
English  intruders.  In  1594  an  insurrection,  headed  by  the  Earl 
of  Tyrone  (Hugh  O'Neill),  having  broken  out  in  Ulster,  Philip 
promised  to  send  the  insurgents  aid.  To  prevent  his  doing  so, 
Elizabeth  sent  a  fleet  to  harass  him  at  home.  The  English  sailed 
into  the  port  of  Cadiz,  destroyed  every  vessel  in  the  harbor, 
sacked  the  city,  and  left  it  a  heap  of  ruins  (1596).  This  destruc- 
tion of  her  chief  seaport  was  even  more  humiliating  to  Spain 
than  the  destruction  of  her  "  Invincible  Armada." 

The  Irish  rebels,  because  of  their  dallyings  with  Philip,  were 
now  proceeded  against  with  vigor.  The  Celtic  resistance  was 
finally  broken,  mainly  by  the  removal  of  the  natives  from  some 
of  the  best  regions  of  the  island  and  the  filling  of  the  places  thus 
made  empty  with  Scottish  and  English  settlers  (sec.  461). 

392.  Maritime  and  Colonial  Enterprises.  — The  crippling  of  the 
naval  power  of  Spain  left  England  mistress  of  the  seas.  The  little 
island  realm  now  entered  upon  the  most  splendid  period  of  her 
history.  These  truly  were  "  the  spacious  times  of  great  Elizabeth." 
The  English  people,  stirred  by  recent  events,  seemed  to  burn  with 
a  feverish  impatience  for  maritime  adventure  and  glory.  Many 
a  story  of  the  daring  exploits  of  English  sea  rovers  during  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  seems  like  a  repetition  of  some  tale  of  the  old  Vikings. 

Among  all  these  sea  rovers,  half  explorer,  half  adventurer,  Sir 
Francis  Drake  (about  1 540-1 596)  was  preeminent.  Before  the 
Armada  days  he  had  sailed  round  the  globe  (1577-1580),  bring- 
ing home  with  him  an  immense  booty  which  he  had  got  as  ransom 
from  the  cities  of  Peru  and  Chile,  and  for  the  achievement  had 
been  knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Especially  deserving  of  mention  among  the  enterprises  of  these 
stirring  and  romantic  times  are  the  undertakings  and  adventures 


360  THE   ENGLISH    REFORMATION 

of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (i552?-i6i8).  Several  expeditions  were 
sent  out  by  him  for  the  purpose  of  making  explorations  and  form- 
ing settlements  in  the  New  World.  One  of  these,  which  explored 
the  central  coasts  of  North  America,  returned  with  such  glowing 
accounts  of  the  beauty  and  richness  of  the  land  visited,  that,  in 
honor  of  the  virgin  queen,  it  was  named  Virginia. 

Raleigh  attempted  to  estabUsh  colonies  in  the  new  land  (1585- 
1590),  but  the  settlements  were  unsuccessful.  The  settlers,  how- 
ever, when  they  returned  home,  carried  back  with  them  the 
tobacco  plant,  and  introduced  into  England  the  habit  of  smok- 
ing it."^  It  was  at  this  time  also  that  the  potato,  a  native  product 
of  the  New  World,  was  brought  to  Ireland.  These  together  with 
maize,  or  Indian  corn,  were  the  chief  return  the  New  World 
made  to  the  Old  for  the  great  number  of  domesticated  plants 
and  grains  which  it  received  from  thence. 

393.  The  Queen's  Death. — The  closing  days  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  were  to  her  personally  dark  and  gloomy.  She  seemed  to 
be  burdened  with  a  secret  grief  ^  as  well  as  by  the  growing  in- 
firmities of  age.  She  died  March  24,  1603,  in  the  seventieth  year 
of  her  age  and  the  forty-fifth  of  her  reign.  With  her  ended  the 
Tudor  line  of  English  sovereigns. 

Literature  of  the  Elizabethan  Era 

394.  Influences  Favorable  to  Literature.  —  The  years  covered 
by  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  constitute  one  of  the  most  momentous 
periods  in  history.  It  was  the  age  when  Europe  was  most  deeply 
stirred  by  the  Reformation.  It  was,  too,  a  period  of  marvelous 
physical  and  intellectual  expansion  and  growth.  The  discoveries  of 
Columbus  and  others  had  created  a  New  World.  The  Renaissance 
had  re-created  the  Old  World,  —  had  revealed  an  unsuspected 
treasure  in  the  civilizations  of  the  past.  Thus  everything  conspired 
to  quicken  men's  intellect  and  stimulate  their  imagination. 

"^  Some  years  before  this  the  plant  had  been  carried  to  Spain  and  to  France,  but 
seems  to  have  been  valued  mainly  for  its  medicinal  qualities. 

8  In  1 60 1  she  sent  to  the  block  her  chief  favorite,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  who  had  been 
found  guilty  of  treason. 


LITERATURE   OF   ELIZABETHAN  ERA  36 1 

An  age  of  such  activity  and  achievement  almost  of  necessity 
gives  birth  to  a  strong  and  vigorous  literature.  And  thus  is 
explained,  in  part  at  least,  how  during  this  period  the  English 
people  —  for  no  people  of  Europe  felt  more  deeply  the  stir  and 
movement  of  the  times,  nor  helped  more  to  create  this  same  stir 
and  movement,  than  the  English  nation  —  should  have  developed 
a  literature  of  such  originality  and  richness  and  strength  as  to 
make  it  the  prized  inheritance  of  all  the  world.  "The  great 
writers  who  shine  in  the  literary  splendor  of  the  Elizabethan 
Age,"  says  an  eminent  critic,  "were  the  natural  product  of  the 
newly  awakened,  thoughtful  EngHsh  nation  of  that  day." 

395.  The  Writers.  — To  make  special  mention  of  all  the  great 
writers  who  adorned  the  Elizabethan  era  would  carry  us  quite 
beyond  the  limits  of  our  book.  Having  said  something  of  the 
influence  under  which  they  wrote,  we  will  simply  add  that  this 
age  was  the  age  of  Shakespeare  and  Spenser  and  Bacon.* 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  More's  Utopia  is  the  choicest  literary 
product  of  the  early  revival  of  learning  in  England.  The  student  should 
not  fail  to  read  it  carefully.  It  lights  up  at  once  the  social,  the  political, 
and  the  religious  world  of  the  time  (cf.  sec.  377).  For  a  great  variety  of 
illustrative  material,  turn  to  Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of 
English  Constitutional  History,  pp.  213-326;  HENDERSON,  Side  Lights  on 
English  History,  pp.  1-32 ;  and  Kendall,  Source-Book,  chaps,  viii,  ix,  and  x. 
In  Payne,  Voyages  of  the  Elizabethan  Seamen  (First  Series,  Oxford,  1893), 
read  "  The  Famous  Voyage  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  into  the  South  Sea," 
pp.  196-229. 

Secondary  Works.  —  The  Cambridge  Modern  History^  vol.  i,  chap.  xiv. 
Green,  Short  History  of  the  English  People,  chaps,  vi  and  vii.  Froude, 
English  Seamen  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  and  The  Spanish  Story  of  the 
Armada.  Gasquet,  Henry  Vllf  and  the  English  Monasteries  and  The 
Eve  of  the  Reformation.  These  are  the  works  of  an  eminent  Catholic 
scholar.  Pollard,  Henry  VIII.  Creighton,  Queen  Elizabeth.  Bourne, 
Sir  Philip  Sidney.  In  the  Twelve  English  Statesmen  series,  Creighton, 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  Beesly,  Queen  Elizabeth.  For  constitutional  matters, 
turn  to  Hallam's,  Taswell-Langmead's,  and  Macy's  constitutional  his- 
tories. For  concise  narrations  of  the  events  dealt  with  in  this  chapter,  see 
Gardiner's,  Montgomery's,Terry's,  Coman  and  Ken  dall's,  Andrews', 

»  William  Shakespeare  (1564-1616);  Edmund  Spenser  (155a  ?-i599);  Frands  Bacon 
(1561-1626).    Shakespeare  and  Bacon,  it  will  be  noticed,  outlived  Elizabeth. 


362 


THE   ENGLISH   REFORMATION 


and  Cheyney's  text-books  on  English  history.  And  for  biographical  in- 
formation, turn  to  the  excellent  articles  in  the  English  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Voyages  of  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot. 
2.  Sir  Thomas  More  and  his  Utopia.  3.  The  story  of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 
4.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  exploring  and  colonizing  enterprises  in  the  new 
lands.  5.  The  introduction  from  the  New  World  into  Europe  of  the 
potato,  maize,  and  the  tobacco  plant.  6.  The  Earl  of  Essex  and  Queen 
Elizabeth. 


Fig.  68.  —  Melrose  Abbey.    (From  a  photograph) 

As  the  ruinsof  Fountains  Abbey  (see  Plate  VI)  are  a  memorial  of  the  iconoclasm 
of  the  Reformation  movement  in  England,  so  are  the  remains  of  Melrose 
Abbey  a  like  monument  of  the  iconoclastic  phase  of  the  Reformation  in 
Scotland.  With  the  change  in  doctrines  there,  the  monks  of  the  historic  abbey 
—  it  was  founded  in  the  thirteenth  century  —  were  driven  out  and  the 
beautiful  sculptures  of  the  abbey  church  defaced 


Fig.  69.  —  Typical  Dutch  Scene:  Zaandam.    (From  a  photograph) 


CHAPTER   XXIII 


THE  REVOLT  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS:   RISE  OF  THE  DUTCH 
REPUBLIC    (1572-1609) 

396.  The  Country. — The  name  Netherlands  (lowlands)  was 
formerly  applied  to  all  that  district  in  the  northwest  of  Europe, 
much  of  it  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  now  occupied  by  the 
kingdoms  of  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium.  A  large  part  of  this 
region  is  simply  the  delta  accumulations  of  the  Rhine  and  other 
rivers  emptying  into  the  North  Sea.  Originally  it  was  often  over- 
flowed by  its  streams  and  inundated  by  the  ocean. 

But  this  unpromising  morass,  protected  at  last  by  heavy  dikes 
seaward  against  the  invasions  of  the  ocean,  and  by  great  embank- 
ments inland  against  the  overflow  of  its  streams,  was  destined  to 
become  the  site  of  the  most  potent  cities  of  Europe,  and  the  seat 
of  one  of  the  foremost  commonwealths  of  modern  times. 

397.  The  People :  Celt  and  German.  —  Much  light  is  thrown 
upon  the  history  of  the  Netherlands  by  keeping  in  mind  the  dif- 
ference in  race  between  the  original  population  of  the  northern 
and  that  of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  country. 

When  the  Romans  first  came  in  contact  with  the  inhabitants 
of  this  region,  the  southern  portion  of  the  land  was  held  by 
Celtic  tribes,  known  as  the  Belgae,  while  the  northern  part  was 
the  home  of  German  clans,  chief  among  which  were  the  Frisians 
and  Batavians.    These  races,  kept  apart  by  differences  in  language 

363 


364  REVOLT   OF  THE    NETHERLANDS 

and  temperament,  unfortunately  were  never  fused  into  a  single 
people ;  and  when  finally,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  there  came  a 
crisis  in  the  liTe  of  the  European  nations,  and  they  were  each  called 
upon  to  choose  between  the  Old  Church  and  the  New,  the  northern 
and  the  southern  Netherlanders  made  different  choices,  and  went 
divergent  ways.  In  the  contrasted  histories  of  the  predominantly 
Gallic  South  and  the  predominantly  German  North,  —  the  former 
represented  to-day  by  the  Catholic  kingdom  of  Belgium,  and  the 
latter  by  the  Protestant  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  —  some  his- 
torians find  support  for  the  theory  that  race  is  a  potent  influence 
in  shaping  the  destinies  of  a  people. 

398.  State  of  the  Country  at  the  Opening  of  the  Modern  Age.  — 
No  country  in  Europe  made  greater  progress  in  civilization  during 
the  mediaeval  era  than  the  Netherlands.  At  the  opening  of  the 
sixteenth  century  they  contained  a  crowded  and  busy  population 
of  three  million  souls.  The  ancient  marshes  had  been  transformed 
into  carefully  kept  gardens  and  orchards.  The  walled  cities  num- 
bered between  two  and  three  hundred,  while  thriving  villages  and 
hamlets  were  counted  by  the  thousand. 

The  great  cities  that  dotted  the  country  depended  chiefly  for 
their  wealth  and  power  upon  their  manufactures  and  commerce, 
the  carrying  trade  of  Northern  Europe  being  largely  in  the  hands 
of  the  bold  and  skillful  Netherland  sailors.  These  cities  had 
usurped  the  place  once  held  by  the  Hansa  towns  of  Germany. 
Antwerp,  situated  on  the  Scheldt,  rivaled  even  the  greatest  of  the 
Italian  cities.  **  I  was  sad  when  I  saw  Antwerp,"  writes  a  Venetian 
ambassador,  ''for  I  saw  Venice  surpassed." 

399.  The  Low  Countries  under  Charles  V  (15 15-15 5 5).  —  The 
Netherlands,  it  will  be  recalled,  were  part  of  those  possessions 
over  which  the  Emperor  Charles  V  ruled  by  hereditary  right. 
We  have  seen  how  towards  the  close  of  his  reign  he  set  up  here 
the  Inquisition  with  the  object  of  suppressing  the  heresy  of  the 
reformers  (sec.  348).  Many  persons  perished  at  the  stake  and 
upon  the  scaffold,  or  were  strangled,  or  buried  alive.^  But  when 
Charles  retired  to  the  monastery  at  Yuste,  the  reformed  doctrines 

1  Charles'  persecutions  covered  the  years  from  1521  to  1555.  The  number  of 
martyrs  during  these  years  has  been  greatly  exaggerated  ;  it  was  put  as  high  as  one 


ACCESSION   OF   PHILIP   II  365 

were,  notwithstanding  all  his  efforts,  far  more  widely  spread  and 
deeply  rooted  in  the  Netherlands  than  when  he  entered  upon  their 
extirpation  by  fire  and  sword. 

400.  Accession  of  Philip  n.  —  In  1555,  in  the  presence  of  an 
august  and  princely  assembly  at  Brussels,  and  amidst  the  most 
imposing  and  dramatic  ceremonies,  Charles  V  abdicated  the  crown 
whose  weight  he  could  no  longer  bear,  and  placed  it  upon  the 
head  of  his  son  Philip.  What  sort  of  man  this  son  was,  we  have 
already  learned  (sec.  350). 

Philip  remained  in  the  Netherlands  after  his  coronation  four 
years,  employing  much  of  his  time  in  devising  means  to  root  out 
the  heresy  of  Protestantism.  In  1559  he  set  sail  for  Spain,  never 
to  return.  His  arrival  in  the  peninsula  was  celebrated  by  an  auto 
defe  at  Valladolid,  festivities  which  ended  in  the  burning  of  thir- 
teen persons  whom  the  Inquisition  had  condemned  as  heretics. 

It  was  not  delight  at  the  sight  of  suffering  that  led  Philip  on 
his  home-coming  to  be  a  spectator  at  these  awful  solemnities.  He 
doubtless  wished  through  his  presence  to  give  sanction  to  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Office,  and  to  impress  all  with  the  fact  that 
unity  of  religion  in  Spain,  as  the  necessary  basis  of  peace  and 
unity  in  the  state,  was  going  to  be  maintained  by  him  at  any  and 
every  cost. 

401.  "Long  live  the  Beggars! "  — Upon  his  departure  from  the 
Netherlands,  Philip  intrusted  the  government  to  his  half-sister 
Margaret,  Duchess  of  Parma,  as  regent. 

Under  the  administration  of  Margaret  (1559-1567)  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Protestants  went  on  with  renewed  bitterness.  At  last 
the  nobles  leagued  together  and  resolved  to  petition  the  regent  for 
a  redress  of  grievances.  When  the  duchess  learned  that  the  peti- 
tioners were  about  to  wait  upon  her,  she  displayed  great  agitation. 
Thereupon  one  of  her  councilors  exclaimed,  "What,  madam! 
afraid  of  these  beggars?  " 

The  expression  was  carried  to  the  nobles,  who  were  assembled  at 
a  banquet.    Straightway  one  of  their  number  suspended  a  beggar's 

hundred  thousand  by  the  celebrated  Dutch  jurist,  Grotius  (d.  1645).  Blok  believes 
the  number  actually  suffering  the  death  penalty  was  less  than  one  thousand.  See  his 
History  of  the  People  of  the  Netherlands,  vol.  ii,  p.  317. 


366  REVOLT   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS 

wallet  from  his  neck  and,  filling  a  wooden  bowl  with  wine,  proposed 
the  toast,  "  Long  live  the  beggars  ! "  The  name  was  tumultuously 
adopted  and  became  the  party  designation  of  the  patriot  Nether- 
landers  during  their  long  struggle  with  the  Spanish  power. 

402.  The  Iconoclasts  (1566). — The  only  reply  of  the  govern- 
ment to  the  petition  of  the  nobles  for  a  mitigation  of  the  severity 
of  the  edicts  concerning  heresy  was  a  decree  termed  the  Mod- 
eration, which  substituted  hanging  for  burning  in  the  case  of 
condemned  heretics. 

The  pent-up  indignation  of  the  people  at  length  burst  forth  in 
uncontrollable  fury.  They  gathered  in  great  mobs  and  proceeded 
to  demolish  every  image  they  could  find  in  the  churches  through- 
out the  country.  The  monasteries,  too,  were  sacked,  their  libraries 
burned,  and  the  inmates  driven  from  their  cloisters.  The  tempest 
destroyed  innumerable  art  treasures,  which  have  been  as  sincerely 
mourned  by  the  lovers  of  the  beautiful  as  the  burned  rolls  of  the 
Alexandrian  library  have  been  lamented  by  the  lovers  of  learning. 

403.  The  Duke  of  Alva  and  the  "Council  of  Blood"  (1567). — 
The  year  following  this 'outbreak  Philip  sent  to  the  Netherlands  a 
veteran  Spanish  army,  "  one  of  the  most  perfect  engines  of  war 
ever  seen  in  any  age,"  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  a  man  after 
Philip's  own  heart,  deceitful,  fanatical,  and  merciless. 

Alva  was  one  of  the  ablest  generals  of  the  age,  and  the  intelli- 
gence of  his  coming  threw  the  provinces  into  a  state  of  the  greatest 
agitation  and  alarm.  Those  who  could  do  so  hastened  to  get  out 
of  the  country.  William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange,^  one  of  the 
leading  noblemen  of  the  Lowlands,  fled  to  Germany,  where  he 
began  to  gather  an  army  of  volunteers  for  the  struggle  which  he 
now  saw  to  be  inevitable. 

Egmont  and  Hoom,  Catholic  noblemen  ^  of  high  rank  and  great 
distinction,  were  treacherously  seized,  cast  into  prison,  and  soon 

2  He  bore  also  the  title  of  Count  of  Nassau.  Nassau  was  a  little  German  state,  now 
included  in  Prussia.  Orange  was  a  petty  principality  on  the  Rhone,  near  Avignon. 
It  came  into  the  hands  of  the  family  of  Nassau  in  1530. 

3  Many  Catholics  sympathized  at  first  with  the  Protestants  and  acted  with  them, 
because  they  felt  that  Philip's  acts  were  in  direct  violation  of  the  chartered  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  cities  and  provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  But  Egmont  and 
Hoom  had  been  guilty  of  no  overt  acts,  and  their  fate  was  undeserved. 


WILLIAM   OF   ORANGE 


367 


afterwards  beheaded.  The  duchess  was  relieved  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  was  committed  to  the  firmer  hands  of  Alva,  who,  to 
aid  him  in  the  management  of  affairs,  organized  a  most  iniquitous 
tribunal,  known  in  history  as  the  "  Council  of  Blood." 

The  Inquisition  was  now  reestablished,  and  a  perfect  reign  of 
terror  began.  The  number  of  Alva's  victims  during  his  short  rule 
—  he  is  said  to  have  boasted  that  he  had  put  to  death  over  eighteen 
thousand  —  might  almost  persuade  us  that  he  had  deliberately 
purposed  the  extermination  of  the  people  of  the  Netherlands. 

Besides  being  subjected  to  this  religious  persecution,  the  Nether- 
landers  were  oppressed  by  iniquitous  taxes,  particularly  by  an  impo- 
sition known  as  "  the  tenth  penny,"  a  tax  often  per  cent  on  all  sales 
of  commodities.  This  was  ruinous  to  business,  and  drove  the  thrifty 
burghers  almost  to  desperation. 

404.  William  of  Orange.  —  The  eyes  of  all  patriot  Netherlanders 
were  now  turned  to  the  Prince  of  Orange  as  their  only  deliverer. 
The  prince,  though  never  a  zealous  Church  partisan,  was  a  deeply 
religious  man,  and  believed 
himself  called  of  Heaven 
to  the  work  of  rescuing  his 
country  from  Spanish  tyr- 
anny. Up  to  this  time  he 
had  been  a  Catholic,  hav- 
ing been  brought  up  as  a 
page  in  the  household  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
He  now  embraced  Protes- 
tantism; but  both  as  a 
Catholic  and  as  a  Protes- 
tant he  opposed  persecu- 
tion on  account  of  religious 
belief.  His  attitude  here  is 
worthy  of  special  notice, 
for  it  set  him  apart  from  the  great  majority  of  his  contemporaries, 
and  had  a  vast  influence  in  shaping  the  policies  and  the  des- 
tinies of  the  small  yet  great  commonwealth  of  which  he  was  to  be 
the  founder. 


Fig.  70.  —  William  of  Orange  (The 
S I  lent)  .  (After  a  painting  by  Mierevelt^ 
Amsterdam) 


368  REVOLT   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS 

William  of  Orange,  like  our  own  Washington,  was  a  statesman 
rather  than  a  soldier ;  yet  even  as  a  leader  in  war  he  evinced  tal- 
ent of  a  high  order.  The  Spanish  armies  were  commanded  suc- 
cessively by  the  most  experienced  and  distinguished  generals  of 
Europe ;  but  the  prince  coped  ably  with  them  all,  and  in  the  mas- 
terly service  which  he  rendered  his  country  earned  the  title  of 
"The  Founder  of  Dutch  Liberties." 

405.  The  Isolation  of  the  Provinces.  —  Never  did  any  people 
make  a  more  heroic  defense  of  their  religious  and  civil  liberties 
than  did  the  Netherlanders.  The  struggle  lasted  for  more  than  a 
generation,  —  for  over  forty  years.  The  Netherlanders  sustained 
the  unequal  contest  almost  single-handed ;  for,  though  they  found 
sympathy  among  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  France,  and  Eng- 
land, they  never  received  material  assistance  from  any  of  these 
countries  excepting  England,  and  it  was  not  until  late  in  the 
struggle  that  aid  came  from  this  source. 

As  regards  the  German  Protestants,  they  were  too  much  divided 
among  themselves  to  render  efficient  aid,  and  besides,  being 
mostly  Lutherans,  they  had  little  zeal  for  the  cause  of  the  Dutch 
Protestants,  who  were  in  the  main  Calvinists ;  and  just  at  the 
moment  when  the  growing  Protestant  sentiment  in  France  en- 
couraged the  Netherlanders  to  look  confidently  for  help  from 
the  Huguenot  party  there,  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  extin- 
guished forever  all  hope  of  succor  from  that  quarter.  So  the  Httle 
revolted  provinces  were  left  to  carry  on  practically  unaided,  as 
best  they  might,  a  contest  with  the  most  powerful  monarch  of 
Christendom. 

406.  The  Capture  of  Briel  (1572);  the  Beginning  of  the  Sea 
Power  of  the  Dutch.  —  It  was  the  nature  of  their  country,  half 
land,  half  water,  which  enabled  the  Dutch  to  make  such  a  pro- 
longed and  finally  successful  resistance  to  the  power  of  Spain.  The 
Dutch  triumphed  because  the  sea  helped  them.  The  influence 
that  this  element  was  to  exert  upon  the  struggle  was  foreshadowed 
early  in  the  conflict  by  a  celebrated  exploit  of  Dutch  seamen. 

The  circumstances  of  this  exploit  were  these.  Almost  at  the 
outset  of  the  war  the  Prince  of  Orange  had  commissioned  some 


BEGINNING   OF  DUTCH   SEA   POWER  369 

sailors  as  privateers  to  prey  upon  Spanish  ships  and  to  harass  the 
coast  towns  which  favored  the  enemy.  Soon  the  sea  was  swarm- 
ing with  these  privateers,  —  Water  Beggars,  they  were  called, 
—  who,  out  of  reach  of  restraint,  became  veritable  freebooters, 
and  revived  the  days  and  emulated  the  deeds  of  the  Saxon  cor- 
sairs who  a  thousand  years  before  had  put  out  from  these  same 
or  neighboring  creeks  and  lagoons. 

One  day  a  squadron  of  twenty  or  more  ships  of  these  bucca- 
neers, expelled  from  English  harbors,  made  a  descent  upon  the 
port  of  Briel  (or  Brill)  in  Holland,  seized  the  place,  and  held  it  for 
the  Prince  of  Orange.  It  was  a  small  affair  in  itself,  somewhat 
like  the  affair  at  Lexington  in  the  American  Revolution,  but  it 
stirred  wonderfully  the  people  of  the  Lowlands.  Straightway 
other  places  opened  their  gates  to  the  Water  Beggars,  and  thus 
the  rebellion  speedily  gained  a  secure  ba^is  for  regular  naval 
operations.  It  was  the  real  beginning  of  the  great  sea  power  of 
the  future  Dutch  Republic,  which  for  two  hundred  years  was  to 
be  a  potent  force  in  history. 

Having  now  gained  some  idea  of  the  causes  of  the  revolt  and 
the  nature  of  the  struggle,  we  must  hurry  on  to  the  issue  of  the 
matter.  In  so  doing  we  shall  pass  unnoticed  many  sieges  and 
battles,  negotiations  and  treaties.* 

407.  "The  Spanish  Fury" ;  the  Pacification  of  Ghent  (1576).  — 
The  year  1576  was  marked  by  a  revolt  of  the  Spanish  soldiers  on 
account  of  their  not  receiving  their  pay,  the  costly  war  having 
drained  Philip's  treasury.  The  mutinous  army  marched  through 
the  land,  pillaging  city  after  city  and  paying  themselves  with  the 
spoils.  The  beautiful  city  of  Antwerp  was  ruined.  The  atrocities 
committed  by  the  frenzied  soldiers  caused  the  outbreak  to  be 
called  the  "  Spanish  Fury." 

The  terrible  state  of  affairs  led  to  an  alliance  between  Holland 
and  Zealand  and  the  other  fifteen  provinces  of  the  Netherlands, 
known  in  history  as  the  Pacification  of  Ghent  (1576).  The  resist- 
ance to  the  Spanish  crown  had  thus  far  been  carried  on  without 

*  Read  in  Motley's  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  the  siege  and  sack  of  Haarlem  and 
the  relief  of  Ley  den. 


370  REVOLT   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS 

concerted  action  among  the  several  states,  the  Prince  of  Orange 
having  hitherto  found  it  impossible  to  bring  the  different  provinces 
to  agree  to  any  plan  of  general  defense. 

408.  The  Union  of  Utrecht  (1579).  —  With  the  Spanish  forces 
under  the  lead  first  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  the  hero  victor  of 
Lepanto  (sec.  354),  and  afterwards  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Parma, 
a  commander  of  most  distinguished  ability,  the  war  now  went  on 
with  increased  vigor,  fortune,  with  many  vacillations,  inclining  to 
the  side  of  the  Spaniards.  Disaffection  arose  among  the  Nether- 
landers,  the  outcome  of  which  was  the  separation  of  the  northern 
and  southern  provinces.  The  seven  Protestant  states  of  the  North, 
the  chief  of  which  were  Holland  and  Zealand,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1579),  drew  together  in  a  permanent  confederation, 
known  as  the  Seven  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange -as  stadtholder.  In  this  league  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  renowned  Dutch  Republic. 

Fortunate  would  it  have  been  for  the  Netherlands  could  all  of 
the  states  at  this  time  have  been  brought  to  act  in  concert.  Under 
the  leadership  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  the  seventeen  provinces 
might  have  been  consolidated  into  a  powerful  nation  that  might 
now  be  reckoned  among  the  great  states  of  Europe.  However,  it 
was  destined  to  be  otherwise.  The  ten  Catholic  provinces  of  the 
South,  although  they  continued  their  contest  with  Philip  a  little 
longer,  ultimately  submitted  to  Spanish  tyranny.  Portions  of 
these  provinces  were  eventually  absorbed  by  France,  while  the 
remainder  after  varied  fortunes  finally  became  the  present  king- 
dom of  Belgium.  With  their  history  we  shall  have  no  further  con- 
cern at  present,  but  turn  now  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  the  rising 
republic  of  the  North. 

409.  The  "Ban"  and  the  "Apology"  (1580-15 81).  —  William 
of  Orange  was,  of  course,  the  animating  spirit  of  the  confederacy 
formed  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  In  the  eyes  of  Philip  and  his 
viceroys  he  appeared  the  sole  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  pacifica- 
tion of  the  provinces  and  their  return  to  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
obedience.  In  vain  had  Philip  sent  against  him  the  ablest  and 
most  distinguished  commanders  of  the   age ;    in   vain  had  he 


DECLARATION    OF   INDEPENDENCE  371 

endeavored  to  detach  him  from  the  cause  of  his  country  by  mag- 
nificent bribes  of  titles,  offices,  and  fortune. 

Philip  now  resolved  to  employ  public  assassination*^  for  the 
removal  of  the  invincible  general  and  the  incorruptible  patriot. 
He  published  a  ban  against  the  prince,  declaring  him  an  outlaw 
and  "the  chief  disturber  of  all  Christendom  and  especially  of 
these  Netherlands,"  and  offering  any  one  who  would  deliver  him 
into  his  hands  *'  dead  or  alive  "  pardon  for  any  crime  he  might 
have  committed,  a  title  of  nobility,  and  twenty-five  thousand 
crowns  in  gold  or  in  lands. 

The  prince  responded  to  the  infamous  edict  by  a  remarkable 
paper  entitled  *<  The  Apology  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,"  the  most 
terrible  arraignment  of  tyranny  that  was  ever  penned.  The 
"  Apology  "  was  scattered  throughout  Europe,  and  everywhere 
produced  a  profound  impression. 

410.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  (July  26,  1581). — The 
United  Provinces  had  not  yet  formally  renounced  their  allegiance 
to  the  Spanish  crown.  They  now  deposed  Philip  as  their  sover- 
eign, broke  in  pieces  his  seal,  and  put  forth  to  the  world  their 
memorable  Declaration  of  Independence,  a  document  as  sacred 
to  the  Dutch  as  the  Declaration  of  1776  is  to  Americans. 

The  preamble  contains  these  words :  "  Whereas  God  did  not 
create  the  people  slaves  to  their  prince,  to  obey  his  commands, 
whether  right  or  wrong,  but  rather  the  prince  for  the  sake*  of  the 
subjects,  to  govern  them  according  to  equity,  to  love  and  support 
them  as  a  father  his  children  or  a  shepherd  his  flock,  and  even  at 
the  hazard  of  life  to  defend  and  preserve  them  ;  [therefore]  when 
he  does  not  behave  thus,  but,  on  the  contrary,  oppresses  them, 

6  We  use  the  expression  "  public  assassination  "  in  order  to  indicate  a  change  in 
Philip's  methods.  He  had  all  along  tried  to  get  rid  of  the  prince  by  private  or  secret 
assassination.  Now  his  edict  of  outlawry  makes  the  prof>osed  assassination  avowedly 
a  public  or  governmental  affair.  To  comprehend  this  proceeding  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  in  the  sixteenth  century  assassination  was  not  looked  upon  with  that  utter  abhor- 
rence with  which  we  rightly  regard  it ;  in  the  language  of  the  historian  Lingard,  it 
was  then  "one  of  the  recognized  weapons  of  constitutional  power."  In  the  f>etty 
states  of  Italy  it  was  a  weapon  resorted  to  almost  universally,  and  seemingly  without 
any  compunctions  of  conscience,  and  even  in  the  North  many  of  the  rulers  at  one  time 
and  another  had  recourse  to  it.   Compare  sees.  389,  420,  and  431. 


372  REVOLT   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS 

seeking  opportunities  to  infringe  their  ancient  customs  and  privi- 
leges, exacting  from  them  slavish  compliance,  then  he  is  no 
longer  a  prince,  but  a  tyrant,  and  the  subjects  .  .  .  may  not 
only  disallow  his  authority,  but  legally  proceed  to  the  choice  of 
another  prince  for  their  defense." 

This  language  was  a  wholly  new  dialect  to  the  ears  of  Phihp 
and  of  princes  like  him.  They  had  never  heard  anything  like  it 
before  uttered  in  such  tones  by  a  whole  people.  But  it  was  a 
language  destined  to  spread  wonderfully  and  to  become  very 
common.  We  shall  hear  it  often  enough  a  Httle  later  in  the  era 
of  the  Revolution.  It  will  become  familiar  speech  in  England,  in 
America,  in  France,  —  almost  everywhere.® 

411.  Assassination  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  —  "  The  ban  soon 
bore  fruit."  Upon  the  loth  day  of  July,  1584,  after  five  previous 
unsuccessful  attempts  had  been  made  upon  his  life,  the  Prince  of 
Orange  was  fatally  shot  by  an  assassin  named  Balthasar  Gerard. 
Philip  approved  the  murder  as  '*  an  exploit  of  supreme  value  to 
Christendom."  The  murderer  was  put  to  death  with  hideous  tor- 
ture, but  his  heirs  received  the  promised  reward,  being  endowed 
with  certain  of  the  estates  of  the  prince  and  honored  by  eleva- 
tion to  the  rank  of  the  Spanish  nobility. 

The  character  of  William  the  Silent  is  one  of  the  most  admi- 
rable portrayed  in  all  history.  His  steadfast  and  unselfish  devo- 
tion to  the  cause  of  his  country  deservedly  won  for  him  the  love 
of  all  classes.  His  people  fondly  called  him  "  Father  William." 
"As  long  as  he  lived,"  writes  Motley,  *' he  was  the  guiding  star 
of  a  whole  brave  nation ;  and  when  he  died  the  little  children 
cried  in  the  streets." 

412.  Progress  of  the  War  ;  the  Truce  of  1609.  —  Severe  as  was 
the  blow  sustained  by  the  Dutch  patriots  in  the  death  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  they  did  not  lose  heart,  but  continued  the 
struggle   with    the    most   admirable    courage    and    steadfastness. 


6  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Declaration  had  an  influence  in  shaping  the  English 
Declaration  of  Rights  in  1689  and  the  American  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776 ; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  in  either  of  these  cases  the  Dutch  Declaration  was  either 
known  or  consulted,  or  that  it  had  the  slightest  influence. 


PROGRESS   OF  THE  WAR 


373 


Prince  Maurice,  a  mere  youth  of  seventeen  years,  the  second  son 
of  WiUiam,  was  chosen  stadtholder  in  his  place,  and  he  proved 
himself  a  worthy  son  of  the  great  chief  and  patriot. 

The  war  now  went  on  with  unabated  fury.  France  as  well  as 
England  became  involved,  both  fighting  against  Philip,  who  was 
now  laying  claims  to  the  crowns  of  both  countries.   To  tell  of  the 


THE  NETHERLANDS 

AT  THE  TRUCE  OF  1609 


A' 


battles  on  land  lost  and  won,  of  the  naval  combats  on  almost 
every  sea  beneath  the  skies,  would  be  a  story  without  end.  The 
destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588  marked  the  turning 
point  of  the  struggle,  yet  not  the  end  of  it.  Philip  II  died  in  1598, 
but  the  losing  fight  was  carried  on  by  his  successor,  Philip  III. 

Europe  finally  grew  weary  of  the  seemingly  interminable  strug- 
gle, and  the  Spanish  commanders  becoming  convinced  that  it 
was  impossible  to  reduce  the  Dutch  rebels  to  obedience  by  force 


374  REVOLT   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS 

of  arms,  negotiations  were  entered  into  which  issued  in  the  cele- 
brated Truce  of  1609.'  This  truce  was  in  reahty  an  acknowledg- 
ment by  Spain  of  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Netherlands,  although  the  Spanish  king  was  so  unwilling  to 
admit  the  fact  of  his  inability  to  reduce  the  rebel  states  to  sub- 
mission that  the  treaty  was  termed  simply  "a  truce  for  twelve 
years."  ^  Spain  did  not  formally  acknowledge  their  independence 
until  forty  years  afterwards,  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  at  the 
end  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1648). 

Thus  ended,  after  a  continuance  of  over  forty  years,  one  of  the 
most  memorable  contests  of  which  history  tells.  The  memories 
of  these  great  days,  handed  down  to  later  generations  of  Nether- 
landers,  formed  a  rich  and  ennobling  heritage  which,  we  may 
believe,  entered  as  an  element  of  strength  into  the  Dutch  char- 
acter; for  "  such  traditions,"  as  the  historian  Hausser  truly  says, 
"  keep  a  nation  upright  for  centuries." 

413.  Influence  of  the  Establishment  of  the  Dutch  Republic  upon 
both  the  Religious  and  the  Political  Revolution.  —  The  success- 
ful issue  of  the  revolt  in  the  Netherlands  meant  much  for  the 
cause  of  the  reformers.  The  Protestant  Lowlands  formed  a  sort 
of  strategic  point  in  the  great  fight  between  Catholicism  and 
Protestantism.  The  loss  of  this  ground  might  have  proved  fatal 
to  the  Protestant  cause.  Its  maintenance  by  the  forces  of  the 
reformers  set  limits  to  the  Catholic  reaction. 

The  establishment  of  the  Dutch  Republic  had  also  great  signifi- 
cance for  the  Political  Revolution.  In  the  seventeenth  century  it 
was  Holland  that  was  the  foremost  champion  of  the  cause  of 
political  freedom  against  Bourbon^  despotism.  It  was  a  worthy 
descendant  of  the  first  Prince  William  of  Orange  who,  at  one  of 


'  In  1598  peace  had  been  made  between  Spain  and  France  (sec,  423,  n.  5),  and  then 
in  1604  between  Spain  and  England.  One  of  the  most  noteworthy  events  of  the  later 
period  of  the  war  was  the  long  and  finally  successful  siege  by  the  Spaniards  of  Ostend, 
"  The  Troy  of  modern  history." 

8  During  this  truce  period  (1609-1621)  the  Dutch  Republic  was  filled  with  discord 
through  the  bitter  quarrels  of  religious  and  political  parties  within  the  little  state. 
The  most  eminent  of  the  Dutch  statesmen  of  the  period  was  John  of  Bameveld 
(1549  ?-i6i9).    See  his  Life  by  Motley. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


375 


the  most  critical  moments  of  English  history,  when  Englishmen 
were  struggling  doubtfully  against  Stuart  tyranny,  came  to  their 
help  and  rescued  English  liberties  from  the  peril  in  which  they 
lay  (sec.  497). 


-Old South  Leaflets,  No.  72,  "The  Dutch 
No.  69,  •'  The  Description  of  the  New 


Selections  from  the  Sources. 
Declaration  of  Independence  " 
Netherlands." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Motley,  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  and 
History  of  the  United  Netherlands.  These  histories  by  Motley  are  classi- 
cal, but  they  lack  in  judicial  spirit.  They  should  be  read  in  connection  with 
Blok,  History  of  the  People  of  the  Netherlands.  YoUNG,  History  of  the 
Netherlands.  Harrison,  William  the  Silent.  Putnam,  William  the  Silent. 
For  New  Netherlands,  consult  Fiske,  The  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  in 
America.     See  also  bibliography  for  Chapter  XXI. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. —  i.  The  protective  waterworks  of  the  Low 
Countries.  2.  The  Netherlands  under  the  dukes  of  Burgundy.  3.  The 
Iconoclasts.  4.  How  William  of  Orange  acquired  his  title  of  "The  Silent." 
5.  The  siege  and  relief  of  Leyden.     6.  The  New  Netherlands. 


Fig.  71.  —  Coat  of  Arms  of  William, 
Prince  of  Orange 


CHAPTER   XXIV 
THE  HUGUENOT  WARS  IN  FRANCE  (1562-1629) 

414.  The  Reformation  in  France.  —  Before  Luther  posted  his 
ninety-five  theses  at  Wittenberg  there  had  appeared  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  and  elsewhere  in  France  men  who  from  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures  had  come  to  entertain  opinions  very  hke  those 
of  the  German  reformer.  The  movement  thus  begun  received  a 
fresh  impulse  from  the  uprising  in  Germany  under  Luther. 

The  Reformation  in  France,  as  elsewhere,  brought  dissension, 
persecution,  and  war.  We  have  already  seen  how  the  Valois  ^  king 
Francis  I  waged  an  exterminating  crusade  against  his  heretical 
Waldensian  subjects  (sec.  345).  His  son  and  successor,  Henry  11, 
also  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty  to  uproot  heresy;  and  it  was 
his  persecution  of  his  Protestant  subjects  —  a  persecution  largely 
instigated  by  his  infamous  mistress,  Diane  de  Poitiers  —  that 
sowed  the  seed  of  those  long  and  woeful  religious  wars  which  he 
left  as  a  terrible  legacy  to  his  three  feeble  sons,  Francis,  Charles, 
and  Henry,  who  followed  him  in  succession  upon  the  throne. 

Notwithstanding  the  persecutions  of  Francis  I  and  Henry  H, 
the  reformed  faith  gained  ground  rapidly  in  France  during  their 
reigns,  so  that  by  the  time  of  Henry's  death  the  followers  of  the 
reformed  creed  numbered  probably  between  one  and  two  millions. 
The  new  doctrines  had  found  adherents  especially  among  the 
lesser  nobility  and  the  burgher  class,  and  had  struck  deep  root 
in  the  south,  —  the  region  of  the  old  Albigensian  heresy. 

415.  King  Francis  II,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  the  Guises.  — 
Francis  H  began  his  reign  in  1559.    His  wife  was  the  young  and 

1  The  Valois  kings  (compare  sec,  238,  n.  13)  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  Louis  XII 
(1498-1515),  Francis  I  (1515-1547),  Henry  II  (i547-i559)>  Francis  II  (1559-1650), 
Charles  IX  (1560-1574),  Henry  III  (1574-1589).  Henry  IV,  the  successor  of 
Henry  III,  was  the  first  of  the  Bourbons. 

376 


THE  HUGUENOT  LEADERS         377 

fascinating  Mary  Stuart  of  Scotland.  Francis  was  a  weak-minded 
boy  of  sixteen  years.  The  power  behind  the  throne  was  his  mother, 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  family  of  the  Guises. 

Catherine  was  an  Italian.  She  seems  to  have  been  almost  or 
quite  destitute  of  religious  convictions  of  any  kind.  She  was 
determined  to  rule,  and  this  she  did  by  holding  the  balance  of 
power  between  the  two  religious  parties.  When  it  suited  her  pur- 
pose, she  favored  the  Protestants  ;  and  when  it  suited  her  purpose 
better,  she  favored  the  Catholics.  Through  her  counsels  and  pol- 
icies she  contributed  largely  to  make  France  wretched  through  the 
reigns  of  her  three  sons,  and  to  bring  her  house  to  a  miserable  end. 

At  the  head  of  the  family  of  the  Guises  stood  Francis,  Duke  of 
Guise,  and  his  brother  Charles,  Cardinal  of  Lorraine.  Both  of  these 
men  were  zealous  Catholics.  Mary  Stuart,  the  young  queen,  was 
their  niece,  and  through  her  they  niled  the  boy  king. 

416.  The  Huguenot^  Leaders  :  the  Bourbon  Princes  and  Admiral 
Coligny.  —  Opposed  to  the  Guises  were  the  Bourbon  princes, 
Antony,  king  of  Navarre,  and  Louis,  Prince  of  Cond^.  Next  after 
the  brothers  of  Francis  II,  they  were  heirs  to  the  French  throne. 

Gaspard  de  Coligny,  Admiral  of  France,  was  "  the  military  hero 
of  the  French  Reformation."  Early  in  life  he  had  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  the  reformers,  and  remained  to  the  last  the  trusted 
and  consistent,  though  ill-starred,  champion  of  the  Protestants. 
His  is  the  most  heroic  figure  that  emerges  from  the  unutterable 
confusion  of  the  times. 

The  foregoing  notice  of  parties  and  their  chiefs  will  suffice  to 
render  intelligible  the  events  which  we  now  have  to  narrate. 

417.  The  Massacre  of  Vassy  (1562).  —  After  the  short  reign 
of  Francis  II  (15 59-1 560)  his  brother  Charles  came  to  the  throne 
as  Charles  IX.  He  was  only  ten  years  of  age,  so  the  queen  mother 
assumed  the  government  in  his  name.  Pursuing  her  favorite  maxim 
to  rule  by  setting  one  party  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  other,  she 
gave  the  Bourbon  princes  a  place  in  the  government,  and  also  by 
a  royal  edict  gave  the  Huguenots  a  limited  toleration  and  forbade 
their  further  persecution. 

2  This  word  is  probably  from  the  German  Eidgenosscn,  meaning  "  oath  comnuies."' 


378  THE   HUGUENOT  WARS    IN   FRANCE 

These  concessions  in  favor  of  the  Huguenots  angered  the  Cath- 
olic chiefs,  particularly  the  Guises;  and  it  was  the  violation  by 
the  adherents  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  of  the  edict  of  toleration  that 
finally  caused  the  growing  animosities  of  the  two  parties  to  break 
out  in  civil  war.  While  passing  through  the  country  with  a  body 
of  armed  attendants,  at  a  small  place  called  Vassy  the  duke  came 
upon  a  company  of  Huguenots  assembled  in  a  barn  for  worship. 
His  retainers  first  insulted  and  then  attacked  them,  killing  about 
forty  of  the  company  and  wounding  many  more. 

Under  the  lead  of  Admiral  Coligny  and  the  Prince  of  Cond^, 
the  Huguenots  now  rose  throughout  France.  PhiUp  H  of  Spain 
sent  an  army  to  aid  the  Catholics,  while  Elizabeth  of  England 
extended  help  to  the  Huguenots. 

418.  The  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  (1570).  —  For  the  lifetime  of  a 
generation  France  was  distressed,  almost  without  respite,  by  bitter 
internecine  strife.^  The  rival  princely  houses  of  which  we  have 
spoken  and  their  respective  adherents  exploited  the  situation,  — 
that  is  to  say,  they  took  advantage  of  the  religious  situation  to  fur- 
ther their  own  ends.  If  one  could  imagine  the  Wars  of  the  Roses 
in  England  carried  on  in  the  midst  of  the  ferment  of  the  Refor- 
mation, imagine  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  availing  them- 
selves of  Protestant  and  Catholic  prejudice  and  fanaticism,  one 

8  The  table  below  exhibits  the  wars  of  the  entire  period  of  which  we  are  treating. 

Some  make  the  religious  wars  proper  end  with  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598);  others 

with  the  fall  of  La  Rochelle  (1628). 

First  War  (ended  by  Peace  of  Amboise) 1 562-1 563 

Second  War  (ended  by  Peace  of  Longjumeau) 1 567-1 568 

Third  War  (ended  by  Peace  of  St.  Germain) 1568-1570 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  August  24 1572 

Fourth  War  (ended  by  Edict  of  Boulogne) 15  72-1 5  73 

Fifth  War  (ended  by  Peace  of  Monsieur) 15 74-1 5 76 

Sixth  War  (ended  by  Peace  of  Bergerac) 1577 

Seventh  War  (ended  by  Treaty  of  Fleix) 1580 

Eighth  War  (War  of  the  Three  Henrys) 1585-1589 

Henry  of  Bourbon,  king  of  Navarre,  secures  the  throne       ....  1589 

Ninth  War 1589-1598 

Edict  of  Nantes 1598 

Siege  and  fall  of  La  Rochelle 162  7-1628 

By  the  fall  of  La  Rochelle  the  political  power  of  the  Huguenots  was  completely 

prostrated. 


MASSACRE  OF  ST.  BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY      379 

might  thereby  get  some  faint  idea  of  what  was  going  on  in  France 
during  the  so-called  "  Religious  Wars." 

The  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  brought  a  short  and,  as  it  proved, 
delusive  peace.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  were  very  favorable  to 
the  Huguenots.  They  received  four  towns,  among  which  was  I.a 
Rochelle,  the  stronghold  of  the  Huguenot  faith,  which  they  might 
garrison  and  hold  as  places  of  safety  and  pledges  of  good  faith. 

To  cement  the  treaty,  Catherine  de'  Medici  now  proposed  that 
the  Princess  Margaret,  the  sister  of  Charles  IX,  should  be  given 
in  marriage  to  Henry  of  Bourbon,  the  new  young  king  of  Navarre. 
The  announcement  of  the  proposed  alliance  caused  great  rejoic- 
ing among  Catholics  and  Protestants  alike,  and  the  chiefs  of  both 
parties  crowded  to  Paris  to  attend  the  wedding,  which  took  place 
on  the  1 8th  of  August,  1572. 

419.  The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (August  24,  1572). 
—  Before  the  festivities  which  followed  the  nuptial  ceremonies 
were  over,  the  world  was  shocked  by  one  of  the  most  awful 
crimes  recorded  by  history,  —  the  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  in 
Paris  on  St.  Bartholomew's  Day. 

The  circumstances  which  led  to  this  fearful  tragedy  were  as 
follows.  Among  the  Protestant  nobles  who  came  up  to  Paris  to 
attend  the  wedding  was  Admiral  Coligny.  The  admiral  had  great 
influence  over  the  young  king,  and  this  influence  he  used  to  draw 
him  away  from  the  queen  mother  and  the  Guises.  Fearing  the 
loss  of  her  influence  over  her  son,  Catherine  resolved  upon  the 
death  of  the  admiral.  The  attempt  miscarried,  Coligny  receiving 
only  a  slight  wound  from  the  assassin's  ball. 

The  Huguenots  rallied  about  their  wounded  chief  with  loud 
threats  of  revenge.  Catherine,  driven  on  by  insane  fear,  now 
determined  upon  the  death  of  all  the  Huguenots  in  Paris  as  the 
only  measure  of  safety.*  By  the  23d  of  August,  the  plans  for  the 
massacre  were  all  arranged.  On  the  evening  of  that  day  Catherine 
went  to  her  son  and  represented  to  him.  that  the  Huguenots  had 

*  In  the  midst  of  the  horror  and  panic  of  the  tragedy  the  Protestants  were  led 
to  believe  that  the  massacre  was  the  issue  of  a  plot  dating  from  the  Treaty  of 
St.  Germain.    The  view  is  now  known  to  be  wholly  unsupported  by  the  facts. 


38o  THE   HUGUENOT  WARS    IN    FRANCE 

formed  a  plot  for  the  assassination  of  the  royal  family  and  the 
leaders  of  the  Catholic  party,  and  that  the  utter  ruin  of  their 
house  and  cause  could  be  averted  only  by  the  immediate  destruc- 
tion of  the  Protestants  within  the  city  walls.  The  order  for  the 
massacre  was  then  laid  before  him  for  his  signature.  The  weak- 
minded  king  shrank  in  terror  from  the  deed,  and  at  first  refused 
to  sign  the  decree  ;  but  overcome  at  last  by  the  representations  of 
his  mother,  he  exclaimed,  "■  I  consent,  provided  not  one  Huguenot 
be  left  alive  in  France  to  reproach  me  with  the  deed." 

A  little  past  the  hour  of  midnight  on  St.  Bartholomew's  Day 
(August  24,  1572),  at  a  preconcerted  signal,  —  the  tolling  of  a 
bell,  —  the  massacre  began.  Coligny  was  one  of  the  first  victims. 
For  three  days  and  nights  the  massacre  went  on  within  the  city. 
The  number  of  victims  in  Paris  is  variously  estimated  at  from  one 
thousand  to  ten  thousand. 

With  the  capital  cleared  of  Huguenots,  orders  were  issued  to 
the  principal  cities  of  France  to  purge  themselves  in  like  manner 
of  heretics.  In  many  places  the  decree  was  disobeyed ;  but  in 
others  the  orders  were  carried  out,  and  frightful  massacres  took 
place.  The  number  of  victims  throughout  the  country  is  un- 
known ;  estimates  differ  widely,  running  from  two  thousand  to 
a  hundred  thousand. 

The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  raised  a  cry  of  execra- 
tion in  almost  every  part  of  the  civilized  world,  among  Catholics 
and  Protestants  alike.  Philip  H,  however,  is  said  to  have  received 
the  news  with  unfeigned  joy;  while  Pope  Gregory  XHI  caused 
a  Te  Deii??i,  in  commemoration  of  the  event,  to  be  sung  in  the 
church  of  St.  Mark  in  Rome.  Respecting  this  it  should  in  justice 
be  said  that  Catholic  writers  maintain  that  the  Pope  acted  under 
a  misconception  of  the  facts,  it  having  been  represented  to  him 
that  the  massacre  resulted  from  a  thwarted  plot  of  the  Huguenots 
against  the  royal  family  of  France  and  the  Catholic  Church. 

420.  Reign  of  Henry  III  (1574-1589). — The  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  instead  of  exterminating  heresy  in  France, 
only  served  to  rouse  the  Huguenots  to  a  more  determined  defense 
of  their  faith.    Throughout  the  last  two  years  of  the  reign  of 


ACCESSION    OF   HENRY    IV 


381 


Charles  IX  and  the  fifteen  succeeding  years  of  the  reign  of  his 
brother  Henry  III  the  country  was  in  a  state  of  turmoil  and  war. 
By  granting  privileges  to  the  Huguenots,  Henry  angered  the 
Catholics,  who,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  ancient  Church, 
formed  what  was  known  as  the  Holy  League,  the  head  of  which 
was  the  third  Duke  of  Guise.  Finally,  in  1589,  the  king,  who  jeal- 
ous of  the  growing  power  and  popularity  of  the  duke  had  caused 
him  to  be  assassinated,  was  himself  struck  down  by  the  avenging 
dagger  of  a  Dominican  monk.   With  him  ended  the  House  of  Valois. 

421.  Accession  of  Henry  IV  (1589).  —  Henry  of  Bourbon,  king 
of  Navarre,  who  for  many  years  had  been  the  most  prominent 
leader  of  the  Huguenots,  now  came  to  the  throne  as  the  first  of 
the  Bourbon  kings.  His  accession 
lifted  into  prominence  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  royal  houses  in 
European  history.  The  political 
story  of  France,  and  indeed  of 
Europe,  from  this  time  on  to  the 
French  Revolution,  and  for  some 
time  after  that,  is  in  great  part  the 
story  of  the  House  of  Bourbon. 

Although  the  doctrines  of  the 
reformers  had  made  rapid  prog- 
ress in  France  under  the  sons  of 
Henry  II,  still  the  great  majority 
of  the  nation  at  the  time  of  the 
death  of  Henry  III  were  Catholics 
in  faith  and  worship.  Under  these 
circumstances  we  shall  hardly 
expect  to  find  the  entire  nation 
quietly  acquiescing  in  the  accession  to  the  French  throne  of  a 
Protestant  prince,  and  he  the  leader  and  champion  of  the  hated 
Huguenots.  Nor  did  Henry  secure  without  a  struggle  the  crown 
that  was  his  by  right.  The  Catholic  League  had  declared  for 
Cardinal  Bourbon,  Henry's  uncle,  and  France  was  thus  kept  in 
the  whirl  of  civil  war. 


Fig.  72.  —  Henry  IV,  King 
OF  France.  (From  a  paint- 
ing by  /'  Goltzius) 


382  THE   HUGUENOT  WARS    IN    FRANCE 

422.  Henry  turns  Catholic  (1593).  —  After  the  war  had  gone 
on  for  about  four  years  the  quarrel  was  closed,  for  the  time  being, 
by  Henry's  turning  Catholic.  Mingled  motives  led  Henry  to  do 
this.  He  was  personally  hked,  even  by  the  Catholic  chiefs,  and 
he  was  well  aware  that  it  was  only  his  Huguenot  faith  that  pre- 
vented their  being  his  hearty  supporters.  Hence  duty  and  policy 
seemed  to  concur  in  urging  him  to  remove  the  sole  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  their  ready  loyalty,  and  thus  to  bring  peace  and  quiet  to 
distracted  France. 

The  Catholic  League  now  soon  fell  to  pieces.  Henry  was  crowned 
at  Chartres ;  and  shortly  afterwards  Paris,  which  had  been  in  the 
hands  of  his  enemies,  opened  its  gates  to  him. 

423.  The  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598). — As  soon  as  Henry  had 
become  the  crowned  and  acknowledged  king  of  France,  he  gave 
himself  to  the  work  of  composing  the  affairs  of  his  kingdom. 
The  most  noteworthy  of  the  measures  he  adopted  to  this  end 
was  the  publication  of  the  celebrated  Edict  of  Nantes  (April  13, 
1598).^  By  this  decree  the  Huguenots  were  secured  perfect  free- 
dom of  conscience  and  practical  freedom  of  worship.^  Schools, 
hospitals,  and  all  public  offices  and  employments  were  opened  to 
them  the  same  as  to  Catholics.  Moreover,  they  were  allowed  to 
retain  possession  of  a  number  of  fortified  towns  as  pledges  of  good 
faith  and  as  places  of  refuge  and  defense.  Among  these  places 
was  the  important  city  of  La  Rochelle. 

The  granting  of  this  edict  is  memorable  for  the  reason  that  it 
was  the  first  formal,  though  qualified,  recognition  by  a  great  Euro- 
pean state  of  the  principle  of  religious  toleration  and  equality.'' 
Here,  for  the  first  time  since  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over 
paganism  in  the  Roman  Empire,  a  great  nation  makes  a  serious 

5  A  few  weeks  after  signing  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  Henry  concluded  with  Philip  II 
the  Treaty  of  Vervins  (May  2,  1598),  which  closed  the  war  with  Spain. 

6  The  greater  nobles  were  licensed  to  hold  general  religious  services  in  their  castles ; 
the  lesser  nobles  to  hold  services  for  the  members  of  their  own  families.  Altogether 
about  3500  castles  were  thus  made  licensed  places  of  Protestant  worship. 

7  The  provisions  of  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555  (sec.  347)  fell  far  short,  in  reli- 
gious liberalism,  of  the  clauses  of  the  edict.  Even  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648 
(sec.  433)  Germany  did  not  go  as  far  in  the  direction  of  religious  toleration  as  France 
had  gone  in  1598. 


CHARACTER  OF  HENRY   IV'S  REIGN  383 

effort  to  try  to  get  along  with  two  creeds  in  the  state.  It  was 
almost  a  century  before  even  England  went  as  far  in  the  way  of 
granting  freedom  of  conscience  and  of  worship. 

424.  Character  of  Henry  IV' s  Reign;  his  Plans  and  Death. — 
The  temporary  hushing  of  the  long-continued  quarrels  of  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants  by  the  adoption  of  the  principle  of 
religious  toleration  paved  the  way  for  a  revival  of  the  trade  and 
industries  of  the  country,  which  had  been  almost  destroyed  by 
the  anarchy  and  waste  of  the  religious  wars.  France  now  entered 
upon  such  a  period  of  prosperity  as  she  had  not  known  for  many 
years.  The  material  and  social  welfare  of  all  his  subjects,  particu- 
larly of  the  lower  classes,  was  Henry's  special  care.  His  paternal 
solicitude  for  his  humblest  subjects  secured  for  him  the  title  of 
"  Father  of  his  People." 

In  devising  and  carrying  out  his  measures  of  reform,  Henry 
was  aided  by  one  of  the  most  prudent  and  sagacious  advisers 
that  ever  strengthened  the  hands  of  a  prince,  —  the  illustrious 
Duke  of  Sully  (i 560-1641).  The  duke  was  an  author  as  well 
as  a  statesman,  and  in  his  Memoirs  left  one  of  the  most  valuable 
records  we  possess  of  the  transactions  in  which  he  took  so 
prominent  a  part. 

Remote  America  was  not  lost  sight  of  by  Henry.  In  1608 
Champlain,  a  Frenchman  in  the  service  of  a  company  patronized 
by  the  king,  upon  a  picturesque  cliff  four  hundred  miles  up  the 
St.  Lawrence,  founded  Quebec,  the  future  political  and  social 
center  of  New  France. 

Towards  the  close  of  his  reign  Henry,  feeling  strong  in  his 
resources  and  secure  in  his  power,  began  to  revolve  in  mind  vast 
projects  for  the  aggrandizement  of  France  and  the  weakening  of 
her  old  enemy,  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  in  both  its  branches.* 
He  was  making  great  preparations  for  war,  when  the  dagger  of 

8  In  connection  with  his  designs  against  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  Henry  is  repre- 
sented in  Sully's  Memoirs  as  having  had  in  mind  a  most  magnificent  scheme,  which 
was  nothing  less  than  the  organization  of  all  the  Christian  states  of  Europe  into  a 
great  confederation  or  commonwealth,  and  the  abolition  of  war  by  the  creation  of 
an  international  peace  tribunal.  This  scheme  is  known  as  the  "  Grand  Design."  It  is 
not  probable,  however,  that  Henry  was  the  author  of  it,  as  represented  by  Sully. 


384 


THE   HUGUENOT  WARS    IN   FRANCE 


a  fanatic  by  the  name  of  Ravaillac,  who  regarded  Henry  as  an 
enemy  of  the  Catholic  Church,  cut  short  his  life  and  plans  (1610). 
425.  Louis  XIII  ( 1 6 1  o- 1 643) ;  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  his  Policy. 
—  As  Henry's  son  Louis,  who  succeeded  him,  was  a  mere  child 
of  nine  years,  during  his  minority  the  government  was  adminis- 
tered by  his  mother,  Mary  de'  Medici. 
Upon  attaining  his  majority,  in  161 7, 
Louis  took  the  government  into  his 
own  hands.  He  chose  as  his  chief 
minister  Cardinal  Richelieu  (1585- 
1642),  the  Wolsey  of  France,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  characters  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  From  the  time 
that  Louis  made  the  prelate  his  chief 
minister  in  1624,  the  ecclesiastic  be- 
came the  actual  sovereign  of  France, 
and  for  the  space  of  eighteen  years 
swayed  the  destinies  not  only  of  that 
country,  but,  it  might  almost  be  said, 
those  of  Europe  as  well. 

His   policy  was  twofold  :    first,  to 
render  the  authority  of   the  French 
king  absolute  in  France;  second,  to 
make  the  power  of  France  supreme  in  Europe. 

To  attain  the  first  end  RicheHeu  sought  (i)  to  crush  the  polit- 
ical power  of  the  Huguenots ;  (2)  to  trample  out  the  last  vestige 
of  independence  among  the  old  feudal  aristocracy;  (3)  to  sup- 
press or  to  deprive  of  all  real  power  the  local  assemblies  and  the 
parliaments,  or  courts  of  justice.  To  secure  the  second  end,  he 
labored  to  break  down  the  power  of  both  branches  of  the  House 
of  Hapsburg,  that  is,  of  Austria  and  Spain. 

For  nearly  the  lifetime  of  a  generation  Richelieu,  by  intrigue, 
diplomacy,  and  war,  pursued  with  unrelenting  purpose  these 
objects  of  his  ambition.  In  the  following  paragraph  we  shall 
speak  very  briefly  of  the  cardinal's  dealings  with  the  Huguenots, 
which  feature  alone  of  his  policy  especially  concerns  us  at  present. 


Fig.  73, — Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu. (After  the  painting 
by  Philippe  de  Chafnpagne) 


SIEGE  AND  CAPTURE   OF   LA  ROCHELLE        385 

426.  Siege  and  Capture  of  La  Rochelle  (i 627-1 628);  Political 
Power  of  the  Huguenots  broken.  —  In  the  prosecution  of  his 
plans,  one  of  Cardinal  Richelieu's  first  steps  was  to  break  down 
the  political  power  of  the  Huguenot  chiefs,  who,  dissatisfied  with 
their  position  in  the  government  and  irritated  by  religious 
grievances,  were  revolving  in  mind  the  founding  in  France  of  a 
Protestant  commonwealth  like  that  which  the  Prince  of  Orange 
and  his  adherents  had  set  up  in  the  Netherlands.  The  capital 
of  this  new  republic  was  to  be  La  Rochelle,  on  the  western  coast 
of  France.  In  1627,  an  alliance  having  been  formed  between 
England  and  the  French  Protestants,  an  English  fleet  and  army 
were  sent  across  the  Channel  to  aid  the  Huguenot  enterprise. 

Richelieu  now  resolved  to  ruin  forever  the  power  of  these  Prot- 
estants who,  "  Protestants  first  and  Frenchmen  afterwards,"  were 
constantly  challenging  the  royal  authority  and  threatening  the  dis- 
memberment of  France.  Accordingly,  he  led  in  person  an  army 
to  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle,  which,  after  a  gallant  resistance  of 
more  than  a  year,  was  compelled  to  open  its  gates  (1628).  That 
the  place  might  never  again  be  made  the  center  of  resistance  to 
the  royal  power,  Louis  ordered  that  "  the  fortifications  be  razed 
to  the  ground  in  such  wise  that  the  plow  may  plow  through  the 
soil  as  through  tilled  land." 

The  Huguenots  maintained  the  struggle  a  few  months  longer 
in  the  south  of  France,  but  were  finally  everywhere  reduced  to 
submission.  The  result  of  the  war  was  the  complete  destruction 
of  the  political  power  of  the  French  Protestants.  A  treaty  of  peace 
called  the  Edict  of  Grace,  negotiated  the  year  after  the  fall  of  La 
Rochelle,  left  them,  however,  freedom  of  worship,  according  to 
the  provisions  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

The  Edict  of  Grace  properly  marks  the  close  of  the  religious 
wars  which  had  now  distressed  France  for  two  generations.  It  is 
estimated  that  this  series  of  wars  cost  the  country  a  million  lives, 
and  that  between  three  and  four  hundred  hamlets  and  towns 
were  destroyed  by  the  contending  parties. 

427.  Richelieu  and  the  Thirty  Years*  War. — When  Cardinal 
Richelieu  came  to  the  head  of  affairs  in  France,  there  was  going 


386  THE   HUGUENOT  WARS    IN   FRANCE 

on  in  Germany  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (i  618-1648),  of  which  we 
shall  tell  in  the  following  chapter.  This  was  very  much  such  a 
struggle  between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  German  princes  and 
cities  as  we  have  seen  waged  between  the  two  religious  parties 
in  France. 

Although  Richelieu  had  just  crushed  French  Protestantism,  he 
now  gave  assistance  to  the  Protestant  German  princes  because 
their  success  meant  the  division  of  Germany  and  the  humiliation 
of  Austria.  Richelieu  did  not  live  to  see  the  end  either  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  or  of  that  which  he  had  begun  with  Spain ;  but 
this  foreign  poHcy  of  the  great  minister,  carried  out  by  others, 
finally  resulted,  as  we  shall  learn  hereafter,  in  the  humiliation  of 
both  branches  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  and  the  lifting  of  France 
to  the  first  place  among  the  powers  of  Europe. 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Duke  of  Sully,  Memoirs  (Bohn). 
For  a  short  account  of  the  contents  of  this  work  consult  Historical  Sources 
in  Schools  (Report  to  the  New  England  History  Teachei's'  Association, 
pp.  99-102).  Translations  and  Repritits^  vol.  iii,  No.  3,  extracts  under  "  The 
Reformation  in  France"  (trans,  by  Merrick  Whitcomb).  Old  South  Leaf- 
lets^ No.  91,  "  The  Founding  of  Quebec  (1608)." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Baird,  The  Rise  of  the  Huguenots,  The  Huguenots 
and  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  Theodore  Beza.  Besant,  Gaspard  de  Coligny. 
'R.O'Rl'^soi^i,  Margaret  of  A  ngoulime.  y^iiA^^wv,  Henry  of  Navarre.  ADAMS, 
The  Growth  of  the  French  Nation,  chaps,  xi  and  xii.  H  ass  all.  The  French 
People,  chaps,  x  and  xi.  Lodge,  Richelieu.  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France 
in  the  New  World ;  for  the  Huguenots  in  Florida  and  Brazil,  and  Champ- 
lain  and  his  associates.  See  also  Fiske,  Nezu  England  and  New  France, 
chaps,  i-iii. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Catherine  de'  Medici.  2.  Admiral 
Coligny  and  his  project  of  French  settlements  in  Brazil  and  Florida. 
3.  The  Duke  of  Sully.  4.  The  founding  of  Quebec.  5.  The  «' Grand 
Design." 


CHAPTER  XXV 
THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR  (16ia-1648) 

428.  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  War.  —  The  long  and  calamitous 
Thirty  Years'  War  was  the  last  great  combat  between  Protestant- 
ism and  Catholicism  in  Europe.  It  started  as  a  struggle  between 
the  Protestant  and  Catholic  princes  of  Germany,  but  gradually 
involved  almost  all  the  states  of  the  continent,  degenerating  at 
last  into  a  shameful  and  heartless  struggle  for  power  and  territory. 

The  real  cause  of  the  war  was  the  enmity  existing  between  the 
German  Protestants  and  Catholics.  But  if  a  more  specific  cause 
be  sought,  it  will  be  found  in  the  character  of  the  articles  of  the 
celebrated  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  (sec.  347).  The  Catholics 
and  Protestants  did  not  interpret  alike  the  provisions  of  that  com- 
promise treaty.  Each  party  by  its  encroachments  gave  the  other 
occasion  for  complaint.  The  Protestants  at  length  formed  for  their 
mutual  protection  a  league  called  the  Evangelical  Union  (1608). 
In  opposition  to  the  Union,  the  Catholics  formed  a  confederation 
known  as  the  Holy  League  (1609).  All  Germany  was  thus  pre- 
pared to  burst  into  the  flames  of  a  religious  war. 

429.  The  Bohemian  Period  of  the  War  (161 8-1 623).  —  The 
flames  that  were  to  desolate  Germany  for  a  generation  were  first 
kindled  in  Bohemia,  where  were  still  smoldering  embers  of  the 
Hussite  wars,  which  two  centuries  before  had  desolated  that 
land.  A  church  which  the  Protestants,  relying  on  the  provisions 
of  a  certain  royal  charter,  maintained  they  had  a  right  to  build 
was  torn  down  by  the  Catholics,  and  another  was  closed.  Expos- 
tulations addressed  by  the  reformers  to  the  Emperor  Matthias, 
as  king  of  Bohemia,  receiving  an  unsatisfactory  reply,  a  body  of 
Bohemian  grandees  entered  the  royal  castle  at  Prague  and  threw 
two  of  the  imperial  regents  out  of  the  window  (May  23,  161 8). 
This  hasty  proceeding  was  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years' 

387 


388  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

War,  —  "the  source  and  cause  of  all  our  woes,"  as  wrote  one 
who  lived  in  the  sad  times  that  followed. 

The  Bohemian  Protestants  now  rose  in  organized  revolt  against 
their  Catholic  king,  Ferdinand,^  elected  a  new  Protestant  king,^ 
and  drove  out  the  Jesuits.  The  war  had  scarcely  opened  when, 
the  imperial  office  falling  vacant,  Ferdinand  was  elected  Emperor. 
With  the  power  he  now  wielded,  together  with  the  help  he  received 
from  the  Catholic  League,  it  was  not  a  difficult  matter  for  him 
to  quell  the  Protestant  insurrection  in  his  royal  dominions.  The 
leaders  of  the  revolt  were  executed,  and  the  reformed  faith  in 
Bohemia  was  almost  uprooted. 

430.  The  Danish  Period  (i  625-1 629).  —  The  situation  of  affairs 
at  this  moment  in  Germany,  with  a  zealous  and  powerful  Catho- 
lic, inclined  and  prepared  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Charles  V, 
at  the  head  of  the  Germanic  body,  filled  not  only  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  but  all  the  Protestant  powers  of  the  North, 
with  the  greatest  alarm.  Christian  IV,  king  of  Denmark,  sup- 
ported by  England  and  the  Dutch  Netherlands,  now  again  involved 
in  war  with  Spain,  threw  himself  into  the  struggle  —  which  was 
still  being  carried  on  in  a  desultory  manner — as  the  champion  of 
German  Protestantism.  On  the  side  of  the  Catholics  were  two 
noted  commanders,  —  Tilly,  the  leader  of  the  forces  of  the  Holy 
League,  and  Wallenstein,  a  wealthy  Bohemian  nobleman,  who 
was  the  commander  of  the  imperial  army.  What  is  known  as  the 
Danish  period  of  the  war  now  begins  (1625). 

The  war,  in  the  main,  proved  disastrous  to  the  Protestant  allies,^ 
and  Christian  IV  was  finally  constrained  to  conclude  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  the  Emperor  (Peace  of  Liibeck,  1629)  and  retire  from 
the  struggle. 

By  what  is  known  as  the  Edict  of  Restitution  (1629),  the  Em- 
peror Ferdinand  now  restored  to  the  Catholics  all  the  ecclesiastical 

1  Ferdinand  was  the  head  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  which  family  had  long  held 
the  throne  of  Bohemia.  After  his  election  to  the  imperial  office,  mentioned  a  little 
farther  on  in  the  text,  his  title  became  Emperor  Ferdinand  II  (1619-1637). 

2  Frederick  V,  Elector  Palatine,  son-in-law  of  James  I  of  England. 

3  Amongthe  important  episodes  of  the  war  were  the  defeat  of  the  king  of  Denmark  by 
Tilly  at  Lutter  (1626),  and  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  Stralsund  by  Wallenstein  (1628). 


THE   SWEDISH    PERIOD 


389 


lands  and  offices  in  North  Germany  of  which  possession  had  been 
taken  by  the  Protestants  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  Peace 
of  Augsburg. 

431.  The  Swedish  Period  (1630-163 5)  :  Wallenstein,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  Tilly  —  and  Wallenstein  again.  —  At  this  moment  of 
seeming  triumph,  Ferdinand  was  constrained  by  rising  discontent 
and  jealousies  to  dismiss  from  his  service  his  most  efficient  general, 
Wallenstein.  Only  a  few 
months  before  this,  Gus- 
tavus Adolphus,  king  of 
Sweden,  with  a  veteran  and 
enthusiastic  army  of  sixteen 
thousand  Swedes,  had  ap- 
peared in  North  Germany 
as  the  champion  of  the  dis- 
pirited and  leaderless  Prot- 
estants. Various  motives 
had  concurred  in  leading 
him  thus  to  intervene  in 
the  struggle.  He  was  urged 
to  this  course  by  his  strong 
Protestant  convictions  and 
sympathies.  Furthermore, 
the  progress  of  the  imperial 
arms  in  North  Germany  was  imperiling  Swedish  interests  in  the 
Baltic,  and  threatening  to  establish  the  supremacy  of  the  Austrian 
Hapsburgs  over  what  was  regarded  by  the  sovereigns  of  Sweden 
as  a  Swedish  lake. 

The  Protestant  princes'  jealousy  and  distrust  of  the  Swede 
Gustavus  now  contributed  to  a  most  terrible  disaster.  At  this 
moment  Tilly  was  besieging  the  city  of  Magdeburg,  which  had 
dared  to  resist  the  Edict  of  Restitution  (sec.  430).  But  the 
Electors  of  Brandenburg  and  Saxony,  from  whom  the  city  should 
have  received  help,  would  not,  or  at  least  did  not,  cooperate  with 
Gustavus  in  raising  the  siege.  In  a  short  time  the  city  was 
obliged   to  surrender,  and   was  given   up  to    sack  and  pillage. 


Fig.  74.  —  Gustavus  Adolphus.  (From 
a  painting  by  Vandyke) 


390  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

Thousands  of  the  inhabitants  perished  miserably.  Tilly  wrote  to 
Ferdinand  that  since  the  fall  of  Troy  and  Jerusalem  such  a  vic- 
tory had  never  been  seen.  "  I  am  sincerely  sorry,"  he  adds, 
"  that  the  ladies  of  your  imperial  family  could  not  have  been 
present  as  spectators." 

The  cruel  fate  of  Magdeburg  excited  the  alarm  of  the  Protes- 
tant princes.  The  Electors  of  Brandenburg  and  Saxony  now  united 
their  forces  with  those  of  the  Swedish  king.  Tilly  was  defeated 
with  great  loss  in  the  celebrated  battle  of  Leipzig,  or  Breitenfeld 
(1631),  and  Gustavus,  emboldened  by  his  success,  pushed  south- 
ward into  the  very  heart  of  Germany.  Attempting  to  dispute  his 
march,  Tilly's  army  was  again  defeated,  and  he  himself  received 
a  fatal  wound  (1632).  In  the  death  of  Tilly,  Ferdinand  lost  his 
most  trustworthy  general. 

The  imperial  cause  appeared  desperate.  There  was  but  one 
man  in  Germany  who  could  turn  the  tide  of  victory  that  was  run- 
ning so  strongly  in  favor  of  the  Swedish  monarch.  That  man  was 
Wallenstein ;  and  to  him  the  Emperor  now  turned.  Wallenstein 
agreed  to  raise  an  army,  provided  his  control  of  it  should  be  abso- 
lute. Ferdinand  was  constrained  to  grant  all  that  his  old  general 
demanded.  Wallenstein  now  raised  his  standard,  to  which  rallied 
the  adventurers  not  only  of  Germany  but  of  all  Europe  as  well. 
The  array  was  a  vast  and  heterogeneous  host,  bound  together  by 
no  bonds  of  patriotism,  loyalty,  or  convictions,  but  only  by  the 
spell  and  prestige  of  the  name  of  Wallenstein. 

With  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men  obedient  to  his  commands, 
Wallenstein,  after  numerous  marches  and  countermarches,  attacked 
the  Swedes  in  a  terrible  battle  on  the  memorable  field  of  Liitzen, 
in  Saxony.  The  Swedes  won  the  day,  but  lost  their  leader  and 
sovereign  (1632). 

We  may  sum  up  the  results  of  Gustavus  Adolphus'  interven- 
tion in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  these  words  of  the  historian 
Gindely :  "  He  averted  the  overthrow  with  which  Protestantism 
was  threatened  in  Germany." 

Notwithstanding  the  death  of  their  great  king  and  commander, 
the  Swedes  did  not  withdraw  from  the  war.    Hence  the  struggle 


THE   SWEDISH-FRENCH   PERIOD  391 

went  on,  the  advantage  being  for  the  most  part  with  the  Protes- 
tant allies.  Ferdinand,  at  just  this  time,  was  embarrassed  by  the 
suspicious  movements  of  his  general  Wallenstein.  Becoming  con- 
vinced that  he  was  meditating  the  betrayal  of  the  imperial  cause, 
the  Emperor  caused  him  to  be  assassinated  (1634).  This  event 
marks  very  nearly  the  end  of  the  Swedish  period  of  the  war. 

432.  The  Swedish-French  Period  (1635-1648).  —  Had  it  not 
been  for  the  selfish  and  ambitious  interference  of  France,  the 
woeful  war  which  had  now  desolated  Germany  for  half  a  genera- 
tion might  here  have  come  to  an  end,  for  both  sides  were  weary 

.  of  it  and  ready  for  negotiations  of  peace.  But  Richelieu  was  not 
willing  that  the  war  should  end  until  the  House  of  Austria  was 
completely  humbled.  Accordingly,  he  encouraged  the  Swedish 
chancellor  Oxenstiern,  as  he  had  Gustavus,  to  carry  on  the  war, 
promising  him  the  aid  of  the  French  armies. 

The  war  thus  lost  in  large  part  its  original  character  of  a  con- 
tention between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  princes  of  Germany, 
and  became  a  political  struggle  between  the  House  of  Austria 
and  the  House  of  Bourbon,  in  which  the  former  was  fighting  for 
existence,  the  latter  for  national  aggrandizement. 

And  so  the  miserable  war  went  on  year  after  year.  It  had 
become  a  heartless  and  conscienceless  struggle  for  spoils.  The 
Swedes  fought  to  fasten  their  hold  upon  the  mouths  of  the  Ger- 
man rivers,  the  French  to  secure  a  grasp  upon  the  Rhine  lands. 
The  earlier  actors  in  the  drama  at  length  passed  from  the  scene, 
but  their  parts  were  carried  on  by  others. 

433.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia  (i  648).  —  It  was  just  before  the 
death  of  Richelieu,  which  occurred  in  1642,  that  the  first  whisper- 
ings of  peace  were  heard.  Everybody  was  inexpressibly  weary  of 
the  war  and  longed  for  the  cessation  of  its  horrors,  yet  each  ruler 
and  statesman  wanted  peace  on  terms  advantageous  to  himself. 
The  arrangement  of  the  articles  of  peace  was  a  matter  of  infinite 
difficulty,  for  the  affairs  and  boundaries  of  the  states  of  Central 
Europe  were  in  almost  hopeless  confusion.  To  facilitate  matters 
the  commissioners  were  divided  into  two  bodies,  one  holding  its 
sessions  at  Osnabriick,  and  the  other  at  Miinster,  both  Westphalian 


392  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

cities.  After  four  years  of  discussion  and  negotiation,  the  articles 
of  the  celebrated  Peace  of  Westphalia,  as  it  is  called,  were  signed 
by  different  European  powers.  The  chief  articles  of  this  important 
peace  may  be  made  to  fall  under  two  heads,  —  those  relating  to 
territorial  boundaries,  and  those  respecting  religion. 

As  to  the  first,  these  cut  short  in  three  directions  the  actual  or 
nominal  limits  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Switzerland  and  the 
United  Netherlands  were  severed  from  it;  for  though  both  of 
these  countries  had  been  for  a  long  time  practically  independent 
of  the  Empire,  this  independence  had  never  been  acknowledged 
in  any  formal  way.  The  claim  of  France  to  the  three  bishoprics 
of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun  in  Lorraine,  which  places  she  had  held 
for  about  a  century,  was  confirmed,  and  all  Alsace,  save  the  free 
city  of  Strasburg,  was  given  to  her.  These  Alsatian  lands  gave 
France  a  foothold  on  the  Rhine  and  an  open  door  into  Germany, 
— a  door  which  remained  open  until  1 87 1 ,  when  Germany,  reclaim- 
ing lands  which  had  been  torn  from  the  Empire  piecemeal,  pushed 
France  back  from  the  river  and  closed  and  safeguarded  the  door 
(sec.  714). 

Sweden,  already  a  great  maritime  power,  was  given  territories 
in  North  Germany — Western  Pomerania  and  other  lands — which 
greatly  enhanced  her  influence  by  giving  her  command  of  the 
mouths  of  three  important  German  rivers,  —  the  Oder,  the  Elbe, 
and  the  Weser.  But  these  lands  were  not  given  to  the  Swedish 
king  in  full  sovereignty;  they  still  remained  a  part  of  the  Ger- 
manic body,  and  the  king  of  Sweden  through  his  relation  to 
them  became  a  prince  of  the  Empire  and  entitled  to  a  seat  in 
the  German  Diet. 

The  changes  within  the  Empire  were  many,  and  some  of  them 
important.  Brandenburg,  the  nucleus  of  a  future  great  state, 
especially  received  considerable  additions  of  territory.  She  got 
Eastern  Pomerania,  and  also  valuable  ecclesiastical  lands. 

The  articles  respecting  religion  were  even  more  important  than 
those  which  established  the  metes  and  bounds  of  the  different 
states.  Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists  were  all  put  upon  the 
same  footing.    Every  prince,  with  some  reservations,  was  to  have 


U.-H.  tt%.  •v'fM.O. 


EFFECTS   OF  THE  WAR  UPON  GERMANY       393 

the  right  to  make  his  religion  the  religion  of  his  people,  and  to 
banish  all  who  refused  to  adopt  the  established  creed ;  but  such 
nonconformists  were  to  have  five  years  in  which  to  emigrate.  This 
arrangement  was  known  as  the  princes*  "  Right  of  Reformation  " 
and  the  subjects'  **  Right  of  Emigration."  * 

The  different  states  of  the  Empire  —  they  numbered  over  four 
hundred,  counting  the  free  imperial  cities  —  were  left  almost 
wholly  independent  of  the  imperial  authority.  They  were  given 
the  right  to  enter  into  alliances  with  one  another  and  with  foreign 
princes,  but  not,  of  course,  against  the  Emperor  or  the  Empire. 
This  provision  made  the  Empire  merely  a  loose  confederation,  and 
postponed  to  a  distant  future  the  nationalization  of  the  German 
fatherland.  Germany  became  what  Italy  had  been,  and  still  was, 
an  open  field  in  which  any  enemy  might  sow  the  dragon's  teeth  of 
discord  and  war. 

These  were  some  of  the  most  important  provisions  of  the  noted 
Peace  of  Westphalia.  For  more  than  two  centuries  they  formed 
the  fundamental  law  of  Germany,  and  established  a  balance  of 
power  between  the  European  states  which,  though  it  was  disre- 
garded and  disturbed  by  Louis  XIV  of  France,  was  in  general 
maintained  until  the  great  upheaval  of  the  French  Revolution. 

434.  Effects  of  the  War  upon  Germany.  —  It  is  impossible  to 
picture  the  wretched  condition  in  which  the  Thirty  Years'  War  left 
Germany.  When  the  struggle  began,  the  population  of  the  country 
was  thirty  millions ;  when  it  ended,  twelve  millions.  Two  thirds 
of  the  personal  property  had  been  destroyed.  Many  of  the  once 
large  and  flourishing  cities  were  reduced  to  "  mere  shells."  The 
Duchy  of  Wtirtemberg,  which  had  half  a  million  of  inhabitants  at 
the  commencement  of  the  war,  at  its  close  had  barely  fifty  thou- 
sand. The  once  powerful  Hanseatic  League  was  virtually  broken 
up.  On  every  hand  were  the  charred  remains  of  the  hovels  of  the 
peasants  and  the  palaces  of  the  nobility.  Vast  districts  lay  waste 
without  an  inhabitant.    The  very  soil  in  many  regions  had  reverted 

*  The  history  of  the  Palatinate  illustrates  the  workings  of  this  provision  of  the 
peace  :  in  the  space  of  sixty  years  the  people  of  that  principality  were  compelled  by  their 
successive  rulers  to  change  their  religion  four  times,    llut  this  was  an  exceptional  case. 


394  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

to  its  primitive  wildness.  The  lines  of  commerce  were  broken, 
and  some  trades  and  industries  swept  quite  out  of  existence. 

The  effects  upon  the  fine  arts,  upon  science,  learning,  and  morals, 
were  even  more  lamentable.  Painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture 
had  perished.  The  cities  which  had  been  the  home  of  all  these 
arts  lay  in  ruins.  Poetry  had  ceased  to  be  cultivated.  Education 
was  entirely  neglected.  For  the  lifetime  of  a  generation,  men 
had  been  engaged  in  the  business  of  war,  and  had  allowed  their 
children  to  grow  up  in  absolute  ignorance.  Moral  law  was  forgot- 
ten. Vice,  nourished  by  the  licentious  atmosphere  of  the  camp, 
reigned  supreme.^  Thus  civilization  in  Germany,  which  had  begun 
to  develop  with  so  much  promise,  received  a  check  from  which  it 
did  not  begin  to  recover,  so  benumbed  were  the  very  senses  of 
men,  for  a  generation  and  more. 

435.  Conclusion.  —  The  Peace  of  Westphalia  is  a  prominent 
landmark  in  universal  history.  It  stands  at  the  dividing  line  of 
two  great  epochs.  It  marks  the  end  of  the  Reformation  period 
and  the  beginning  of  that  of  the  Political  Revolution.  Henceforth, 
speaking  broadly,  men  will  fight  for  constitutions,  not  for  creeds. 
We  shall  find  them  more  intent  on  questions  of  civil  government 
and  of  political  rights  than  on  questions  of  Church  government  and 
of  religious  dogmas.  We  shall  not  often  see  one  nation  attacking 
another,  or  one  party  in  a  nation  assaulting  another  party,  on 
account  of  a  difference  in  religious  opinion.^ 

But  in  setting  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  mark  the  end  of  the 
Era  of  the  Reformation,  we  do  not  mean  to  convey  the  idea  that 
men  had  come  to  embrace  the  beneficent  doctrine  of  religious 
toleration.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  real  toleration  had  yet  been 
reached,  —  nothing  save  the  semblance  of  toleration.    The  long 

5  Before  the  close  of  the  war  the  number  of  camp  followers  on  both  sides  had  come 
to  exceed  that  of  the  fighting  men.  When  on  the  march  the  armies  resembled  the 
migratory  hordes  of  Goths  and  Vandals  that  overran  the  Roman  Empire.  After  the 
war  the  disbanded  soldiers  became  thieves  and  brigands,  and  thousands  were  exe- 
cuted. Germany  was  pestered  by  these  marauding  bands  for  a  full  century  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

6  The  Puritan  Revolution  in  England  may  look  like  a  religious  war,  but  we  shall 
learn  that  it  was  primarily  a  political  contest,  —  a  struggle  against  despotism  in  the 
state. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  395 

conflict  of  a  century  and  more,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune, 
which  to-day  gave  one  party  the  power  of  the  persecutor  and 
to-morrow  made  the  same  sect  the  victims  of  persecution,  had 
simply  forced  all  to  the  practical  conclusion  that  they  must  toler- 
ate one  another,  —  that  one  sect  must  not  attempt  to  put  another 
down  by  force.  But  it  has  required  the  broadening  and  liberaliz- 
ing lessons  of  the  two  centuries  and  over  that  have  since  passed 
to  bring  men  to  see,  even  in  part,  that  the  thing  they  must  do  is 
the  very  thing  they  ought  to  do,  —  to  make  men  tolerant  not  only 
in  outward  conduct  but  in  spirit. 

With  this  single  word  of  caution  we  now  pass  to  the  study  of 
the  Era  of  the  Political  Revolution,  a  period  characterized  in 
particular  by  the  growth  of  divine-right  kingship  and  by  the  great 
struggle  between  despotic  and  liberal  principles  of  government. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  The  student  will  do  well  to  begin  his 
study  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  by  a  careful  reading  of  Historical  Leaflets 
(Crozer  Theological  Seminary),  No.  5,  *'  The  Peace  of  Augsburg."  He  will 
here  learn  how  deep-seated  and  irreconcilable  were  the  differences  which 
divided  the  religious  parties  in  Germany. 

Secondary  Works. —  Qi^hyax,  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The 
best  history  for  English  readers.  Chaps,  x  and  xi  of  vol.  ii,  bearing  upon 
the  peace  negotiations,  are  of  special  interest.  Fletcher,  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  and  the  Struggle  of  Protestantism  for  Existence.  GARDINER,  The 
Thirty  Years'  War.  HENDERSON,  A  Short  History  of  Germany,  vol.  i, 
chaps,  xvii  and  xviii.  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  chaps,  xviii  and 
xix.  F'isher,  History  of  the  Reformation,  chap,  xv,  summarizes  from  the 
Protestant  side  the  results  of  the  Reformation ;  Balmes,  European  Civil- 
ization ;  Protestantism  and  Catholicism  compared,  and  Spaulding,  The 
History  of  the  Protestant  Reformation,  Parts  I  and  II,  contain  discussions 
of  the  subject  from  the  Catholic  point  of  view. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Articles  of  the  Peace  of  Augsburg,  the 
violation  of  which  caused  trouble.  2.  Outlawry  of  the  free  city  of  Donau- 
worth.  3.  Wallenstein.  4.  Tilly  and  the  sack  of  Magdeburg.  5.  Pictures 
of  Germany  at  the  end  of  the  war. 


FOURTH  PERIOD  — THE  ERA  OF  THE 
POLITICAL  REVOLUTION 

(From  the  Peace  of  "Westphalia,  in  1648,  to  the  Twentieth  Century) 

I.    THE   AGE   OF   ABSOLUTE   MONARCHY:    THE    PRE- 
LUDE  TO   THE    POLITICAL   REVOLUTION 
(1648-1789) 

CHAPTER    XXVI 

INTRODUCTORY:  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  DIVINE  RIGHT  OF 

KINGS  AND  THE  MAXIMS  OF  THE  ENLIGHTENED 

DESPOTS 

436.  The  Theory  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings.  —  Throughout 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  there  was  widely  held  a 
theory  of  government  which  during  that  period  probably  had  as 
great  an  influence  upon  the  historical  development  in  Europe  as 
the  theory  of  the  Empire^  and  the  Papacy  exerted  during  the 
Middle  Ages.    This  theory  is  known  as  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings.-^ 

According  to  this  theory,  the  nation  is  a  great  family  with  the 
king  as  its  divinely  appointed  head.  The  duty  of  the  king  is  to 
govern  like  a  father;  the  duty  of  the  people  is  to  obey  their 
king  even  as  children  obey  their  parents.  If  the  king  does  wrong, 
is  cruel,  unjust,  this  is  simply  the  misfortune  of  his  people ;  under 
no  circumstances  is  it  right  for  thein  to  rebel  against  his  authority, 

1  It  was  in  England  and  in  France  that  the  theory  was  most  logically  developed, 
and  it  was  in  these  countries  that  it  "exerted  its  greatest  influence  upon  the  political 
evolution. 

396 


THE   DIVINE   RIGHT   OF    KINGS  397 

any  more  than  for  children  to  rise  against  their  father.  The  king 
is  responsible  to  God  alone,  and  to  God  the  people,  quietly  sub- 
missive, must  leave  the  avenging  of  all  their  wrongs. 

This  conception  of  government  is  so  different  from  our  idea  of 
it  that  it  will  be  worth  our  while  to  listen  to  two  of  the  ablest 
champions  of  the  doctrine  while  they  more  fully  expound  it. 

According  to  the  first  of  these  the  family  is  the  germ  and  pro- 
totype of  the  state.  "  If  we  compare  the  natural  rights  of  a 
father  with  those  of  a  king,"  —  it  is  the  old  English  writer  Filmer 
who  speaks,^  —  "  we  find  them  all  one,  without  any  difference  at 
all  but  only  in  the  latitude  or  extent  of  them  :  as  the  father  over 
one  family,  so  the  king,  as  father  over  many  families,  extends  his 
care  to  preserve,  feed,  clothe,  instruct,  and  defend  the  whole 
commonwealth.  His  war,  his  peace,  his  courts  of  justice,  and  all 
his  acts  of  sovereignty  tend  only  to  preserve  and  distribute  to 
every  subordinate  and  inferior  father,  and  to  their  children,  their 
rights  and  privileges,  so  that  all  the  duties  of  a  king  are  summed 
up  in  an  universal  fatherly  care  of  his  people." 

Heredity  points  out  the  legitimate  king  :  "  It  is  unnatural  for 
the  multitude  to  choose  their  governors,  or  to  govern  or  to  par- 
take in  the  government." 

The  power  of  the  hereditary  king  is  absolute  :  "  For  as  kingly 
power  is  by  the  law  of  God,  so  it  hath  no  inferior  law  to 
limit  it." 

The  king  can  neither  be  corrected  nor  deposed  by  his  subjects  : 
"  For,  indeed,  it  is  the  rule  of  Solomon  that  '  We  must  keep  the 
king's  commandment,'  and  not  say,  *  What  dost  thou  ?  '  because 
'where  the  word  of  a  king  is  there  is  power,'  and  all  that  he 
pleaseth  he  will  do.  .  .  .  Not  that  it  is  right  for  kings  to  do 
injury,  but  it  is  right  for  them  to  go  unpunished  by  the  people  if 
they  do  it.  .  .  .  It  will  be  punishment  sufficient  for  them  to 
expect  God  as  a  revenger."  ' 


2  In  his  Patr'tarcha.   See  Sources  at  end  of  chapter. 

8  Filmer  is  here  quoting  the  words  of  the  celebrated  English  jurist  Bracton 
(d.  1268).  All  that  the  people  can  do  when  the  king  misuses  his  authority  is  to  peti- 
tion him  "  to  amend  his  fault " — and  "  to  pray  to  God." 


398  DIVINE-RIGHT    KINGSHIP 

"Kings  are  the  ministers  of  God" — it  is  the  eloquent  Bos- 
suet,  the  court  chaplain  of  Louis  XIV,  who  now  speaks  *  —  *'  and 
his  vicegerents  on  the  earth."  "  The  throne  of  a  king  is  not  the 
throne  of  a  man,  but  the  throne  of  God  himself.  .  .  .  The  per- 
son of  kings  is  sacred,  and  it  is  sacrilege  to  harm  them."  ^ 
"They  are  gods,  and  partake  in  some  fashion  of  the  divine 
independence."  ^ 

With  Filmer,  Bossuet  maintains  the  subject's  duty  of  passive 
obedience.  He  who  does  not  obey  his  prince  is  worthy  of  death 
as  the  enemy  of  society.  Rebellion  against  kings  is  sacrilege  : 
"  The  holy  anointment  is  on  them  and  the  high  office  they  exer- 
cise in  the  name  of  God  protects  them  from  all  insult." 

At  first  the  upholders  of  this  theory  of  the  nature  and  powers 
of  the  kingly  office  were  apt  to  seek  support  for  it*  in  biblical 
texts ;  but  later  its  defenders  came  to  rely  more  on  pure  argu- 
ment, as  is  illustrated  by  Filmer's  syllogism  :  "  What  is  natural  to 
man  exists  by  divine  right ;  kingship  is  natural  to  man ;  there- 
fore, kingship  exists  by  divine  right."  ^ 

Before  the  close  of  the  period  upon  which  we  here  enter,  we 
shall  see  how  this  theory  of  the  divine  right  of  kings  worked  out 
in  practice,  —  how  dear  it  cost  both  kings  and  people,  and  how 
the  people  by  the  strong  logic  of  revolution  demonstrated  that 
they  have  a  divine  and  inalienable  right  to  govern  themselves.^ 

437.  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings. — 
This  theory  that  kings  rule  by  divine  right  has  a  history  well 

4  In  his  Politique  tiree  des  profres  paroles  de  V  Ecriture  Sainte  (CEuvres  com- 
pletes, vol.  xxiii,  Paris,  1875),  p.  533. 

6  Ibid.^  p.  534.  6  Ihid.^  p.  559.    See  Psalms  Ixxxii.  6. 

J"  See  Figgis,  The  Theory  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings,  p.  153. 

8  There  was  much  in  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  convince  men  that  abso- 
lute monarchy,  if  not  a  divinely  appointed  form  of  government,  was  at  least  the  best 
form.  Every  other  form  had  been  tried  and  found  wanting,  having  issued  either  in 
tyranny  or  in  anarchy.  Witness  the  intolerable  oppression  of  the  aristocratic  govern- 
ment of  the  feudal  lords ;  witness  the  tyranny  of  the  theocratic  government  of  the 
priesthood ;  witness  the  turbulence  of  society  under  the  democratic  r6gime  of  the  Italian 
cities.  Peace  and  security  within  the  state  had  been  secured  only  through  the  growth 
of  the  royal  power.  Hence  the  political  axiom  of  this  age,  an  age  just  escaping 
from  feudal  anarchy,  was  that  of  the  Homeric  Greeks,  —  "  The  rule  of  many  is  not 
a  good  thing;  let  there  be  one  leader  only,  one  king." 


THE   DIVINE   RIGHT   OF  KINGS  399 

worth  tracing.  Among  primitive  peoples,  like  the  early  Greeks, 
we  find  the  king  ruling  by  divine  right,  —  by  right  of  his  descent 
from  the  gods.  In  Egypt  the  Pharaoh  was  regarded  as  partaking 
of  the  divine  nature.  In  ancient  Judea  the  king  was  the  Lord's 
anointed,  and  ruled  as  his  vicegerent  on  earth.  In  the  days  of 
the  Roman  emperors  their  subjects  in  the  East  were  prone  to 
regard  the  head  of  the  Empire  as  set  apart  from  ordinary  men. 
They  built  temples  in  honor  of  "  the  divine  Caesar." 

But  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  doctrine  as  applied  to  kings  of 
modern  times,  we  need  not  go  farther  back  than  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  mediaeval  Papacy.  The  popes,  as  we  have  learned, 
ruled  by  what  may  be  termed  divine  right.  All  acknowledged 
their  office  and  authority  to  be  of  divine  origin  and  appointment. 
But  when  the  emperors  of  German  origin  got  into  controversy 
with  the  popes  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  the  imperial  to  the 
papal  power,  then  it  was  that  the  supporters  of  the  emperors 
framed  the  counter-theory  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  imperial 
authority.  Thus  Dante  in  his  De  Monarchia  argues  for  the 
supernatural  character  of  the  imperial  power,  and  maintains  that 
the  Emperor  rules  as  much  by  divine  right  as  does  the  Pope. 
Then  later  in  the  fourteenth  century,  after  the  Empire  had  been 
practically  destroyed  by  the  Papacy  and  the  kings  had  taken  up 
the  fight  against  the  papal  see,  their  supporters  naturally  began 
to  preach  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  nature  of  the  royal  authority. 
This  was  the  starting  point  of  the  theory  in  its  modem  form. 

When  finally  the  Reformation  came  and  with  it  even  still 
keener  strife  between  the  lay  rulers  of  the  revolted  nations  and 
the  Roman  see,  then  the  theory  of  the  divine  nature  of  the  royal 
power  received  perforce  a  great  expansion.  For  when  the  Pope 
excommunicated  a  heretic  king  and  exhorted  his  subjects  to  take 
up  arms  against  him,  then  the  royalist  writers  and  preachers  pro- 
claimed more  loudly  than  ever  and  with  passionate  fer\'or  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  princes  and  the  wickedness  of 
disobedience  and  rebellion.  Fostered  in  this  way,  the  doctrine 
of  the  sacred  character  of  kingship  and  the  virtue  of  passive 
obedience  in  the  subject  struck  deep  and  firm  root. 


400  DIVINE-RIGHT    KINGSHIP 

438.  Character  of  the  Absolute  Sovereigns  and  their  Relation 
to  the  Political  Revolution.  —  What  use  did  the  kings  make  of 
the  vast  and  unlimited  authority  with  which  the  circumstances 
of  history  and  the  growth  of  political  theory  had  invested  them? 
As  a  class,  they  made  a  betrayal  of  the  great  trust.  Too  many 
of  them  acted  upon  the  maxim  of  Louis  XIV of  France,  —  "Self- 
aggrandizement  is  at  once  the  noblest  and  the  most  agreeable 
occupation  of  kings."  They  seemed  to  think  that  their  subjects 
were  made  for  their  use ;  that  the  public  strength  and  the  public 
revenues  might  be  freely  used  by  them  for  the  attainment  of 
purely  personal  ends,  the  promotion  of  purely  personal  ambi- 
tions. War  became  a  royal  pastime.  A  great  part  of  the  bloody 
wars  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  which  centuries 
may  be  regarded  as  covering  roughly  the  age  of  absolute  mon- 
archy, were  wars  that  originated  in  frivolous  personal  jealousies, 
in  wicked  royal  ambitions,  or  in  disputes  respecting  dynastic  suc- 
cession. So  generally  did  the  wars  of  this  period  spring  from  ques- 
tions of  the  latter  nature,  that  by  some  historians  the  age  is  called 
the  Era  of  Dynastic  Wars.^  The  teachings  of  the  The  Prince  of 
Machiavelli  ruled  the  period. 

Now,  all  this  misuse  of  royal  power,  all  these  unholy  wars  with 
their  trains  of  attendant  evils,  did  much  to  discredit  divine-right 
kingship  and  to  bring  in  government  by  the  people.  "  Bad  kings 
help  us,"  Emerson  affirms,  "  if  only  they  are  bad  enough,"  Many 
of  the  kings  of  this  period  were  bad  enough  to  be  supremely 
helpful  to  us.  It  was  during  this  age  of  the  kings  that  the  forces 
set  loose  by  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  engendered 
the  tempest  which  overwhelmed  forever  divine-right  kingship  and 
its  gilded  appendage  of  privileged  aristocracy. 

9  There  is  need  of  caution  here,  however.  Not  all  the  wars  of  this  age  were  frivo- 
lous, artificial,  or  personal.  There  were,  as  we  shall  see,  wars  involving  great  issues 
and  principles,  —  questions  of  systems  of  government  and  forms  of  civilization.  The 
war  in  England  between  the  Parliament  and  the  king  was  the  first  act  in  the  drama 
of  the  Political  Revolution;  and  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763)  was  a  struggle 
involving  as  momentous  questions  as  were  ever  arbitrated  by  the  sword.  Commercial 
and  colonial  interests  too  were  coming  to  be  more  generally  the  concern  of  govern- 
ments, and  some  of  the  greatest  wars  of  the  eighteenth  century  had  their  origin  in 
national  jealousies  touching  trade  and  colonies. 


THE   ENLIGHTENED    DESPOTS  401 

439.  The  Enlightened  Despots.  —  But  not  all  the  kings  of  this 
age  were  imbecile  or  wicked.  There  were  among  them  many  wise 
and  benevolent  rulers.  Especially  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  did  there  appear  monarchs  known  as  the 
Enlightened  Despots,  who,  under  the  influence  of  the  teachings 
of  French  philosophy,  came  to  entertain  reasonable  views  of  their 
duties  and  of  their  obligations  to  their  subjects. 

These  sovereigns  did  not  give  up  the  idea  that  unlimited  mon- 
archy is  the  best  form  of  government  and  that  the  people  should 
have  no  part  in  public  affairs.  They  sincerely  believed  that  the 
power  of  the  king  should  be  unlimited,  but  they  emphasized  the 
doctrine  that  this  power  should  be  exercised  solely  in  the  interest 
of  the  people.  The  public  revenues  should  be  expended  on 
public  works,  and  public  officials  should  be  appointed  solely  on 
the  ground  of  their  ability  and  fitness.  Thus  the  idea  of  the  royal 
power  being  a  trust,  the  royal  office  a  stewardship,  was  made 
prominent.    The  king  became  the  servant  ^of  his  people. 

The  great  place  which  the  rulers  of  this  disposition  held  in  the 
history  of  the  century  immediately  preceding  the  French  Revo- 
lution is  indicated  by  these  words  of  the  historian  Professor  H. 
Morse  Stephens  :  "  The  most  characteristic  feature  in  government 
of  the  eighteenth  century,"  he  says,  "  was  the  existence  and  the 
work  of  the  enlightened  despots." 

Most  prominent  among  the  sovereigns  deemed  worthy  a  place 
among  the  enlightened  despots  are  Catherine  the  Great  of  Russia, 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  and  Joseph  II  of  Austria.  Con- 
cerning them  and  their  work  we  shall  have  something  to  say  in 
following  chapters.  It  will  suffice  here  if  we  simply  observe  that 
the  issue  of  this  great  experiment  in  government  illustrated  anew 
what  had  been  demonstrated  by  the  rule  of  the  Tyrants  in  the 
cities  of  ancient  Greece,  and  by  that  of  the  Caesars  at  Rome,  — 
namely,  that  absolute  power  cannot  safely  be  lodged  in  the  hands 
of  a  single  person.    It  is  certain  sooner  or  later  to  be  misused. 

As  it  has  been  well  put,  absolute  power  in  a  single  person  is  a 
good  thing  when  joined  with  perfect  wisdom  and  perfect  good- 
ness.   But  unfortunately  these  qualifications  of  the  ideal  autocrat 


402  DIVINE-RIGHT   KINGSHIP 

are  seldom  found  united  in  the  same  individual,  and  still  less 
seldom  are  they  transmitted  from  father  to  son.  It  is  at  just  this 
point  that  absolute  hereditary  monarchy,  as  a  practical  form  of 
government,  breaks  down  beyond  hope  and  without  remedy. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Filmer,  Patriarcha.  This  work,  which 
was  first  published  in  1680,  is  the  classical  English  treatise  in  exposition 
and  defense  of  divine-rightjfingship.  For  a  short  selection  from  King 
James,  Law  of  Free  Monarchies,  see  Lee,  Source-Book,  pp.  337,  338. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Figgis,  The  Theory  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings. 
An  able  and  interesting  discussion  of  the  subject.  The  book  has  a  good 
bibliography.  Gairdner  and  Spedding,  Studies  in  English  History  ;  con- 
tains a  valuable  essay  entitled,  "The  Divide  Right  of  Kings:  History  of 
the  Doctrine."  This  essay  is  a  reprint  of  an  article  by  ^r.  Gairdner  in  The 
Contemporary  Review  for  September,  1 869.  Stephens,  Syllabus  of  Lectures 
on  Modern  European  History,  Lect.  li,  "  The  Enlightened  Despots  " ;  sug- 
gests important  viewpoints. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. — i.  The  deification  of  the  Roman  emperors. 
2.  Dante's  argument  in  his  De  Monorchia  for  the  supernatural  character 
of  the  imperial  office.  3.  The  reforms  of  the  enlightened  despots.  See 
Stephens. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  FRANCE  UNDER  LOUIS  XIV 
(1643-1715) 

440.  Louis  XIV  as  the  Typical  Divine-Right  King.  —  Louis  XIV 
of  France  stands  as  the  representative  of  divine-right  monarchy. 
He  shall  himseK  expound  to  us  his  conception  of  government.^ 
These  are  his  words:  "To  attribute  to  subjects  the  right  of 
forming  resolutions  and  of  giving  commands  to  their  sovereign 
is  to  pervert  the  true  order  of  things.  It  is  to  the  head  alone 
that  pertains  the  right  to  deliberate  and  to  resolve  upon;  the 
whole  duty  of  subjects  consists  in  the  carrying  into  effect  of  the 
commands  given  them."  ^  "  Kings  are  absolute  lords ;  to  them 
belongs  naturally  the  full  and  free  disposal  of  all  the  property 
of  their  subjects,  whether  they  be  churchmen  or  laymen."  *  "  For 
subjects  to  rise  against  their  prince,  however  wicked  and  oppres- 
sive he  may  be,  is  always  infinitely  criminal.  God,  who  has  given 
kings  to  men,  has  willed  that  they  should  be  revered  as  his  lieu- 
tenants, and  has  reserved  to  Himself  alone  the  right  to  review 
their  conduct.  His  will  is  that  he  who  is  born  a  subject  should 
obey  without  question."  * 

The  doctrine  here  set  forth  Louis  is  said  to  have  expressed  in 
this  terser  form  :  LEtat  c'est  moiy  "  I  am  the  State."    He  may 

1  It  should  be  noted  that  Louis'  subjects,  at  least  the  great  majority  of  them,  also 
believed  in  government  by  one,  —  and  not  without  reason.  They  had  had  sorry  experi- 
ence with  government  by  nuny,  under  the  regime  of  the  nobles.  Of  government  by 
all,  by  themselves,  it  was  not  possible  for  them  to  have  any  clear  conception,  if  any 
conception  at  all.  It  needed  a  hundred  years  and  more  of  autocratic  misrule  and 
oppression  to  call  into  existence  that  revolutionary  idea. 

2  (Euvres  de  Louis  XIV  (Paris,  1806),  tome  ii,  p.  26. 

«  Ibid.,  p.  121.   Louis  adds,  however,  that  what  kings  take  from  their  subjects  they 
should  use  as  wise  stewards,  —  that  is  to  say,  for  the  promotion  of  the  public  welfare. 
4  Ibid.,  p.  336. 

403 


404  FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS   XIV 

never  have  uttered  these  exact  words,  but  the  famous  epigram  at 
least  embodies  perfectly  his  ideas  of  kingship.  In  his  own  view 
he  was  by  divine  commission  the  sole  legislator,  judge,  and  execu- 
tive of  the  French  nation. 

This  theory  of  government  thus  expounded  by  Louis  was  in- 
deed, as  we  have  seen,  no  novel  doctrine  to  the  Europe  of  the 
seventeenth  century;  but  Louis  was  such  an  ideal  autocrat  that 
somehow  he  made  autocratic  government  attractive.  Other  rulers 
imitated  him,  and  it  became  the  prevailing  theory  that  kings  have 
a  "  divine  right "  to  rule,  and  that  the  people  should  have  no  part 
at  all  in  government. 

441.  The  Administration  of  Mazarin  (1643-1661). — The  reli- 
gious war  in  Germany  was  still  in  progress  when,  in  1643,  Louis 
XIII  died,  leaving  the  vast  authority  which  his  great  minister 
Cardinal  Richelieu  had  done  so  much  to  consolidate,  as  an  inher- 
itance to  his  httle  son  Louis,  a  child  of  five  years. 

During  the  prince's  minority  the  government  was  in  the  hands 
of  his  mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  as  regent.  She  chose  as  her  chief 
minister  an  Italian  ecclesiastic.  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  in  his 
administration  of  affairs  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  his  prede- 
cessor, Richelieu,  carrying  out  with  great  ability  the  comprehen- 
sive policy  of  that  minister.  France  was  encouraged  to  maintain 
her  part  —  and  a  very  glorious  part  it  was,  as  war  goes  —  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  until  Austria  was  completely  exhausted  and  all 
Germany  indeed  almost  ruined.  Even  after  the  Peace  of  West- 
phaha,  which  simply  concluded  the  war  in  Germany,  France 
carried  on  the  war  with  Spain  for  ten  years  longer,  until  1659, 
when  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  gave  the  French  the  two 
provinces  of  Roussillon  and  Artois,  together  with  a  part  of  Flan- 
ders, asserted  the  triumph  of  France  over  Spain.  Richeheu's 
policy  had    at   last,    though    at   terrible   cost   to   France,^   been 

6  The  heavy  taxes  laid  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  wars  created  great  discontent, 
which  during  the  struggle  with  Spain  led  to  a  series  of  conspiracies  or  revolts  against 
the  government,  known  as  the  Wars  of  the  Fronde  (1648-1652).  This  was  a  dying 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  nobles,  the  hereditary  magistrates,  and  the  middle  classes  to 
curb  the  growing  power  of  the  crown.  The  movement  lacked  seriousness  and  true 
leadership,  and  resulted  only  in  making  more  oppressive  the  absolutism  against  which 
it  was  directed. 


LOUIS   XIV  ASSUMES   THE   GOVERNMENT      405 


M^i 


#. 


crowned  with  success.  The  House  of  Austria  in  both  its  branches 
had  been  humiliated  and  crippled,  and  the  House  of  Bourbon  was 
ready  to  assume  the  lead  in  European  affairs. 

442.  Louis  XIV  assumes  the  Government.  —  Cardinal  Mazarin 
died  in  1661.  Upon  this  event  Louis,  who  was  now  twenty-three 
years  of  age,  called  together  the  heads  of  the  various  departments 
of  the  government,  and,  directing  his  words  to  the  Chancellor, 
said  :  "  I  have  summoned  you  with  my  ministers  and  secretaries 
of  state,  to  tell  you  that  it     _ 

has  pleased  me  hitherto  to 
leave  my  affairs  in  the  hands 
of  the  late  cardinal;  in  the 
future  I  shall  attend  to  them 
myself.  You  will  give  me 
your  counsel  when  I  ask  for 
it."  He  then  charged  the 
Chancellor  not  to  set  seal  to 
any  document  without  his 
express  orders  ;  and  warne( ! 
the  secretaries  not  to  sign 
any  paper,  not  even  a  pass- 
port, without  his  express 
commands. 

From  this  time  on  for 
more  than  half  a  century 
Louis  was  his  own  prime 
minister.  He  gave  personal 
attention  to  every  matter, 
even  the  most  trivial.  Prob- 
ably no  wearer  of  a  crown,  Philip  H  of  Spain  possibly  excepted, 
ever  worked  harder  at  "  the  trade  of  a  king,"  as  he  himself  desig- 
nated his  employment.  He  had  able  men  about  him,  but  they 
planned  and  worked  —  and  sometimes  chafed  —  under  his  minute 
directions  and  tireless  superintendence. 

443.  Louis*  Chief  Aims.  — The  history  of  Louis'  long  reign  will 
present  coherence  and  unity  only  as  we  fix  clearly  in  view  the 


Fig.  75. —  Louis  XIV.     (After  a  paint- 
ing by  Philippe  de  Champagne) 


406  FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS  XIV 

ends  towards  which  his  efforts  were  mainly  directed.  His  first  aim 
was  to  make  himself  absolute  master  in  his  own  kingdom.  In  his 
"  Instructions  to  the  Dauphin"  he  says,  "The  necessary  basis  of 
all  other  reforms  was  the  rendering  of  my  own  will  absolute." 
This  basis  was  well  laid.  Under  Louis  there  was  but  one  will  in 
France,  —  the  will  of  the  king.  The  nobility,  the  States-General, 
all  local  authorities,  the  Parliament  of  Paris,^  the  Church,  —  all 
these  classes  and  bodies  were  shorn  of  the  last  remnants  of  polit- 
ical influence  and  power  and  rendered  servilely  submissive  to 
the  crown. 

Louis'  second  aim  was  to  secure  for  France  the  headship  of 
Europe, —  to  transfer  European  leadership  and  the  imperial  crown 
itself  from  the  House  of  Hapsburg  to  the  House  of  Bourbon.  We 
shall  see  in  how  many  sanguinary  wars  Louis  involved  almost  all 
Europe  in  his  efforts  to  realize  this  object  of  his  ambition. 

444.  Colbert. — Mazarin  is  reported  to  have  said  to  Louis  when 
dying,  "  Sire,  I  owe  everything  to  you ;  but  I  pay  my  debt  to 
your  majesty  by  giving  you  Colbert."  During  the  first  ten  or 
twelve  years  of  Louis'  personal  reign  this  extraordinary  man  in- 
spired and  directed  almost  everything ;  but  he  carefully  avoided 
the  appearance  of  doing  so.  His  maxim  seemed  to  be.  Mine  the 
labor,  thine  the  praise.  He  did  for  the  domestic  affairs  of  France 
what  Richelieu  had  done  for  the  foreign. 

So  long  as  Louis  followed  the  policy  of  Colbert,  he  gave  France 
a  truly  glorious  reign;  but  unfortunately  he  soon  turned  aside 
from  the  great  minister's  policy  of  peace,  to  seek  glory  for  him- 
self and  greatness  for  France  through  new  and  unjust  encroach- 
ments upon  neighboring  nations. 

445.  The  Wars  of  Louis  XTV.  —  During  the  period  of  his  per- 
sonal administration  of  the  government,  Louis  XIV  was  engaged 

6  This  was  a  French  court  of  justice  which  attempted  to  assume  political  func- 
tions, —  which  sometimes  seemed  to  aspire  to  become  for  France  what  the  English 
Parliament  was  for  England.  One  of  its  duties  was  to  register  the  royal  edicts, 
which  were  given  validity  only  by  such  registration.  Sometimes  the  court  hesitated 
to  register  the  king's  decrees,  and  made  remonstrances.  Louis  ordained  that  the  court 
should  register  all  decrees  without  delay.  It  might  make  remonstrances  afterwards. 
The  court  was  forced  to  bow  to  the  royal  will. 


WAR  OF  THE   SPANISH   NETHERLANDS         407 

in  four  great  wars :  (i)  a  war  respecting  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
(1667-1668);  (2)  a  war  with  the  Protestant  Netherlands  (167 2- 
1678);  (3)  the  War  of  the  Palatinate,  or  of  the  League  of  Augs- 
burg (1688-1697);  and  (4)  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
(1701-1714).  All  these  wars  were,  on  the  part  of  the  French 
monarch,  wars  of  conquest  and  aggression,  or  wars  provoked  by 
his  ambitious  and  encroaching  policy.  The  most  inveterate  enemy 
of  Louis  during  all  this  period  was  the  Dutch  Republic,  the  repre- 
sentative and  champion  of  liberty. 

446.  The  War  concerning  the  Spanish  Netherlands  (1667- 
1668).  —  Upon  the  death  in  1665  of  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  Louis 
laid  claim,  in  the  name  of  his  wife,'  to  portions  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  and  led  an  army  into  the  country.  The  Hollanders 
were  naturally  alarmed,  fearing  that  Louis  would  also  want  to 
annex  their  country  to  his  dominions.  Accordingly  they  effected 
what  was  called  the  Triple  Alliance  with  England  and  Sweden, 
checked  the  French  king  in  his  career  of  conquest,  and,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  .1 668,  forced  him  to  give  up  much 
of  the  territory  he  had  seized.  He  retained,  however,  a  number 
of  Flemish  towns  along  the  French  frontier,  which  he  made  by 
extensive  fortifications,  planned  by  his  celebrated  military  engineer 
Vauban,  the  strong  outposts  of  his  kingdom  in  that  direction. 

447.  The  War  with  the  Protestant  Netherlands  (1672-1678). 
—  The  second  war  of  the  French  king  was  against  the  United 
Netherlands.  His  attack  upon  this  little  state  was  prompted  by 
a  variety  of  motives.  In  the  first  place,  the  Hollanders'  interven- 
tion in  the  preceding  war  had  stirred  his  resentment.  Then  these 
Dutchmen  represented  everything  to  which  he  was  opposed,  — 
self-government.  Protestantism,  and  free  thought. 

Before  entering  upon  the  undertaking  which  had  proved  too 
great  for  Philip  II  with  the  resources  of  two  worlds  at  his  com- 
mand, Louis,  by  means  of  bribes  and  the  employment  of  that 
skillful  diplomacy  of  which  he  was  so  perfect  a  master,  prudently 

'  Maria  Theresa,  the  only  child  of  Philip  IV  by  his  first  marria^^e.  At  the  time  of 
her  betrothal  to  Louis  she  had  renounced  all  her  rights  in  the  Netherlands,  but  since 
a  promised  dowry  had  never  been  paid,  Louis  argued  that  this  renunciation  was  void. 


408  FRANCE   UNDER    LOUIS   XIV 

drew  away  from  the  side  of  Holland  both  her  allies  (Sweden  and 
England),  even  inducing  the  English  king,  Charles  II,  to  lend 
him  active  assistance.  Money  also  secured  the  aid  of  several  of 
the  princes  of  Germany. 

Thus  the  little  commonwealth  was  left  alone  to  contend  against 
fearful  odds.  The  stubborn  resistance  offered  the  invading  French 
armies  by  the  Hollanders  in  their  half-drowned  land,  —  with  the 
French  threatening  Amsterdam,  the  dikes  had  been  cut,  —  the 
havoc  wrought  by  the  stout  Dutch  sailors  among  the  fleets  of 
the  allies,  and  the  diplomacy  of  the  Dutch  statesmen,  who  through 
skillful  negotiations  detached  almost  all  the  allies  of  the  French 
from  that  side  and  brought  them  into  alliance  with  the  Republic, 

—  all  these  things  soon  put  a  very  different  face  upon  affairs,  and 
Louis  found  himself  confronted  by  the  armies  of  half  of  Europe. 

F'or  several  years  the  war  was  now  waged  on  land  and  sea, 

—  in  the  Netherlands,  all  along  the  Rhine,  upon  the  English  Chan- 
nel, in  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  coasts  of  the  New  World. 
Finally,  an  end  was  put  to  the  struggle  by  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen 
(1678).  Louis  gave  up  his  conquests  in  Holland,  but  kept  a  large 
number  of  towns  and  fortresses  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  be- 
sides the  free  county  of  Burgundy  (Franche-Comt^),  on  his  east- 
ern frontier. 

Thus  Louis  came  out  of  this  tremendous  struggle,  in  which 
half  of  Europe  was  leagued  against  him,  with  enhanced  reputa- 
tion and  fresh  acquisitions  of  territory.  People  began  to  call 
him  the  "Grand  Monarch"  ;  we  shall  see  directly  by  what  acts 
he  justified  their  judgment  in  conferring  upon  him  this  title. 

448.  Louis  seizes  the  City  of  Strasburg  (1681). — Ten  years 
of  comparative  peace  now  followed  for  Western  Europe.  Among 
the  many  indefensible  acts  of  Louis  during  this  period  there 
were  two  which  deserve  special  notice,  since,  while  marking  the 
culmination  of  Louis'  power  and  illustrating  his  arrogant  and 
unjust  use  of  that  power,  they  also  mark  the  turning  point  in 
his  fortunes. 

The  first  of  these  was  the  seizure  of  the  free  city  of  Strasburg 
and  a  score  of  other  important  places  on  the  left  bank  of  the 


REVOCATION   OF  THE  EDICT  OF   NANTES      409 

Rhine  belonging  to  the  Empire.  "Gold,  intrigue,  and  terror" 
opened  the  gates  of  all  these  cities  to  him.*  Strasburg  was  of 
supreme  military  importance  to  Louis  on  account  of  her  strong 
fortifications,  which  rendered  her  mistress  of  the  Rhine. 

The  audacity  of  Louis'  procedure  so  dazed  every  one  that  no 
effective  protest  was  made.  Besides,  at  just  this  time  the  Em- 
peror was  preoccupied  with  the  Turks.  In  1683  they  laid  siege  to 
Vienna.  All  Christendom  awaited  anxiously  the  outcome.  Fortu- 
nately the  siege  was  raised  by  the  celebrated  Polish  king,  John 
Sobieski,  and  the  House  of  Austria  was  saved.  But  the  Turks 
continued  to  threaten  the  eastern  territories  of  Austria,  so  that  it 
was  impossible  for  the  Emperor  to  intervene  in  any  effective  way 
to  prevent  Louis  from  consummating  his  schemes  for  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  Rhenish  lands  which  he  needed  to  round  out  his 
dominions  in  that  quarter. 

449.  The  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685).  —  The 
second  act  to  which  we  refer  —  an  act  the  injustice  of  which 
was  only  equaled  by  its  folly  —  was  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  the  gracious  decree  by  which  Henry  IV  guaranteed 
religious  freedom  to  the  French  Protestants  (sec.  423). 

Louis'  motives  in  persecuting  his  Protestant  subjects  were 
essentially  the  same  as  those  which  had  led  Philip  III  of  Spain 
to  expel  from  his  dominions  his  Morisco  subjects.  He  believed 
the  extirpation  of  heresy  to  be  a  service  pleasing  to  God,  and 
he  coveted  the  honor  of  rooting  it  out  of  France. 

The  revocation  of  the  edict  was  not  the  result  of  a  sudden 
resolve.  Almost  from  the  beginning  of  his  personal  rule  Louis 
had  shown  a  persecuting  spirit.  He  had  placed  unfair  con- 
struction upon  the  clauses  of  the  edict  and  had  subjected  the 
Huguenots  to  many  annoying  restrictions.  Since  1683  he  had 
harassed  them  by  a  device  known  as  the  "  Dragonnades,"  from 
the  circumstance  that  dragoons  were  quartered  upon  the  Prot- 
estant families,  with  full  pennission  to  annoy  and  persecute  them 
in  every  way  "  short  of  violation  and  death,"  to  the  end  that  the 

8  To  lend  a  color  of  legality  to  his  acts,  Louis,  before  making  these  seizures,  had 
had  his  claims  to  them  passed  upon  by  courts  known  as  "  Chambers  of  Reunion." 


4IO  FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS   XIV 

victims  of  these  outrages  might  be  constrained  to  recant,  which 
multitudes  did. 

The  fateful  royal  decree  revoking  the  edict  of  toleration  was 
issued  in  1685.  By  this  cruel  measure  all  the  Protestant  churches 
were  closed,  and  every  Huguenot  who  refused  to  embrace  the 
Catholic  faith  was  outlawed.  The  ministers  of  the  heretical  sect 
were  expelled  from  the  kingdom  ;  laymen,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
forbidden  to  leave  the  country.  Any  one  attempting  to  do  so,  if 
apprehended,  was  to  be  sent  to  the  galleys  for  life. 

Disregarding  the  royal  prohibition  and  evading  the  vigilance  of 
the  police,  great  numbers  of  the  persecuted  Huguenots  made  their 
way  out  of  the  country.  It  is  estimated  that  before  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  Louis  had  lost  as  many  as  three  hundred  thou- 
sand of  the  most  skillful  and  industrious  of  his  subjects. 

The  effects  upon  France  of  the  exodus  were  most  disastrous. 
Several  of  the  most  important  and  flourishing  of  the  French  indus- 
tries were  ruined,  while  the  manufacturing  interests  of  other  coun- 
tries, particularly  those  of  the  Protestant  Netherlands,  England, 
and  Brandenburg,  were  correspondingly  benefited  by  the  energy, 
skill,  and  capital  which  the  exiles  carried  to  them.  Many  of  the 
fugitive  Huguenots  ultimately  found  new  homes  in  remote  South 
Africa,  and  their  descendants  contributed  greatly  to  the  strength 
of  the  republics  of  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State. 
Many  others  sought  refuge  in  America;  and  no  other  class  of 
emigrants,  save  the  Puritans  of  England,  cast 

Such  healthful  leaven  'mid  the  elements 
That  peopled  the  new  world.^ 

450.  The  War  of  the  Palatinate,  or  of  the  League  of  Augsburg 
(1688-1697).  —  The  indirect  results  of  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  were  quite  as  calamitous  to  France  as  were  the 
direct  results.  The  indignation  that  the  measure  awakened  among 
the  Protestant  nations  contributed  to  enable  William  of  Orange 
to  organize  a  formidable  confederacy  against  Louis,  known  as  the 
League  of  Augsburg  (1686). 

9  See  Baird,  History  of  the  Huguenot  Emigration  to  America. 


WAR   OF  THE  SPANISH   SUCCESSION  411 

Louis  resolved  to  attack  the  confederates.  Seeking  a  pretext  for 
beginning  hostilities,  he  laid  claim,  on  the  part  of  his  sister-in-law, 
to  properties  in  the  Palatinate,  and  hurried  a  large  army  into  the 
country,  which  was  quickly  overrun.  But  being  unable  to  hold 
the  conquests  he  had  made,  Louis  ordered  that  the  country  be 
laid  waste.  Among  the  places  reduced  to  ruins  were  the  historic 
towns  of  Heidelberg,  Spires,  and  Worms.  Even  fruit  trees,  vines, 
and  crops  were  destroyed.  Upwards  of  a  hundred  thousand  peas- 
ants were  rendered  homeless. 

Another  and  more  formidable  coalition,  known  as  the  Grand 
Alliance,  was  now  formed  against  Louis  (1689).  It  embraced 
England,  Holland,  Sweden,  Spain,  Savoy,  the  Emperor,  the  Elec- 
tor Palatine,  and  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony. 

For  ten  years  almost  all  Europe  was  a  great  battlefield.  It  was 
very  much  such  a  struggle  as  that  waged  a  century  later  by  the 
allied  monarchies  of  Europe  against  Napoleon,  when  they  fought 
for  the  independence  of  the  continent. 

Both  sides  at  length  becoming  weary  of  the  contest  and  almost 
exhausted  in  resources,  the  struggle  was  closed  by  the  Peace  of 
Ryswick  (1697).  There  was  a  mutual  surrender  of  conquests 
made  during  the  course  of  the  war,  and  Louis  had  also  to  give  up 
many  of  the  places  he  had  seized  before  the  beginning  of  the 
conflict.  He  managed,  however,  to  retain,  along  with  some  other 
places,  the  important  city  of  Strasburg. 

451.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (1701-1714).  —  Barely 
three  years  had  passed  after  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  before  the 
great  powers  of  Europe  were  involved  in  another  war,  known  as 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

The  proximate  circumstances  out  of  which  the  war  grew  were 
these.  In  1 700  the  king  of  Spain,  Charles  II,  the  last  male  descend- 
ant in  Spain  of  the  great  Emperor  Charles  V,  died,  leaving  his 
crown  —  the  disposition  of  which  had  been  made  a  matter  of  end- 
less discussion  and  infinite  intrigue,  for  Charles  was  childless  — 
to  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  The  duke, 
a  mere  lad  of  seventeen  years,  assumed  the  bequeathed  crown 
with  the  tide  of  Philip  V,  and  thus  became  the  founder  of  the 


412 


FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS  XIV 


Bourbon  dynasty  in  Spain.  "  There  are  no  longer  any  Pyrenees," 
is  the  way  in  which  Louis  is  reported  to  have  expressed  his  exul- 
tation over  this  virtual  union  of  France  and  Spain. 

France,  through  Spanish  favor,  might  also  now  easily  become 
supreme  in  the  colonial  world  and  realize  her  dream  of  a  great 
colonial  empire.  The  common  danger  led  to  the  forming  of  a  sec- 
ond Grand  Alliance  ^^  against  France,  a  main  object  of  which  was 
to  eject  Philip  from  the  Spanish  throne  and  to  seat  thereon  the 

Archduke  Charles  of  Austria,  the 
second  son  of  the  Emperor 
Leopold  L^^  The  two  greatest 
generals  of  the  allies  were  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough  (John  Churchill), 
the  ablest  commander,  except 
Wellington  perhaps,  that  England 
has  ever  produced,  and  Prince 
Eugene  of  Savoy,  who  was  in  the 
imperial  service. 

For  thirteen  years  all  Europe 
was  shaken  with  war.  During  the 
progress  of  the  struggle  were 
fought  some  of  the  most  memor- 
able battles  in  European  history,  — 
Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oudenarde, 
and  Malplaquet,  —  in  all  of  which  the  genius  of  Marlborough  and 
the  consummate  skill  of  Prince  Eugene  won  splendid  victories 
for  the  allies. 

In  the  year  17  ii,  a  vacancy  having  occurred  in  the  imperial 
office,  the  Archduke  Charles  was  elected  Emperor.  This  changed 
the  whole  aspect  of  the  Spanish  question,  for  now  to  place  Charles 
upon  the  Spanish  throne  would  be  to  give  him  a  dangerous  pre- 
ponderance of  power ;  would  be,  in  fact,  to  reestabhsh  the  great 


Fig.  76.  —  UuKE  of  Marl- 
BOROUGH.  (After  a  painting 
by  F.  Kiteller) 


10  The  alliance  embraced  at  first  England,  the  Protestant  Netherlands,  Austria, 
and  other  German  states,  and  later  was  joined  by  Portugal  and  Savoy. 

11  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  second  year  of  the  alliance  that  the  powers  form- 
ally acknowledged  the  archduke  as  king  of  Spain. 


NEW  FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS   XIV  413 

monarchy  of  Charles  V.  Consequently  the  Grand  AlHance, 
already  weakened  from  other  causes,  fell  to  pieces,  and  the  war 
was  ended  by  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  (17 13)  and  Rastadt  (17 14). 

By  the  provisions  of  these  treaties  the  Bourbon  prince,  Philip 
of  Anjou,  was  left  upon  the  Spanish  throne,  but  on  the  condition 
that  there  should  never  be  a  union  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
crowns  upon  the  same  head.  His  dominions  also  were  pared 
away  on  every  side.  Gibraltar  and  the  island  of  Minorca  were 
ceded  to  England  ;  Milan,  Naples,  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and  the 
Catholic  Netherlands  were  given  to  Austria;  and  Sicily  to  the 
Duke  of  Savoy.  Spain  was  thus  shorn  of  nearly  half  her  territories 
in  Europe. 

France  also  suffered  in  her  colonial  possessions  and  claims, 
being  forced  to  cede  Nova  Scotia  (Acadia)  to  England  and  to 
admit  her  sovereignty  over  Newfoundland  and  the  Hudson  Bay 
Territory.^^ 

452.  New  France  under  Louis  XIV In  examining  the  main 

articles  of  the  treaties  which  closed  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, one  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  by  the  revelation  of  how 
decisively  the  New  World  was  at  that  time  beginning  to  react 
upon  the  Old.  Indeed,  from  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury forward  the  affairs  of  America  were  destined  to  become  con- 
stantly more  and  more  closely  intertwined  with  those  of  Europe, 
so  much  so  as  regards  France  and  England  that  their  respective 
histories  in  the  eighteenth  century  can  be  read  aright  only  in  the 
light  of  these  new  relations.  We  shall  therefore  do  well  if  we  here 
turn  our  eyes  from  following  the  course  of  events  in  Europe  and 
cast  a  glance  upon  the  situation  of  things  in  the  New  World. 

Louis  had  dreams  of  a  splendid  French  empire  beyond  the  seas. 
With  such  paternal  solicitude  did  he  watch  over  the  growth  of  the 
French  transatlantic  settlements  that  he  earned  the  title  of  "  Father 
of  New  France."  ^*    Year  after  year  shiploads  of  emigrants  were 

W  For  the  celebrated  clause  concerning  the  "  Assiento,"  see  sec.  531. 

18  Asia  was  not  forgotten.  The  French  established  themselves  at  Surat,  in  India, 
in  1667,  and  at  Pondicherry  in  1672.  To  encourage  the  nobles  to  engage  in  colonial 
trade,  Louis  issued  an  edict  ordaining  that  it  should  not  be  regarded  as  "  derogatory 
to  the  nobility  to  take  part  in  commerce  with  the  Indies." 


414  FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS   XIV 

sent  out  at  the  expense  of  the  crown.  The  population  along  the 
St.  Lawrence  thickened  slowly  yet  steadily,  and  a  chain  of  forts 
and  settlements  was  formed  stretching  from  the  Great  Lakes 
along  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

But  several  things  intervened  to  prevent  Louis  from  becoming 
the  maker  of  a  great  and  permanent  French  empire  in  America. 
In  the  first  place,  he  subordinated  these  over-the-sea  interests 
to  his  ambitious  European  poHcy.  Hence  the  resources  which 
should  have  been  used  in  fostering  colonial  enterprises  were 
wasted  in  unjust  and  comparatively  fruitless  wars  at  home. 

In  the  second  place,  the  French  colony  in  Canada  never  grew 
and  gained  in  strength  in  the  way  that  the  English  settlements 
did,  because  the  French  settlers  never  breathed  the  air  of  liberty. 
They  were  allowed  no  initiative;  everything  was  planned  and 
executed  for  them.  They  were  treated  like  children.  This  pater- 
nalism smothered  all  worthy  individual  aspiration  and  enterprise. 

In  the  third  place,  the  unfortunate  bigotry  of  Louis  and  of  his 
advisers  stood  in  the  way  of  the  success  of  the  undertaking.  The 
colony  was  closed  against  all  save  Catholic  immigrants.  This  was 
a  suicidal  policy.  Had  the  French  territories,  like  the  English 
colonies,  been  open  to  religious  dissenters.  New  France  would 
doubtless  have  received  a  large  and  steady  stream  of  Huguenot 
emigrants,  and  therewith  such  an  accession  of  strength  as  might 
possibly  have  given  a  wholly  different  issue  to  the  great  struggle 
which,  soon  after  Louis  had  passed  from  the  stage,  began  between 
the  English  and  the  French  for  supremacy  in  America. 

453.  Death  of  the  King  (17 15).  —  It  was  amidst  troubles,  per- 
plexities, and  afflictions  that  Louis  XIV's  long  and  eventful  reign 
drew  to  a  close.  The  heavy  and  constant  taxes  necessary  to  meet 
the  expenses  of  his  numerous  wars,  to  maintain  an  extravagant 
court,  and  to  furnish  means  for  the  erection  of  costly  buildings, 
had  bankrupted  the  country,  and  the  cries  of  his  wretched  sub- 
jects, clamoring  for  bread,  could  not  be  shut  out  of  the  royal 
chamber.  Death,  too,  had  invaded  the  palace,  striking  down  the 
Dauphin  and  also  two  grandsons  of  Louis,  leaving  as  the  nearest 
heir  to  the  throne  his  great-grandson,  a  mere  child.     On  the 


THE  COURT   OF   LOUIS  XIV  415 

morning  of  Sept.  i,  1715,  the  Grand  Monarch  breathed  his  last, 
bequeathing  to  this  boy  of  five  years  a  kingdom  overwhelmed  with 
debt,  and  filled  with  misery,  with  threatening  vices,  and  dangerous 
discontent.  He  seemed  at  the  last  moment  to  be  sensible  of  the 
mistakes  and  faults  of  his  reign,  for  his  dying  charge  to  the  little 
prince  who  was  to  succeed  him  was  as  follows :  "  Do  not  follow 
the  bad  example  which  I  have  set  you.  I  have  undertaken  war  too 
lightly,  and  have  continued  it  from  vanity.  Do  not  imitate  me, 
but  be  a  pacific  prince,  and  let  your  chief  occupation  be  to  relieve 
your  subjects." 

The  tidings  of  the  king's  death,  instead  of  being  received  by 
his  subjects  with  tears,  was  received  throughout  France  with  an 
outburst  of  rejoicing.  A  satirist  of  the  time  declared  that  "  the 
people  had  shed  too  many  tears  during  his  life  to  have  any  left 
for  his  death." 

454.  The  Court  of  Louis  XIV The  court  of  the  Grand  Mon- 
arch was  the  most  extravagantly  magnificent  that  Europe  has 
ever  seen.  Never  since  Nero  spread  his  Golden  House  over  the 
burnt  district  of  Rome  and  ensconcing  himself  amid  its  luxurious 
appointments  exclaimed,  "  Now  I  am  housed  as  a  man  ought  to 
be,"  had  prince  or  king  so  ostentatiously  lavished  upon  himself  the 
wealth  of  an  empire.  Louis  had  half  a  dozen  palaces,  the  most 
costly  of  which  was  that  at  Versailles.  Here  he  created,  in  what 
was  originally  a  desert,  a  beautiful  miniature  universe  of  which  he 
was  the  center,  the  resplendent  sun  —  he  chose  the  sun  as  his 
emblem  —  around  which  all  revolved  and  from  which  all  received 
light  and  life.  Upon  the  central  building  and  its  adjuncts  he  spent 
fabulous  sums,  —  what  would  probably  be  equal  to  more  than  a 
hundred  million  dollars  with  us.  Here  were  gathered  the  beauty, 
wit,  and  learning  of  France.  The  royal  household  numbered  over 
fifteen  thousand  persons,  all  living  in  costly  and  luxurious  idleness 
at  the  expense  of  the  people. 

One  element  of  this  enormous  family  was  the  great  lords  of  the 
old  feudal  aristocracy.  Dispossessed  of  their  ancient  power  and 
wealth,  they  were  content  now  to  fill  a  place  in  the  royal  house- 
hold, —  to  be  the  king's  pensioners  and  the  elegant  embellishment 


4i6 


FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS   XIV 


of  his  court.  *'A  military  staff  on  a  furlough  for  a  century  or 
more,  around  a  commander-in-chief  who  gives  fashionable  enter- 
tainments, is,"  says  Taine,  "  the  principle  and  summary  of  the 
habits  of  society  under  the  ancient  regime." 

As  can  easily  be  imagined,  the  court  life  of  this  period  was  shame- 
fully corrupt.  Vice,  however,  was  gilded.  The  most  scandalous 
immoralities  were  made  attractive  by  the  glitter  of 
superficial  accomplishment  and  by  exquisite  suavity 


Fig.  77.  —  View  of  Versailles.     (From  a  photograph) 


and  polish  of  manner.  But,  notwithstanding  its  insincerity  and 
immorality,  the  brilliancy  of  the  court  of  Louis  dazzled  all  Europe. 
The  neighboring  courts  imitated  its  manners  and  emulated  its 
extravagances.  In  all  matters  of  taste  and  fashion  France  gave 
laws  to  the  continent,  and  the  French  language  became  the  court 
language  of  the  civiHzed  world. 

455.  Literature  under  Louis  XIV Although  Louis  himself 

was  not  much  of  a  scholar,  he  gave  a  most  liberal  encouragement 
to  men  of  letters,  thereby  making  his  reign  the  Augustan  Age  of 
French  literature.  In  this  patronage  Louis  was  not  unselfish.  He 
honored  and  befriended  poets  and  writers  of  every  class,  because 
thus  he  extended  the  reputation  of  his  court.  These  writers,  pen- 
sioners of  his  bounty,  filled  all  Europe  with  praises  of  the  great 
king,  and  thus  made  the  most  ample  and  grateful  return  to  Louis 
for  his  favor  and  liberality. 


FRENCH    LITERATURE 


417 


Almost  every  species  of  literature  was  cultivated  by  the  French 
writers  of  this  era,  yet  it  was  in  the  province  of  the  drama 
that  the  most  eminent  names  appeared.  The  three  great  names 
here  are  those  of  Corneille  (i 606-1 684),  Racine  (i 639-1 699), 
and  Moliere  (162  2-1 6 7 3).  Corneille  and  Racine  were  writers 
of  tragedy,  Moliere  of  comedy.  Corneille  is  called  the  "  Father 
of  French  Tragedy."  ^* 

456.  Relation  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV  to  the  Revolution  of 
1789.  —  "If  it  be  asked,"  says  the  historian  Von  Hoist,  "who 
did  the  most  towards  the  destruction  of  the  ancient  regime,  the 
correct  answer  is,  beyond  all  question,  Louis  XIV,  its  greatest 
representative."  Louis  discredited  absolute  monarchy  by  his 
shameful  misuse  of  his  unlimited  power.  His  many  wars  and  his 
extravagant  expenditures  on  an  idle  and  profligate  court  weighed 
France  down  with  crushing  and  intolerable  burdens.  It  was  the 
vast  mass  of  misery  and  suffering  created  by  his  acting  on  the 
monstrous  doctrine  that  "  the  many  are  made  for  the  use  of  one," 
that  did  much  to  prepare  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  French 
people  for  the  great  Revolution. 

457.  Decline  of  the  French  Monarchy  under  Louis  XV  (1715- 
1774).  —  The  supremacy  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  passed  away 
forever  with  Louis  XIV.  In  passing  from  the  reign  of  the  Grand 
Monarch  to  that  of  his  successor,  we  pass  from  the  strongest  and 
outwardly  most  brilliant  reign  in  French  history  to  the  weakest 
and  most  humiliating.  Louis  XV  was  a  despot  without  possess- 
ing any  of  the  possible  virtues  of  a  despot.  During  his  reign  the 
French  nation  made  a  swift  descent  towards  the  abyss  of  the 
Revolution  of  1789. 

1*  Among  other  world-renowned  French  writers,  philosophers,  preLites,  and  orators 
who  adorned  the  age  of  Louis  XIV  were  Descartes  (i  596-1650),  the  father  of  modem 
philosophy;  Pascal  (1623-1662),  the  prodigy  in  mathematics  and  the  author  of  the 
famous  Provincial  Letters  ;  La  Bruy^re  (1645-1696),  novelist  and  unrivaled  depicter 
of  character  and  manners ;  Madame  de  Sevign6  (1626-1696),  the  brilliant  letter  writer, 
whose  correspondence  forms  to-day  a  prized  portion  of  French  literature  and  con- 
stitutes a  treasure  of  information  for  the  court  historian;  Bossuet  (1627-1704),  the 
eloquent  court  pre'acher  and  champion  of  divine-right  kingship ;  and  F^nelon  (165 1- 
1715),  the  distinguished  prelate  and  author  of  The  Adventures  of  TeUmackus,  a  dis- 
guised satire  on  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 


4l8  FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS   XIV 

For  the  first  eight  years  of  the  reign  affairs  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  Duke  of. Orleans,  who  was  regent  during  the  king's  minor- 
ity. He  was  a  corrupt  man,  a  man  absolutely  shameless  in  his 
vices.  Probably  Rome  in  the  days  of  the  worst  Caesars  witnessed 
nothing  in  the  way  of  reckless  and  riotous  living  to  surpass  what 
France  witnessed  under  what  is  known  as  the  Regency. 

A  celebrated  episode  of  this  period  was  the  financial  experi- 
ment of  John  Law,  a  Scotchman  who  had  gained  the  ear  of  the 
regent.  His  system  involved  the  creation  of  a  bank  and  the  for- 
mation of  a  gigantic  trading  association  known  as  the  Mississippi 
Company.  The  government  lent  its  credit  to  the  bank,  and 
granted  the  company  for  settlement  the  territory  of  Louisiana, 
the  vast  indefinite  region  in  North  America  opened  up  to  French 
enterprise  by  the  explorations  of  La  Salle.  France  now  went  wild 
in  a  fever  of  speculation.  Rumors  were  spread  abroad  of  the  dis- 
covery of  mountains  of  gold  and  precious  stones  in  the  territories 
of  the  company.  The  shares  of  the  association  rose  by  leaps  and 
bounds  to  fabulous  prices.  The  end  was  soon  reached.  The 
inflated  scheme,  which  was  to  make  everybody  "  rich  and  happy," 
collapsed,  spreading  broadcast  bankruptcy  and  financial  ruin,  and 
passed  into  history  as  "The  Mississippi  Bubble." 

In  1723  the  prince's  minority  ended  and  he  assumed  the  gov- 
ernment. The  atmosphere  in  which  he  had  been  brought  up  had 
wholly  corrupted  a  nature  seemingly  prone  to  evil.  He  was  com- 
pletely under  the  influence  of  his  mistresses,  of  whom  the  most 
notorious  was  Madame  de  Pompadour.  The  loves,  the  hates,  and 
the  caprices  of  this  woman  were  for  nineteen  years  a  chief  factor 
in  the  decision  of  the  weightiest  matters  of  war  and  of  peace. 
The  highest  appointments  in  the  army  and  the  navy  were  dictated 
by  her.  For  a  long  series  of  years  she  was  practically  the  prime 
minister  of  France. 

.  The  conditions  surrounding  the  throne  being  of  this  nature,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  under  Louis  XV  the  influence,  power,  and 
prestige  of  France  sensibly  declined.  She  took  part,  indeed,  but 
usually  with  injury  to  her  military  reputation,  in  all  the  wars  of 
this  period.    The  most  important  of  these  for  France  was  the 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  419 

Seven  Years'  War  (i 756-1 763),  known  in  America  as  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  which  resulted  in  the  loss  to  France  of  Canada 
in  the  New  World  and  of  her  Indian  empire  in  the  Old. 

Though  thus  shorn  of  her  colonial  possessions,  France  managed 
to  hold  in  Europe  the  provinces  won  for  her  by  the  wars  and 
diplomacy  of  Louis  XIV,  and  even  made  some  fresh  acquisitions 
of  territory  along  the  Rhenish  frontier,  besides  gaining  the  island 
of  Corsica  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  birthplace  of  one  who  was 
soon  to  have  much  to  do  in  shaping  the  destinies  of  France. 

But,  taken  all  together,  the  period  was  one  of  great  national 
humiliation  :  the  French  fleet  was  almost  driven  from  the  sea ;  the 
martial  spirit  of  the  nation  visibly  declined;  and  France,  from 
being  the  foremost  of  the  states  of  Europe,  became  the  least 
among  the  great  powers. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Saint-Simon 
(trans,  by  Bayle  St.  John).  Nowhere  else  can  be  found  so  lively  and  enter- 
taining an  account  of  life  at  court  under  Louis  XIV  and  the  Regency  as 
here.  For  glimpses  of  other  sides  of  the  life  of  the  times  read  the  Letters 
of  Madame  de  SevignS^  accessible  in  different  editions.  These  delightful 
letters  cover  the  last  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Secondary  Works.  —  For  a  comprehensive  view  of  this  period  there  is 
nothing  superior  to  The  Age  of  Louis  XIV  2J\^  The  Decline  of  the  French 
Monarchy,  —  translations  by  Mary  L.  Booth  of  the  corresponding  parts  of 
Henri  Martin's  Histoire  de  France.  Wakeman,  Europe,  i^gS-iyi^,  chaps,  vi, 
vii,  and  ix-xv.  Kitchin,  A  History  of  France,  vol.  iii.  H  assall,  The  French 
People,  chaps,  xii-xiv ;  and  Louis  XIV  and  the  Zenith  of  the  French  Monarchy. 
Perkins,  France  under  Mazarin,  vol.  ii;  France  under  the  Regency ;  and 
France  under  Louis  XV.  These  are  all  scholarly  works  of  marked  merit. 
Williams,  Madame  de  Pompadour.  For  the  history  of  the  French  in 
America  during  the  age  of  Louis  XIV,  the  reader  will  have  recourse 
to  FiSKE,  New  England  and  New  France,  chap,  iv ;  and  to  Parkman, 
Frontenac  and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  Parliament  of  Paris.  2.  Colbert. 
3.  The  harrowing  of  the  Palatinate  by  Louis.  4.  New  France  under 
Louis  XIV.  5.  The  Palace  at  Versailles.  6.  Life  at  the  court.  7.  Moli^re. 
8.  The  Mississippi  Bubble. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

THE  STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

(1603-1689) 

I.    The  First  Two  Stuarts 
Reign  of  James  the  First  (^1603— i62f) 

458.  James'  Conception  of  Kingship. — With  the  end  of  the 

Tudor  Une  (sec.  393),  James  VI  of  Scotland,  son  of  Mary  Stuart, 
came  to  the  EngUsh  throne  as  James  I  of  England.  The  acces- 
sion of  the  House  of  Stuart  brought  England  and  Scotland  under 
the  same  sovereignty,  though  each  country  still  retained  its  own 
legislature. 

James,  like  the  other  Stuarts  who  followed  him  on  the  Enghsh 
throne,  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of 
kings.  He  held  that  hereditary  princes  are  the  Lord's  anointed, 
and  that  their  authority  can  in  no  way  be  questioned  or  limited 
by  people,  priest,  or  Parliament.  These  are  his  own  words  :  "  It 
is  atheism  and  blasphemy  to  dispute  what  God  can  do  :  good 
Christians  content  themselves  with  His  will  revealed  in  His  word  ; 
so  it  is  presumption  and  high  contempt  in  a  subject  to  dispute 
what  a  king  can  do,  or  say  that  a  king  cannot  do  this  or  that."  ^ 

A  strong  support  for  this  Stuart  conception  of  the  unhmited 
authority  of  kings  was  found  in  French  theory  and  practice.  The 
Stuarts  were  related  to  the  French  family  of  the  Guises.  They  were 
in  sympathy  with  French  modes  of  thought.  Further,  Charles  I  had 
for  wife  a  French  princess,  Henrietta  Maria.  These  affiliations 
with  France  naturally  brought  the  Stuarts  under  French  influence. 
They  imitated  the  Bourbons.    They  quoted  them  constantly,  and 

1  From  the  king's  speech  in  the  Star  Chamber,  1616. 
420 


THE   GUNPOWDER   PLOT  42 1 

strove  to  make  the  government  of  England  like  that  of  France, 
an  absolute  monarchy.'* 

But  the  Commons  of  the  English  Parliament,  and  probably 
the  majority  of  the  English  people,  differed  with  their  Stuart 
kings  in  their  views  concerning  the  nature  of  government,  and 
particularly  concerning  the  nature  of  the  English  government. 
In  this  difference  of  views  lay  hidden,  as  we  shall  learn,  the  germs 
of  the  Civil  War  and  of  all  that  grew  out  of  it,  —  the  Common- 
wealth, the  Protectorate,  and  the  Revolution  of  1689. 

459.  The  Gunpowder  Plot  (1605).  —  In  the  second  year  of 
James'  reign  was  unearthed  an  extraordinary  plot  to  blow  up 
with  gunpowder  the  Parliament  building,  upon  the  opening  day 
of  the  session  of  the  Houses,  when  king,  Lords,  and  Commons 
would  all  be  present,  and  thus  to  destroy  at  a  single  blow  every 
branch  of  the  government. 

This  conspiracy,  known  as  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  was  entered 
into  by  some  Catholics  because  they  were  disappointed  in  the 
course  which  the  king  and  the  Parliament  had  taken  as  regards 
their  religion.*  The  leader  of  the  conspiracy,  Guy  Fawkes,  was 
arrested,  and  after  being  put  to  the  rack  was  executed.  His  chief 
accomplices  were  also  seized  and  punished.  The  alarm  created 
by  the  terrible  plot  led  Parliament  to  enact  some  very  severe  laws 
against  the  Catholics. 

460.  Contest  between  James  and  the  Commons  ;  "the  Sovereign 
King  and  the  Sovereign  People."  — It  has  been  seen  what  ideas 
James  entertained  of  the  kingly  office.  Such  a  view  of  royal 
authority  and  privileges  was  sure  to  bring  him  into  conflict  with 
Parliament,  especially  with  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  con- 
stantly dissolving  Parliament  and  sending  the  members  home, 
because  they  insisted  upon  considering  subjects  which  he  had  told 
them  they  should  let  alone. 

An  incident  vividly  lights  up  the  situation.  A  committee  from 
the  Commons  was  about  to  wait  upon  the  king.    "  Place  twelve 

2  For  the  popular  superstitions  of  the  "  Royal  Touch  "  and  its  bearing  upon  the 
matter  discussed  in  this  section,  see  Lecky,  A  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century^  vol.  i,  chap.  i. 

«  Though  son  of  the  Catholic  Mary  Stuart,  James  had  been  educated  as  a  Protestant. 


422      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

armchairs,"  said  James  to  his  attendants ;  "  I  am  going  to  receive 
twelve  kings."  What  the  king  said  in  bitter  irony  was  the  simple 
truth.  James,  when  he  met  the  committee  from  the  Commons, 
met  men  who  were  as  sure  that  they  had  a  divine  right  to  rule 
England  as  he  was  that  he  had  a  divine  commission  to  that  same 
end.  As  the  historian  Guizot  tersely  expresses  it,  "  Both  king  and 
people  thought  as  sovereigns."  Here  were  the  conditions  of  an 
irrepressible  conflict. 

The  chief  matters  of  dispute  between  the  king  and  the  Com- 
mons were  the  limits  of  the  authority  of  the  former  in  matters 
touching  legislation  and  taxation,  and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
privileges  and  jurisdiction  of  the  latter. 

As  to  the  limits  of  the  royal  power,  James  talked  and  acted  as 
though  his  prerogatives  were  practically  unbounded.  He  issued 
proclamations  which  in  their  scope  were  really  laws,  and  then 
enforced  these  royal  edicts  by  fines  and  imprisonment  as  though 
they  were  regular  statutes  of  Parliament.  Moreover,  taking  advan- 
tage of  some  uncertainty  in  the  law  as  regards  the  power  of  the 
king  to  collect  customs  at  the  ports  of  the  realm,  he  laid  new  and 
unusual  duties  upon  imports  and  exports.  James'  judges  were 
servile  enough  to  sustain  him  in  this  course,  some  of  them  going 
so  far  as  to  say  in  effect  that ''  the  seaports  are  the  king's  gates, 
which  he  may  open  and  shut  to  whom  he  pleases." 

As  to  the  privileges  of  the  Commons,  that  body  insisted,  among 
other  things,  upon  their  right  to  determine  all  cases  of  contested 
election  of  their  members,  and  to  debate  freely  all  questions  con- 
I  cerning  the  common  weal,  without  being  liable  to  prosecution  or 
imprisonment  for  words  spoken  in  the  House.  James  denied  that 
these  privileges  were  matters  of  right  pertaining  to  the  Commons, 
and  repeatedly  intimated  to  them  that  it  was  only  through  his 
own  gracious  permission  and  the  favor  of  his  ancestors  that  they 
were  allowed  to  exercise  these  liberties  at  all,  and  that  if  their 
conduct  was  not  more  circumspect  and  reverential  he  should  take 
away  their  privileges  entirely. 

On  one  occasion,  the  Commons  having  ventured  in  debate  upon 
certain  matters  of  state  which  the  king  had  forbidden  them  to 


COLONIES  AND  TRADE  SETTLEMENTS        423 

meddle  with,  he,  in  reproving  them,  made  a  more  express  denial 
than  ever  of  their  rights  and  privileges,  which  caused  them,  in  a 
burst  of  noble  indignation,  to  spread  upon  their  journal  a  brave 
protest,  known  as  "  The  Great  Protestation,"  which  declared  that 
"  the  liberties,  franchises,  privileges,  and  jurisdictions  of  Parliament 
are  the  ancient  and  undoubted  birthright  and  inheritance  of  the 
subjects  of  England,  and  that  the  arduous  and  urgent  affairs  con- 
cerning the  king,  state,  and  defense  of  the  realm  and  the  Church 
of  England  ...  are  proper  subjects  and  matter  of  council  and 
debate  in  Parliament"  (162 1). 

When  intelligence  of  this  action  was  carried  to  the  king,  he 
angrily  adjourned  Parliament,  sent  for  the  journal  of  the  House, 
and  with  his  own  hands  struck  out  the  obnoxious  resolution. 
Then  he  dissolved  Parliament,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  imprison 
several  of  the  members  of  the  Commons.  In  these  high-handed 
measures  we  get  a  glimpse  of  the  Stuart  theory  of  government, 
and  see  th£  way  paved  for  the  final  break  between  king  and 
people  in  the  following  reign. 

461.  Colonies  and  Trade  Settlements.  —  The  reign  of  James  I 
is  signalized  by  the  commencement  of  that  system  of  colonization 
which  has  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  English  race  in 
almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  In  the  year  1607  Jamestown, 
so  named  in  honor  of  the  king,  was  founded  in  Virginia.  This 
was  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States.  In  1620  some  Separatists,  or  Pilgrims,  who 
had  found  in  Holland  a  temporary  refuge  from  persecution,  pushed 
across  the  Atlantic,  and  amidst  heroic  sufferings  and  unparalleled 
hardships  established  the  first  settlement  in  New  England  and  laid 
the  foundations  of  civil  liberty  in  the  New  World. 

Besides  planting  these  settlements  in  the  New  World,  the  Eng- 
lish during  this  same  reign  established  themselves  in  the  ancient 
land  of  India.  In  161 3  the  East  India  Company  established  their 
first  factory  at  Surat.  This  was  the  humble  beginning  of  the  gigan- 
tic English  Empire  in  the  East. 

In  this  connection  must  also  be  noticed  the  Plantation  of  Ulster 
in  Ireland.    The  northern  part  of  that  island  having  been  desolated 


424      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

by  the  Tyrone  Rebellion  (sec.  391),  and  large  tracts  of  land 
having  been  forfeited  to  the  English  crown,  this  land  was  now 
given  by  royal  grant  to  Enghsh  and  Scotch  settlers.  Some  of  the 
Celtic  clans  were  removed  bodily,  and  assigned  lands  in  other 
parts  of  the  island.  This  movement  began  in  1610.  Its  aim  was 
to  Protestantize  and  Anglicize  the  country.  The  end  sought  was 
in  a  good  measure  attained.  In  less  than  a  century  after  the 
beginning  of  the  colonization  movement  there  were  over  a  million 
Protestants  of  the  Presbyterian  sect  settled  in  Ulster.  The  injustice 
and  harshness  of  the  treatment  of  the  Irish  natives  awakened 
among  them  a  spirit  of  bitter  hostihty  to  the  newcomers,  which, 
intensified  by  fresh  wrongs,  has  imbittered  all  the  relations  of 
Ireland  and  England  up  to  our  own  day. 

462 .  Literature.  —  One  of  the  most  noteworthy  literary  labors 
of  the  reign  under  review  was  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  known 
as  King  fames'  Version^  published  in  16 11.  This  version  is  the 
one  in  general  use  in  the  Protestant  Church  at  the  present  day. 

The  most  noted  writers  of  James'  reign  were  a  bequest  to  it 
from  the  brilliant  era  of  Elizabeth."^  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  the 
petted  courtier  of  Elizabeth,  fell  on  evil  days  after  her  death. 
On  the  charge  of  taking  part  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  crown, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  kept  a  prisoner  for  thir- 
teen years.  From  the  tedium  of  his  long  confinement  he  found 
relief  in  the  composition  of  a  History  of  the  World.  He  was  at 
last  beheaded  (16 18). 

The  close  of  the  life  of  the  great  philosopher  Francis  Bacon 
was  scarcely  less  sad  than  that  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  He  held 
the  office  of  Lord  Chancellor,  and,  yielding  to  the  temptations  of 
the  corrupt  times  upon  which  he  had  fallen,  accepted  fees  from  the 
suitors  who  brought  cases  before  him.  He  was  impeached  and 
brought  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  where  he  confessed  his 
fault,  but  asserted  that  the  money  he  took  never  influenced  his 
judgment.    He  appealed  pathetically  to  his  judges  "  to  be  merciful 

■*  Shakespeare  died  about  the  middle  of  the  reign  (in  1616).  Several  of  his  com- 
panion dramatists,  who  like  himself  began  their  career  under  Elizabeth,  also  outlived 
the  queen,  and  did  most  of  their  w^ork  during  the  reign  of  her  successor. 


THE   PETITION    OF    RIGHT  425 

to  a  broken  reed."  He  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine  and 
to  imprisonment  in  the  Tower.  But  the  king  in  pity  released  him 
from  all  the  penalty  and  even  conferred  a  pension  upon  him.  He 
lived  only  five  years  after  his  fall  and  disgrace,  dying  in  1626. 

Bacon  must  be  given  the  first  place  among  the  philosophers  of 
the  English-speaking  race.  His  system  is  known  as  the  "  Inductive 
Method  of  Philosophy."  It  insists  upon  experiment  and  a  careful 
observation  of  facts  as  the  only  true  means  of  arriving  at  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  nature. 

Reign  of  Charles  the  First  {1625-1640) 

463.  The  Petition  of  Right  (1628).  —  Charles  I  came  to  the 
throne  with  all  his  father's  lofty  notions  about  the  divine  right  of 
kings.  He  made  his  own  these  words  of  Scripture  :  '*  Where  the 
word  of  a  king  is,  there  is  power :  and  who  may  say  unto  him, 
What  doest  thou?  "  ^  Consequently  the  old  contest  between  king 
and  Parliament  was  straightway  renewed.  The  first  two  Parlia- 
ments of  his  reign  Charles  dissolved  speedily,  because  instead  of 
voting  supplies  they  persisted  in  investigating  public  grievances. 

After  the  dissolution  of  his  second  Parliament,  Charles  endeav- 
ored to  raise  by  means  of  benevolences  (sec.  361)  and  forced 
loans  the  money  he  needed  to  carry  on  the  government.  But  all 
his  expedients  failed  to  meet  his  needs,  and  he  was  forced  to  fall 
back  upon  Parliament.  The  Houses  met,  and  promised  to  grant  him 
generous  subsidies,  provided  he  would  approve  a  certain  Petition 
of  Right  which  they  had  drawn  up.  Next  after  Magna  Carta, 
this  document  is  the  most  important  in  the  constitutional  history 
of  England.  Four  abuses  were  provided  against :  (i)  the  raising 
of  money  by  loans,  benevolences,  taxes,  etc.,  without  the  consent 
of  Parliament;  (2)  imprisonment  without  cause  shown;  (3)  the 
quartering  of  soldiers  in  private  houses,  —  a  very  vexatious  thing ; 
and  (4)  trial  by  martial  law,  that  is,  without  jury. 

Charles  was  as  reluctant  to  assent  to  the  petition  as  King  John 
was  to  assent  to  Magna  Carta;  but  he  was  at  length  forced  to 

5  Ecclesiastes  viii.  4 ;  cited  by  Cliarles  on  his  trial  in  1649. 


426      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 


give  sanction  to  it  by  the  use  of  the  usual  formula,  "  Let  it  be  law 

as  desired"  (1628). 

464.  Charles  rules  without  Parliament  (162  9-1 640).  —  It  soon 

became  evident  that  Charles  was  utterly  insincere  when  he  gave 

his  assent  to  the  Petition  of  Right.    He  immediately  violated 

its  provisions  in  attempting  to  raise 
money  by  forbidden  taxes  and  loans. 
For  eleven  years  he  ruled  without 
Parliament,  thus  changing  the  govern- 
ment of  England  from  a  government 
by  king,  Lords,  and  Commons  to  what 
was  in  effect  an  absolute  and  irrespon- 
sible monarchy,  like  that  of  France 
or  of  Spain. 

Prominent  among  Charles'  most  ac- 
tive agents  were  his  ministers,  Thomas 
Wentworth,  later  Earl  of  Strafford,  and 
William  Laud,  Bishop  of  London  and 
later  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  both 
of  whom  earned  unenviable  reputa- 
tions through  their  industry  and 
success  in  building  up  the  absolute 
power  of  their  master  upon  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  institutions  of  English 
liberty. 

The  high-handed  and  tyrannical 
proceedings  of  Charles  and  his  agents 
were    enforced    by    three    iniquitous 

Fig.  78.-CHARLESI.    (After  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^     ^^  ^^^  arbitrary  juris- 
a  painting  by  Vandyke)  , ,     .  _,  ,  , 

diction.     These  were  known  as  the 

"Council  of  the  North,"   the   "Star  Chamber,"  and  the  "High 

Commission  Court."  ^    All  of  these  courts  sat  without  jury,  and 


6  The  first  was  a  tribunal  established  by  Henry  VIII,  and  now  employed  by  Went- 
worth as  an  instrument  for  enforcing  the  king's  despotic  authority  in  the  turbulent 
northern  counties  of  England.  The  Star  Chamber  was  a  court  organized  by  Henry 
VII,  which  at  this  time  dealt  chiefly  with  criminal  cases  affecting  the  governmentj 


JOHN   HAMPDEN   AND   SHIP   MONEY  427 

being  composed  of  the  creatures  of  the  king,  were  of  course  his 
subservient  instruments.  Often  their  decisions  were  unjust  and 
arbitrary,  their  punishments  harsh  and  cruel. 

465.  John  Hampden  and  Ship  Money  (1637-1638).  —  Among 
the  illegal  taxes  levied  during  this  period  of  tyranny  was  a  species 
known  as  "  ship  money,"  so  called  from  the  fact  that  in  early 
times  the  kings,  when  the  realm  was  in  danger,  called  upon  the 
seaports  and  maritime  counties  to  contribute  ships  and  ship 
material  for  the  public  service.  Charles  and  his  agents,  in  look- 
ing this  matter  over,  conceived  the  idea  of  extending  this  tax 
over  the  inland  as  well  as  the  seaboard  counties. 

Among  those  who  refused  to  pay  the  tax  was  a  country  gentle- 
man named  John  Hampden.  The  case  was  tried  in  the  Court  of 
Exchequer,  before  all  the  twelve  judges.  All  England  watched  the 
progress  of  the  suit  with  the  utmost  solicitude.  The  question  was 
argued  by  able  counsel  both  on  the  side  of  Hampden  and  of  the 
crown.  Judgment  was  finally  rendered  in  favor  of  the  king,  al- 
though five  of  the  twelve  judges  stood  for  Hampden.  The  case 
was  lost ;  but  the  people,  who  had  been  following  the  arguments, 
were  fully  persuaded  that  it  went  against  Hampden  simply  for  the 
reason  that  the  judges  stood  in  fear  of  the  royal  displeasure  should 
they  dare  to  decide  the  case  adversely  to  the  crown. 

The  arbitrary  and  despotic  character  which  the  government 
had  now  assumed  in  both  civil  and  religious  matters,  and  the 
hopelessness  of  relief  or  protection  from  the  courts,  caused  thou- 
sands to  seek  in  the  New  World  that  freedom  and  security 
which  was  denied  them  in  their  own  land. 

466.  The  Bishops*  War  (1639).  —  England  was  ready  to  rise 
in  open  revolt  against  the  unbearable  tyranny.  Events  in  Scot- 
land hastened  the  crisis.  The  king  was  attempting  to  impose  the 
English  liturgy  (slightly  modified)  upon  the  Scotch  Presbyterians. 
A  Sabbath  was  set  on  which  the  liturgy  should  be  introduced 
in  all  the  churches.    To  the  Scotch  this  seemed  little  short  of  a 

such  as  riot,  libel,  and  conspiracy.  The  High  Commission  Court  vns  a  tribunal  of 
forty-four  commissioners,  created  in  Elizabeth's  reign  to  enforce  the  Acts  of  Suprem- 
acy and  Uniformity. 


428      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

restoration  of  the  "  Popery  "  they  had  renounced.  Tradition  tells 
how  at  Edinburgh  the  attempt  of  the  bishop  to  read  the  serv- 
ice led  to  a  riot,  one  of  the  worshipers,  Janet  Geddes  by  name, 
flinging  her  stool  at  the  bishop's  head.'^  The  spirit  of  resistance 
spread.  All  classes,  nobles  and  peasants  alike,  bound  themselves 
by  a  solemn  covenant  to  resist  to  the  very  last  every  attempt  to 
make  innovations  in  their  religion. 

The  king  resolved  to  crush  the  movement  by  force.  The 
Scotch  accepted  the  challenge  with  all  that  ardor  which  religious 
enthusiasm  never  fails  to  inspire.  Charles  soon  found  that  war 
could  not  be  carried  on  without  money,  and  was  constrained  to 
summon  Parliament  in  hopes  of  obtaining  a  vote  of  suppHes. 
But  instead  of  making  the  king  a  grant  of  money,  the  Commons 
first  gave  their  attention  to  the  matter  of  grievances,  whereupon 
Charles  dissolved  the  Parliament.  The  Scottish  forces  crossed 
the  border,  and  the  king,  helpless,  with  an  empty  treasury  and  a 
seditious  army,  was  forced  again  to  summon  the  two  Houses. 

467.  The  Long  Parliament.  — Under  this  call  met  on  Nov.  3, 
1640,  the  Parliament  which,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  sitting 
for  twelve  years,  and  legally  existing  for  nearly  twenty,  became 
known  as  the  "  Long  Parhament."  A  small  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  Commons  of  this  Parliament  were  stern  and 
determined  men,  men  who  fully  realized  the  danger  in  which  the 
traditional  liberties  of  Englishmen  were  set,  and  who  were  resolved 
to  put  a  check  to  the  despotic  course  of  the  king. 

Almost  the  first  act  of  the  Commons  was  the  impeachment  of 
Strafford,  as  the  most  prominent  instrument  of  the  king's  tyranny 
and  usurpation.  He  was  finally  condemned  by  a  bill  of  attainder  ^ 
and  sent  to  the  block. 

To  secure  themselves  against  dissolution  before  their  work  was 
done,  the  Houses  passed  a  bill  which  provided  that  they  should 
not  be  adjourned  or  dissolved  without  their  own  consent.    The 

7  The  "  flight  of  Jenny's  stool "  holds  some  such  place  in  the  story  of  the  English 
Revolution  as  the  throwing  of  the  tea  into  Boston  harbor  holds  in  the  story  of  the 
American  Revolution. 

«  See  sec,  375,  n.  5,    Laud  was  executed  in  1645. 


THE   INSURRECTION    IN   IRELAND 


429 


three  arbitrary  courts  of  which  we  have  spoken,  the  High  Com- 
mission Court,  the  Council  of  the  North,  and  the  Star  Chamber, 
were  abolished.  Finally,  an  act  was  passed  declaring  the  illegality 
of  ship  money  and  annulling  the  judgment  against  John  Hampden 
**  as  contrary  to  and  against  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  realm." 


Fig.  79.  —  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford.     (From  a 
contemporary  print) 

468.  The  Insurrection  in  Ireland  (1641).  —  The  situation  was 
critical ;  it  was  rendered  still  more  so  by  an  uprising  in  Ireland." 
Taking  advantage  of  the  quarrel  between  Charles  and  his  Parlia- 
ment, the  Irish  Catholics  rose  in  revolt.  The  aim  of  the  insur- 
rection was  to  wipe  out  the  colony  planted  in  the  reign  of  James  I 
(sec.  461),  and  to  bring  to  an  end  Protestant  ascendancy  in 
Ireland.    Von  Ranke  characterizes  the  insurrection  as  one  of  the 


*  It  was  just  after  the  outbreak  of  the  revolt  that  the  Commons  drew  up  and  pub- 
lished what  is  known  as  "  The  Grand  Remonstrance."  For  the  text  of  this  important 
document  and  the  accompanying  petition,  see  Gardiner's  Constitutional  Documents 
of  the  Puritan  Revolution^  vol.  ii,  pp.  203-232. 


430     STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

most  cruel  of  which  we  have  record.  It  was  cruel  because  the 
native  Irish  were  stirred  not  only  by  deep  race  enmity  but  also 
by  bitter  religious  hatred.  Neither  age  nor  sex  was  spared.  Thou- 
sands of  the  English  and  Scotch  settlers  perished  miserably.  It 
was  not  long  before  an  English  Protestant  army  made  savage 
reprisals  (sec.  478). 

469.  Charles*  Attempt  to  seize  the  Five  Members.  —  An  impru- 
dent act  on  the  part  of  Charles  now  precipitated  the  nation  into 
the  gulf  of  civil  war,  towards  which  events  had  been  so  rapidly 
drifting.  With  the  design  of  overawing  the  Commons,  the  king 
made  a  charge  of  treason  against  five  of  the  leading  members, 
among  whom  were  Hampden  and  Pym,  and  sent  officers  to  effect 
their  arrest;  but  the  accused  were  not  to  be  found.  The  next 
day  Charles  himself,  accompanied  by  armed  attendants,  went  to 
the  House  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  the  five  members;  but, 
having  been  forewarned  of  the  king's  intention,  they  had  with- 
drawn from  the  hall.  The  king  was  not  long  in  realizing  the  state 
of  affairs,  and  with  the  observation,  "  I  see  the  birds  have  flown," 
withdrew  from  the  chamber. 

Charles  had  taken  a  fatal  step.  The  nation  could  not  forgive 
the  insult  offered  to  its  representatives.  All  London  rose  in  arms. 
The  king,  frightened  by  the  storm  which  his  rashness  had  raised, 
fled  from  the  city  to  York.  From  the  flight  of  Charles  from  Lon- 
don may  be  dated  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  (Jan.  10, 1642). 

The  Civil  War  (1642-1640) 

470.  The  Two  Parties. — The  country  was  now  divided  into 
two  great  parties.  Those  that  enlisted  under  the  king's  standard 
—  on  whose  side  rallied,  for  the  most  part,  the  nobihty,  the  gen- 
try, and  the  clergy  —  were  known  as  Royalists  or  Cavaliers ; 
while  those  that  gathered  about  the  Parliamentary  banner,  the 
townsmen  and  the  yeomanry,  were  called  Parliamentarians  or 
Roundheads,  the  latter  term  being  applied  to  them  because  many 
of  their  number  cropped  their  hair  close  to  the  head,  simply  for 
the  reason  that  the   CavaHers  affected  long  and  flowing  locks. 


OLIVER  CROMWELL  AND   HIS  "IRONSIDES"    431 

The  most  noted  leader  of  the  Royalists  was  the  king's  nephew, 
Prince  Rupert,  a  dashing  cavalry  officer ;  the  commander  of  the 
Parliamentary  forces  was  the  Earl  of  Essex.  The  Cavaliers  favored 
the  Established  Episcopal  Church,  while  the  Roundheads  were 
Puritans.  During  the  progress  of  the  struggle  the  Presbyterians 
and  Independents  (later  Congregationalists)  became  the  leading 
factions  in  the  Puritan  party. 

471.  Oliver  Cromwell  and  his  "Ironsides." — The  war  had 
continued  about  three  years  ^®  when  there  came  into  prominence 
among  the  officers  of  the  Parliamentary  forces  a  man  of  destiny, 
one  of  the  great  characters  of  history,  —  Oliver  Cromwell.  Dur- 
ing the  early  campaigns  of  the  war,  as  colonel  of  a  troop  of 
cavalry,  he  had  exhibited  his  rare  genius  as  an  organizer  and 
disciplinarian.  His  regiment  became  famous  under  the  name  of 
"  Cromwell's  Ironsides."  It  was  composed  entirely  of  "  men  of 
religion."  Swearing,  drinking,  and  the  usual  vices  of  the  camp 
were  unknown  among  them.  They  advanced  to  the  charge  with 
the  singing  of  psalms.  During  all  the  war  the  regiment  was  never 
once  beaten. 

472.  The  "Self-Denying  Ordinance"  and  the  "New  Model" 
(1645).  —  The  military  operations  of  these  earlier  years  of  the 
war  had  revealed  fatal  defects  in  the  Parliamentary  army.  It  was 
composed  of  local  bands,  was  irregularly  paid,  and  was  in  large 
part  officered  by  persons  who  had  received  their  commissions 
because  of  their  social  rank.  The  soldiers  were  mutinous,  and 
in  the  opinion  of  one  of  their  officers,  who  wrote  the  Commons 
about  their  conduct,  were  "  fit  only  for  a  gallows  here  and  a  hell 
hereafter."    Such  an  army  could  never  beat  the  Royalists. 

The  leaders  in  the  Commons  got  rid  of  the  titled  inefficients 
by  means  of  a  measure  known  as  the  "  Self-Denying  Ordinance," 
which  required  that  members  of  either  House  holding  commands 
in  the  army  should  resign  within  forty  days.  At  the  same  time 
they  created  a  new  army  of  twenty-one  thousand  men,  called  the 

^^  The  first  skirmish  of  the  war  was  at  Edgehill  (1642),  but  the  most  important 
engagement  of  these  earlier  years  was  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor  (1644),  in  which 
the  Royalists  suffered  a  severe  defeat. 


432      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

"  New  Model."  It  differed  from  the  earlier  Parliamentary  force 
as  a  regular  army  differs  from  militia.  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  was 
created  commander-in-chief,  and  Cromwell  was  made  lieutenant- 
general,  which  gave  him  command  of  the  horse.-^^ 

Religious  opinions  had  not  been  made  a  test  for  admission  to 
the  new  army;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  its  officers  were  for  the 
most  part  Independents,  and  in  the  course  of  time  the  army 
through  their  influence  became  such  a  body  of  religious  enthusi- 
asts as  the  world  had  not  seen  since  Godfrey  led  his  crusaders  to 
the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  A  great  part  of  the  men  were 
fervent,  God-fearing,  psalm-singing  Puritans.  When  not  fighting, 
they  studied  the  Bible,  prayed,  and  sang  hymns. 

473.  The  Battle  of  Naseby  (1645).  —  The  temper  of  the  "  New 
Model"  was  soon  tried  in  the  battle  of  Naseby,  the  decisive 
engagement  of  the  war.  The  Royalists  were  beaten  and  their 
cause  was  irretrievably  lost.  Charles  escaped  from  the  field,  and 
ultimately  fled  into  Scotland,  thinking  that  he  might  rely  upon  the 
loyalty  of  the  Scots  to  the  House  of  Stuart ;  but  on  his  refusing 
to  sign  the  Covenant  and  certain  other  articles,  they  gave  him  up 
to  the  EngHsh  Parliament. 

474.  "  Pride's  Purge  "  (1648).  —  Now,  there  were  many  in  the 
Parliament  who  were  in  favor  of  restoring  the  king  to  his  throne 
on  the  basis  of  conditions  which  he  himself  had  proposed,  that  is 
to  say,  without  requiring  from  him  any  sufficient  guaranties  that 
he  would  in  the  future  rule  in  accordance  with  the  constitution 
and  the  laws  of  the  land.  The  Independents,  that  is  to  say  Crom- 
well and  the  army,  saw  in  this  possibility  the  threatened  ruin  of 
all  their  hopes  and  the  loss  of  all  the  fruits  of  victory.  A  high- 
handed measure  was  resolved  upon,  —  the  exclusion  from  the 
House  of  Commons  of  all  those  members  who  favored  the  res- 
toration of  Charles. 

Accordingly  an  officer  by  the  name  of  Pride  was  stationed  at 
the  door  of  the  hall  to  exclude  or  to  arrest  the  members  obnoxious 


11  There  were  two  self-denying  ordinances ;  the  second,  unlike  the  first,  did  not 
permanently  disqualify  for  office.  Cromwell,  like  the  others  concerned,  gave  up  his 
post,  but  was  almost  immediately  reappointed. 


TRIAL  AND   EXECUTION    OF   THE   KING        433 


to  the  army.  One  hundred  and  forty-three  members  were  thus 
kept  from  their  seats,  and  the  Commons  became  reduced  to  about 
fifty  representatives.  This  performance  was  appropriately  called 
"  Pride's  Purge."  "  The  minority  had  now  become  the  majority." 
But  that  is  not  an  approved  way  of  creating  a  majority. 

475.  Trial  and  Execution  of  the  King  (Jan.  30,  1649).  —  The 
Commons  thus  "purged"  of  the  king's  friends  now  passed  a 
resolution  for  the  immediate  trial  of  Charles  for  treason.    A  High 


Fig.  80.  —  Westminster  Hall.    (From  a  photograph) 

This  ancient  hall  was  the  scene  of  the  trial  and  condemnation  of  Charles  I.  It 
had  previously  witnessed  the  condemnation  to  death  of  many  celebrated  per- 
sons, among  whom  were  William  Wallace,  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  tlie  Earl 
of  Strafford. 

Court  of  Justice,  comprising  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  members, 
was  organized,  before  which  Charles  was  summoned.  Appearing 
before  the  court,  he  denied  its  authority  to  try  him,  consistently 
maintaining  that  no  earthly  tribunal  could  rightly  question  his  acts. 
But  the  trial  went  on,  and  before  the  close  of  a  week  he  was  con- 
demned to  be  executed  "  as  a  tyrant,  traitor,  murderer,  and  public 
enemy  to  the  good  people  of  this  nation." 

In  a  few  days  the  sentence  was  carried  out.    Charles  bore  him- 
self in  the  presence  of  death  with  great  composure  and  dignity. 


434     STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

On  the  scaffold  he  spoke  these  words,  the  sincerity  of  which  can- 
not be  doubted  :  ^'  For  the  people  truly  I  desire  their  liberty  and 
freedom  as  much  as  anybody  whatsoever  ;  but  I  must  tell  you  that 
their  liberty  and  freedom  consists  in  having  government ;  ...  it 
is  not  in  their  having  a  share  in  the  government ;  that  is  nothing 
pertaining  to  them." 

n.   The  Commonwealth  and  the  Protectorate 
(i  649-1 660) 

476.  Establishment  of  the  Commonwealth.  —  A  few  weeks  after 
the  execution  of  Charles,  the  Commons  voted  to  abolish  the  office 
of  king  as  "unnecessary,  burdensome,  and  dangerous  to  the  liberty, 
safety,  and  public  interest  of  the  people,"  and  also  to  do  away  with 
the  House  of  Lords  as  likewise  "useless  and  dangerous  to  the 
people  of  England,"  and  to  estabhsh  a  free  state  under  the  name 
of  "The  Commonwealth."  A  new  Great  Seal  was  made  with  this 
legend  and  date  :  "  In  the  first  year  of  freedom,  by  God's  blessing 
restored,  1648."^^  The  executive  power  was  lodged  in  a  Council 
of  State,  composed  of  forty-one  persons.  Of  this  body  the  eminent 
patriot  Sir  Henry  Vane  was  the  leading  member. 

477.  Troubles  of  the  Commonwealth.  —  The  republic  thus  born 
of  mingled  religious  and  political  enthusiasm  was  beset  with  dan- 
gers from  the  very  first.  The  execution  of  Charles  had  alarmed 
every  sovereign  in  Europe.  Russia,  France,  and  the  Dutch  Repub- 
Hc  ^^  all  refused  to  have  any  communication  with  the  ambassadors 
of  the  Commonwealth.  The  Scots,  who  too  late  repented  of 
having  surrendered  their  sovereign  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
now  hastened  to  wipe  out  the  stain  of  their  disloyalty  by  pro- 
claiming his  son  their  king,  with  the  title  of  Charles  the  Second. 
The  RoyaHsts  in  Ireland  declared  for  the  prince ;  while  the  Dutch 
began  active  preparations  to  assist  him  in  regaining  the  throne 


12  According  to  the  method  of  reckoning  then  in  vogue,  the  year  1648  did  not  end 
until  March  24. 

18  William  II,  the  Stadtholder  of  all  the  Dutch  provinces  except  Friesland,  was 
the  son-in-law  of  Charles  I. 


WAR  WITH   IRELAND  435 

of  his  unfortunate  father.    In  England  itself  the  Royalists  were 
active  and  threatening. 

478.  War  with  Ireland  (1649-1652).  —  The  Commonwealth, 
like  the  ancient  republic  of  Rome,  seemed  to  gather  strength 
and  energy  from  the  very  multitude  of  surrounding  dangers. 
Cromwell  was  made  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  sent  into 
that  country  to  crush  the  Royalist  party  there.  With  his  "Iron- 
sides "  he  made  quick  and  terrible  work  of  the  suppression  of  the 
Catholic  Royalists.  Having  taken  by  storm  the  town  of  Drogheda, 
which  had  refused  his  summons  to  surrender,  he  massacred  the 
entire  garrison,  consisting  of  three  thousand  men  (1649).  About 
a  thousand  who  had  sought  asylum  in  a  church  were  butchered 
there  without  mercy.  The  capture  of  other  towns  was  accompanied 
by  massacres  little  less  'terrible.  The  following  is  his  own  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  he  dealt  with  the  captured  garrisons : 
"  When  they  submitted,  their  officers  were  knocked  on  the  head, 
and  every  tenth  man  of  the  soldiers  killed,  and  the  rest  shipped 
for  Barbadoes."  Cromwell's  savage  cruelty  in  his  dealings  with  the 
Irish  is  an  indelible  stain  on  his  memory. 

The  Catholic  Royalists  having  been  defeated,  the  best  lands 
of  the  island  were  confiscated  and  granted  to  English  and  Scotch 
settlers,  after  the  manner  of  the  colonization  of  Protestant  immi- 
grants in  Ulster  in  the  reign  of  James  I  (sec.  461).  This  method 
of  securing  Protestant  ascendancy  in  the  island  is  what  English 
history  designates  as  the  **  Cromwellian  settlement,"  but  which 
Irish  resentment  calls  the  "  Curse  of  Cromwell."  The  religious 
ferocity  of  this  Puritan  settlement  of  Ireland  fanned  fiercely  the 
flame  of  hatred  which  earlier  wrongs  had  kindled  in  the  hearts 
of  the  Irish  people  against  their  English  conquerors,  —  a  flame 
which  has  not  yet  burned  itself  out." 

479.  War  with  Scotland  (i 650-1 651).  —  Cromwell  was  called 
out  of  Ireland  by  the  Council  to  lead  an  army  into  Scotland. 

1*  Between  the  years  1641  and  1652  over  half  a  million  inhabitants  of  the  island 
were  destroyed  or  banished;  Prendergast  {Cromwellian  Settlement,  p.  177)  affirms 
that  during  these  years  and  those  immediately  following  five  sixths  of  the  population 
perished.  "  A  man  might  travel,"  he  says,  "  for  twenty  or  thirty  miles  and  not  see  a 
living  creature." 


436      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

The  terror  of  his  name  went  before  him,  and  the  people  fled  as 
he  approached.  At  Dunbar  he  met  the  Scottish  army.  Before 
the  terrible  onset  of  the  fanatic  Roundheads  the  Scots  were  scat- 
tered like  chaff  before  the  wind.  Ten  thousand  were  made  pris- 
oners, and  all  the  camp  train  and  artillery  were  captured  (1650). 

The  following  year,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Dunbar, 
Cromwell  gained  another  great  victory  over  the  Scottish  army  at 
Worcester,  and  all  Scotland  was  soon  after  forced  to  submit  to  the 
authority  of  the  Commonwealth.  Prince  Charles,  after  many  ad- 
venturous experiences,  escaped  across  the  Channel  into  Normandy. 

480.  War  with  the  Dutch  (165 2-1 654).  —  With  the  authority 
of  the  Commonwealth  acknowledged  throughout  the  British  Isles, 
the  Parliament  sought  to  increase  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
republic  and  to  benefit  English  commerce  by  an  alliance  with 
the  Dutch;  but  since  such  a  confederation  as  that  proposed 
would  have  made  the  Netherlands  little  more  than  a  province 
of  the  English  Commonwealth,  the  Dutch  refused,  rather  con- 
temptuously, to  enter  into  the  arrangement.  The  English  Par- 
liament thereupon  passed  a  measure  known  as  the  Navigation 
Act  (165 1 ),  which  forbade  foreign  ships  to  bring  into  England 
any  products  or  manufactures  save  those  of  their  own  country. 
This  was  a  blow  aimed  at  the  Dutch,  whose  ships  brought  to  the 
English  docks  the  products  of  every  land  on  the  globe,  including 
the  English  colonies  in  America. 

In  the  war  which  ensued  the  English  found  a  worthy  foe  in 
the  stout  Dutch  sailors.  That  they  were  able  to  wage  war  with 
them  on  anything  like  equal  terms  was  due  largely  to  the  fore- 
sight and  energy  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,  who  was  the  real  head  of 
the  Enghsh  government  from  1649  to  1653,  and  who  in  the 
carrying  out  of  his  policy  to  build  up  the  navy  as  a  counter- 
poise to  the  army,  which  was  overshadowing  the  civil  authority 
and  threatening  the  establishment  of  a  military  dictatorship,  had 
greatly  developed  and  strengthened  the  sea  power  of  England. 
After  the  rival  fleets  had  inflicted  great  injury  and  loss  upon 
each  other  in  many  a  stubborn  sea  fight,  the  two  republics  were 
reconciled  (1654). 


THE  "LITTLE   PARLIAMENT 


437 


481.  Cromwell  ejects  the  Long  Parliament  (1653).  —  While 
the  Dutch  war  was  going  on,  the  Parliament  that  provoked  it 
had  come  to  an  open  quarrel  with  the  army.  Cromwell  demanded 
of  Parliament  their  dissolution  and  the  calling  of  a  new  body. 
This  they  refused ;  whereupon,  taking  with  him  a  body  of  sol- 
diers, Cromwell  went  to  the  House,  and  after  listening  impa- 
tiently for  a  while  to  the  debate,  suddenly  sprang  to  his  feet 
and  with  bitter  reproaches  exclaimed  :  "  I  will  put  an  end  to 
your  prating.  Get  you  gone;  give  place  to  better  men.  You 
are  no  Parliament.  The  Lord  has  done  with  you."  At  a  pre- 
arranged signal  his  soldiers  rushed  in.  The  hall  was  cleared. 
Picking  up  the  speaker's  mace,  Cromwell  contemptuously  asked, 
"What  shall  be  done  with  his  bauble?"  "Take  it  away,"  he 
ordered.  Then  the  soldiers  withdrew  from  the  hall  and  the  door 
was  locked. 

In  such  summary  manner  the  Long  Parliament,  or  the  "  Rump 
Parliament,"  as  it  was  called  in  derision  after  "  Pride's  Purge,"  was 
dissolved,  after  having  sat  for  twelve  years.  So  completely  had 
the  body  lost  the  confidence  and  respect  of  all  parties  that  scarcely 
a  murmur  was  heard  against  the  illegal  and  arbitrary  mode  of  its 
dissolution. 

482.  The  "Little  Parliament"  and  the  Establishment  of  the 
Protectorate  (1653).  —  Cromwell  now  called  together  a  new  Par- 
liament or  more  properly  a  convention,  summoning,  so  far  as  he 
might,  only  religious.  God-fearing  men.  The  "  Little  Parliament," 
as  sometimes  called,  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  mem- 
bers, mainly  religious  zealots,  who  spent  much  of  their  time  in 
Scripture  exegesis,  prayer,  and  exhortation.  Among  them  was  a 
London  leather  merchant,  named  Praise-God  Barebone,  who  was 
especially  given  to  these  exercises.  The  name  amused  the  people, 
and  as  the  exhorter  was  a  fair  representative  of  a  considerable 
section  of  the  convention,  they  nicknamed  it  "  Barebone's  Parlia- 
ment," by  which  designation  it  has  passed  into  history. 

The  "  Little  Parliament "  sat  only  five  months,  and  then,  resign- 
ing all  its  authority  into  the  hands  of  Cromwell,  dissolved  itself. 
A  sort  of  constitution,  called  the  "  Instrument  of  Government," 


438      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 


was  now  drawn  up  by  a  council  of  army  officers  and  approved 
by  Cromwell.  This  instrument,  the  first  of  written  constitutions, 
provided  for  a  Parliament  consisting  of  a  single  House,  a  Council 
of  State,  and  an  executive  or  president  serving  for  life  and  bearing 
the  title  of  "  Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England, 

Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land." Under  this 
instrument  Cromwell 
became  Lord  Pro- 
tector for  life. 

483.  The  Protect- 
orate (1653- 1659). 
—  Cromwell's  power 
was  now  almost  un- 
limited. He  was  vir- 
tually a  dictator,  for 
he  had  the  power  of 
the  army  behind 
him.  The  Protector 
summoned,  win- 
nowed, and  dissolved 
Parliament  at  pleas- 
ure. He  could  get 
together  no  body  of 
men  who  could  or 
would  work  smoothly 
with   him.     "The 

Lord  judge  between 
Samuel  Cooper,  now  the  property  of  the  Duke    ^^    ^^^   ^^^,y   ^^^^ 

of  Buccleuch)  ,  .  1       r  1'       •      i 

his  words  of  dismissal 

to  his  last  unmanageable  and  obstinate  Parliament. 

For  five  years  Cromwell  carried  on  the  government  practically 

alone.    His  rule  was  arbitrary  but  enhghtened.    He  gave  England 

the  strongest  government  she  had  had  since  the  days  of  Wolsey 

and  of  Elizabeth,  a  government  which,  while  securing  obedience 

and  prosperity  at  home,  won  the  fear  and  respect  of  foreign 


Fig,  81.  —  Oliver  Cromwell.  (Taken  at  the 
age  of  fifty-eight  years.  From  an  enlargement 
in  oil  of  the  head  drawn  in  water  colors  by 


THE   PROTECTORATE  439 

powers,  so  that  Cromwell  addressing  Parliament  could  truthfully 
declare,  "  I  dare  say  that  there  is  not  a  nation  in  Europe  but  is 
willing  to  ask  a  good  understanding  with  you." 

Cromwell's  aim  was  "  to  make  England  great  and  to  make  her 
worthy  of  greatness."  This  worthiness  he,  zealous  Puritan  as  he 
was,  conceived  could  be  acquired  by  England  only  as  her  affairs 
were  conducted  by  godly  men  and  in  accord  with  the  plain  precepts 
of  Scripture. 

Further,  in  Oliver's  mind,  the  English  nation  could  be  God's 
own  people  and  worthy  of  greatness  only  as  England  upheld  the 
Protestant  cause  in  Europe.  It  was  this  religious  persuasion 
which  led  him  to  become  the  protector  of  Protestantism  wherever 
imperiled.  He  interposed  successfully  in  behalf  of  the  Huguenots 
in  France,  and  secured  for  them  a  respite  from  harassment;  he 
obliged  the  Duke  of  Savoy  to  cease  his  cruel  persecution  of  the 
Vaudois ;  and  caused  the  Pope  to  be  informed  that  if  the  Protes- 
tants continued  to  be  molested  anywhere  —  Cromwell  laid  the 
blame  of  everything  done  against  Protestant  interests  at  the  door 
of  the  Papacy  —  the  roar  of  English  guns  would  speedily  awaken 
the  echoes  of  St.  Angelo. 

It  was  with  the  double  aim  of  making  England  great  on  the 
sea  and  of  crippling  the  champion  of  Catholicism  that  Cromwell 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  France  against  Spain.  During  a 
great  part  of  his  rule  the  Protector  was  fighting  this  old-time  foe 
of  England  and  of  Protestantism.  He  captured  her  treasure  ships 
within  sight  of  the  ports  of  the  peninsula,  wrested  from  her  the 
island  of  Jamaica  in  the  West  Indies,  and  secured  the  cession  of 
the  important  seaport  of  Dunkirk  on  the  Straits  of  Dover. 

484.  CromweU's  Death.  —  Notwithstanding  Cromwell  was  a 
man  of  immovable  resolution  and  iron  spirit,  still  he  felt  sorely 
the  burdens  of  his  government,  and  was  deeply  troubled  by  the 
anxieties  of  his  position.  In  the  midst  of  apparent  success  he  was 
painfully  conscious  of  utter  failure.  He  had  wished  to  establish  a 
permanent  government  by  "a  single  person"  and  Parliament, 
with  himself  as  the  recognized  constitutional  head  of  the  state. 
Instead,  he  found  himself  a  military  usurper,  whose  title  was  simply 


440      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

the  title  of  the  sword.  His  government,  we  may  believe,  was  as 
hateful  to  himself  as  to  the  great  mass  of  the  English  people.  He 
lived  in  constant  fear  of  the  dagger.  With  his  constitution  under- 
mined by  overwork  and  anxiety,  fever  attacked  him,  and  with 
gloomy  apprehensions  as  to  the  terrible  dangers  into  which  Eng- 
land might  drift  after  his  hand  had  fallen  from  the  helm  of  affairs, 
he  lay  down  to  die,  passing  away  on  the  day  which  he  had  always 
called  his  "  fortunate  day  "  —  the  anniversary  of  his  birth,  and 
also  of  his  great  victories  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester  (Sept.  3, 1658). 
As  when  the  great  Napoleon  lay  dying  at  St.  Helena  the  island 
was  shaken  by  a  fierce  tempest,  so  now  the  elements  seemed  to 
be  in  sympathy  with  the  restless  soul  of  Cromwell.  "A  storm 
which  tore  roofs  from  houses  and  leveled  huge  trees  in  every  forest 
seemed  a  fitting  prelude  to  the  passing  away  of  his  mighty  spirit." 
But  the  enemies  of  the  Protector  believed  that  the  tempest  was 
raised  by  the  devil,  who  had  come  for  Oliver's  soul. 

485.  Richard  Cromwell  (1658-165 9). — Cromwell  with  his  dying 
breath  —  so  it  was  given  out  —  had  designated  his  son  Richard  as 
his  successor  in  the  office  of  the  Protectorate.  Richard  was  exactly 
the  opposite  of  his  father, —  timid,  irresolute,  and  irreligious.  The 
control  of  affairs  that  had  taxed  to  the  utmost  the  genius  and 
resources  of  the  father  was  altogether  too  great  an  undertaking  for 
the  incapacity  and  inexperience  of  the  son.  No  one  was  quicker  to 
realize  this  than  Richard  himself,  and  after  a  rule  of  a  few  months, 
yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  army,  whose  displeasure  he  had 
incurred,  he  resigned  his  office. 

486.  The  Restoration  (1660).  —  For  some  months  after  the  fall 
of  the  Protectorate  the  country  trembled  on  the  verge  of  anarchy. 
The  gloomy  outlook  into  the  future  and  the  unsatisfactory  experi- 
ment of  the  Commonwealth  caused  the  great  mass  of  the  English 
people  earnestly  to  desire  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  —  in 
truth,  the  majority  of  the  nation  had  never  desired  its  abolition. 
Charles  Stuart,  towards  whom  the  tide  of  returning  loyalty  was 
running,  was  now  in  Holland.  General  Monk,  the  commander  of 
the  army  in  Scotland  and  the  representative  of  Scottish  sentiment, 
marched  south  to  London  and  assumed  virtual  control  of  affairs. 


WHY  THE   PURITAN   REVOLUTION   FAILED     441 

The  Long  Parliament,  including  the  members  ejected  by  Pride 
(sec.  481),  now  reassembled,  and  by  resolution  declared  that 
"  according  to  the  ancient  and  fundamental  laws  of  this  kingdom 
the  government  is  and  ought  to  be  by  king.  Lords,  and  Com- 
mons." An  invitation  was  sent  to  Prince  Charles  to  return  to  his 
people  and  take  his  place  upon  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

Amid  the  wildest  demonstrations  of  joy  Charles  stepped  ashore 
on  the  island  from  which  he  had  been  for  nine  years  an  exile.  As 
he  observed  the  extensive  preparations  made  for  his  reception,  and 
received  from  all  parties  the  warmest  congratulations,  he  remarked 
with  pleasant  satire,  *'  Surely  it  is  my  own  fault  that  I  have  remained 
these  years  in  exile  from  a  country  which  is  so  glad  to  see  me." 

487.  Why  the  Puritan  Revolution  failed.  —  The  Puritan  Revolu- 
tion had  failed.  To  assign  the  deeper  causes  of  this  failure,  whether 
in  circumstances  or  in  the  personal  character  of  Cromwell  or  of 
other  leaders  of  the  movement,  would  be  a  difficult  thing  to  do ; 
but  without  much  hesitation  we  may  say  that  one  of  the  near-lying 
causes  of  the  failure  was  that  the  Puritans  committed  the  fault  — 
which  has  been  declared  to  be  almost  always  the  fault  of  revolu- 
tionists —  of  going  too  fast  and  too  far.  At  the  outset  the  Revolu- 
tion had  for  its  aim  simply  the  setting  of  reasonable  restrictions 
upon  the  exercise  of  the  royal  authority.  Very  soon,  however, 
the  kingly  office,  the  hereditary  House  of  Lords,  and  the  Episco- 
pal Church  had  been  abolished.  Each  of  these  extreme  measures 
raised  up  many  implacable  enemies  of  the  Revolution. 

Then  again,  Puritanism,  in  many  things,  had  got  far  away  from 
English  good  sense.  The  Puritan  regulations  respecting  harmless 
amusements,  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  and  a  hundred  other 
matters  were  extreme  and  absurd,  and  well  calculated  to  provoke 
the  scoff  of  the  godless.  So  while  in  some  directions  the  Puritans 
were  merely  in  advance  of  the  mass  of  the  English  people,  in 
others  they  had  gone  far  aside  from  the  path  that  England  was 
treading  or  was  ever  going  to  tread.  Hence  Puritanism  was 
bound  to  fail. 

But  to  leave  the  matter  thus  would  be  misleading.  In  a 
deeper  sense  Puritanism  did  not  fail.    "  What  of  heroism,  what  of 


442      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

eternal  light,"  says  Carlyle,  "  there  be  in  a  man  and  his  life  .  .  . 
remains  forever  a  new  divine  portion  of  the  sum  of  things."  And 
so  was  it  with  Puritanism.  What  of  heroism  and  of  truth  there 
was  in  it  —  and  there  was  much  of  both  —  was  added  to  the  sum 
of  English  history.  Much  that  is  best  and  truest  in  the  life  of 
England  to-day  and  of  Greater  England  beyond  the  seas  strikes 
its  roots  deep  in  the  Puritanism  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

488.  Puritan  Literature ;  it  lights  up  the  Religious  Side  of  the 
English  Revolution.  —  No  epoch  in  history  receives  a  fresher 
illustration  from  the  study  of  its  literature  than  that  of  the  Puritan 
Revolution.  To  neglect  this,  and  yet  hope  to  gain  a  true  concep- 
tion of  that  wonderful  episode  in  the  life  of  the  English  people 
by  an  examination  of  its  outer  events  and  incidents  alone,  would, 
as  Green  declares,  be  like  trying  to  form  an  idea  of  the  Hfe  and 
work  of  ancient  Israel  from  Kings  and  Chronicles,  without 
Psalms  and  Prophets.  The  true  character  of  the  Enghsh  Revolu- 
tion, especially  upon  its  religious  side,  must  be  sought  in  the 
magnificent  epic  of  Milton  and  the  unequaled  allegory  of  Bunyan. 

Both  of  these  great  works,  it  is  true,  were  written  after  the 
Restoration,  but  they  were  both  inspired  by  that  spirit  which  had 
struck  down  despotism  and  set  up  the  Commonwealth.  The 
epic  was  the  work  of  a  lonely,  disappointed  republican ;  the  alle- 
gory, of  a  captive  Puritan. 

Milton  (1608-16  74)  stands  as  the  grandest  representative  of 
Puritanism.  After  the  death  of  Charles  I  he  wrote  a  famous  work 
in  Latin  entitled  The  Defense  of  the  English  People,  in  which  he 
justified  the  execution  of  the  king.  His  Areopagitica  or  Speech 
for  the  Liberty  of  Unlicensed  Printing,  written  some  years  earlier, 
is  an  eloquent  plea  for  freedom  of  opinion  and  of  teaching. 

The  Restoration  forced  Milton  into  retirement,  and  the  last 
fourteen  years  of  his  life  were  passed  apart  from  the  world.  It 
was  during  these  years  that,  in  loneliness  and  blindness,  he  com- 
posed the  immortal  poems  Paradise  Lost  and  Paradise  Regained. 
The  former  is  the  "  Epic  of  Puritanism."  All  that  was  truest  and 
grandest  in  the  Puritan  character  found  expression  in  the  moral 
elevation  and  religious  fervor  of  this  the  greatest  of  Christian  epics. 


THE   RESTORED   STUARTS  443 

John  Bunyan  (i 628-1 688)  was  a  Puritan  nonconformist. 
After  the  Restoration  he  was  imprisoned  for  twelve  years  in  Bed- 
ford jail,  on  account  of  nonconformity  to  the  established  worship. 
It  was  during  this  dreary  confinement  that  he  wrote  his  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  the  most  admirable  allegory  in  English  literature.  The 
habit  of  the  Puritan,  from  constant  study  of  the  Bible,  to  employ 
in  all  forms  of  discourse  its  language  and  imagery,  is  best  illus- 
trated in  the  pages  of  this  remarkable  work.  Here,  as  nowhere 
else,  we  learn  what  realities  to  the  Puritan  were  the  Bible  repre- 
sentations of  sin,  repentance,  and  atonement,  of  heaven  and  hell. 


III.  The  Restored  Stuarts 
Reign  of  Charles  the  Second  (^1660-168^) 

489.  Punishment  of  the  Regicides.  —  The  monarchy  having 
been  restored  in  the  person  of  Charles  II,  Parliament  extended  a 
general  pardon  to  all  who  had  taken  part  in  the  late  rebellion, 
except  Sir  Henry  Vane  and  certain  of  the  judges  who  had  con- 
demned Charles  to  the  block.  Thirteen  of  these  were  executed 
with  revolting  cruelty,  their  hearts  and  bowels  being  cut  out  of 
their  living  bodies.  Others  of  the  regicides  were  condemned  to 
imprisonment  for  life.  Vane  was  finally  executed.  Death  had 
already  removed  the  other  great  leaders  of  the  rebellion,  —  Crom- 
well, Ireton,  and  Bradshaw,  —  beyond  the  reach  of  Royalist  hate ; 
so  vengeance  was  taken  upon  their  bodies.  These  were  dragged 
from  their  tombs  in  Westminster  Abbey,  hauled  to  Tyburn,  and 
there  on  the  anniversary  of  Charles'  execution  were  hanged,  and 
afterwards  beheaded  (1661). 

490.  The  Conventicle  and  Five-Mile  Acts.  —  Early  in  the  reign 
the  services  of  the  Anglican  Church  were  restored  by  Parliament, 
and  harsh  laws  were  enacted  against  all  nonconformists.  The 
Conventicle  Act  (1664)  made  it  a  crime  for  five  persons  or  more, 
"  over  and  above  those  of  the  same  household,"  to  gather  in  any 
house  or  in  any  place  for  worship,  unless  the  service  was  con- 
ducted according  to  the  forms  of  the  Church  of  England. 


444      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

The  Five-Mile  Act  (1665)  forbade  any  nonconformist  minister 
who  refused  to  swear  that  it  is  unlawful  to  take  arms  against  the 
king  under  any  circumstances,  and  that  he  never  would  attempt 
to  make  any  change  in  Church  or  state  government,  to  approach, 
"unless  only  in  passing  upon  the  road,"  within  five  miles  of  any 
city,  corporate  town,  or  borough  sending  members  to  Parliament, 
or  of  any  place  where  he  had  once  ministered. 

491.  The  Covenanters.  —  In  Scotland  the  attempt  to  suppress 
conventicles  and  introduce  Episcopg^cy  was  stoutly  resisted  by  the 
Covenanters  (sec.  466)  who  insisted  on  their  right  to  worship  God 
in  their  own  way.  They  were  therefore  subjected  to  persecutions 
most  cruel  and  unrelenting.  They  were  hunted  by  English 
troopers  over  their  native  moors  and  among  the  wild  recesses  of 
their  mountains,  whither  they  secretly  retired  for  prayer  and  wor- 
ship. The  tales  of  the  sufferings  of  the  Scotch  Covenanters  at  the 
hands  of  the  English  Protestants  form  a  most  harrowing  chapter 
of  the  records  of  the  ages  of  religious  persecution. 

492 .  The  Dutch  War,  the  Fire,  and  the  Plague.  —  The  years 
from  1664  to  1667  were  crowded  with  calamities,  —  with  war, 
plague,  and  fire.  The  poet  Dryden  not  inaptly  calls  the  year 
1666,  in  which  the  Great  Fire  at  London  added  its  horrors  and 
losses  to  those  of  pestilence  and  war,  the  Annus  MiraMlis,  or 
"Year  of  Wonders." 

The  war  alluded  to  was  a  struggle  between  the  Enghsh  and  the 
Dutch,  which  grew  out  of  commercial  rivalries  (i 664-1667).  In 
the  first  year  of  this  contest  the  English  took  New  Amsterdam  in 
America  away  from  the  Dutch,  and  changed  its  name  to  New 
York  in  honor  of  the  king's  brother,  the  Duke  of  York.  In  the 
year  1667  the  Dutch  fleet  entered  the  estuary  of  the  Thames, 
burned  some  English  ships,  and  threatened  London.  This  was 
the  first  time  a  hostile  vessel  had  floated  on  that  river  since  the 
days  of  the  Vikings.  The  English  felt  deeply  the  humiliation. 
It  was,  writes  a  contemporary,  John  Evelyn,  "  a  dreadful  spectacle 
as  ever  Englishman  saw,  and  a  dishonor  never  to  be  wiped  off." 

Early  in  the  summer  of  1665  London  was  swept  by  a  woeful 
plague,  the  most  terrible  visitation  the  city  had  known  since  the 


CHARLES'  INTRIGUES  WITH  LOUIS  XIV        445 


Black  Death  in  the  Middle  Ages  (sec.  217).    Within  six  months 
one  hundred  thousand  of  the  population  perished. 

The  plague  was  followed  the  next  year  by  a  great  fire,  which 
destroyed  over  thirteen  thousand  houses,  eighty-nine  churches, 
and  a  vast  number  of  public  buildings.  The  disaster  was  a  bless- 
ing in  disguise.  The  burned  districts  were  rebuilt  in  a  more  sub- 
stantial way,  with  broader  streets  and  more  airy  residences,  so 
that  London  became  a  more  beautiful  and  healthful  city  than 
would  have  been  possible  without  the  fire.^^ 

493.  Charles'  Intrigues  with  Louis  XIV ;  the  Test  Act.  — 
Charles  inclined  to  the  Catholic  worship,  and  wished  to  reestab- 
lish the  Catholic  Church,  because  he 
thought  it  more  favorable  than  the 
Anglican  to  such  a  scheme  of  gov- 
ernment as  he  aimed  to  set  up  in 
England.  In  the  year  1670  he  made 
a  secret  treaty  with  the  French  king, 
the  terms  and  objects  of  which  were 
most  scandalous.  In  return  for  aid 
which  he  was  to  render  Louis  in  an 
attack  upon  Holland,  he  was  to  re- 
ceive from  him  a  large  sum  of 
money,  and,  in  case  his  proposed 
declaration  in  favor  of  the  restoration 
of  the  Catholic  Church  produced  any 
trouble  in  the  island,  the  aid  of 
French  troops.  The  scheme  was 
never  consummated ;  but  these  clan- 
destine negotiations,  however,  becom- 
ing an  open  secret,  made  the  people 
very  uneasy  and  suspicious. 

Under  the  excitement  of  the  moment,  Parliament  passed  the 
so-called  Test  Act,  which  excluded  Catholics  from  the  House 

16  One  of  the  churches  destroyed  was  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  which  was  rebuilt 
with  great  magnificence.  Its  designer  was  the  eminent  architect,  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  near  whose  tomb  within  the  building  is  this  inscription:  Si  inonumenium 
requiriSy  circums/>ice,  "If  you  seek  his  monument,  look  around." 


Fig.  82.  —  Charles  II 
(After  the  painting  by  Sir 
Peter  Lely) 


446      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

of  Lords.  (They  had  already  been  shut  out  from  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  oath  of  supremacy,  which  was  required  of  com- 
moners though  not  of  peers.)  The  disability  created  by  this  stat- 
ute was  not  removed  from  Catholics  until  the  nineteenth  century, 
—  in  the  reign  of  George  IV  (sec.  669). 

494.  *'The  Popish  Plot"  (1678).— The  excited  state  of  the 
public  mind,  owing  to  the  continuance  of  the  king's  intrigues 
with  Louis,  led  to  a  serious  delusion  and  panic.  A  rumor  was 
started  that  the  Catholics  had  planned  for  England  a  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Day.  The  king,  the  members  of  Parliament,  and  all  Prot- 
estants were  to  be  massacred,  the  Catholic  Church  was  to  be 
reestablished,  and  the  king's  brother  James,  who  was  a  zealous 
Catholic,  placed  on  the  throne. 

Each  day  the  reports  of  the  conspiracy  grew  more  wild  and 
exaggerated.  Informers  sprang  up  on  every  hand,  each  with  a 
more  terrifying  story  than  the  preceding.  One  of  these  witnesses, 
Titus  Gates  by  name,  a  most  infamous  person,  gained  an  extraor- 
dinary notoriety  in  exposing  the  imaginary  plot.  Many  Catholics, 
convicted  solely  on  the  testimony  of  perjured  witnesses,  became 
the  unfortunate  victims  of  the  delusion  and  fraud. 

495.  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  (1679).  — The  year  following  the 
"  Popish  Plot "  Parliament  passed  the  celebrated  Habeas  Corpus 
Act.  This  statute  was  intended  to  render  more  effectual  the 
ancient  and  valued  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  which  was  designed 
to  protect  the  personal  liberty  of  Englishmen,  but  which  the 
king's  courts  and  sheriffs  were  rendering  well-nigh  useless  through 
their  evasions  and  shifts.  The  law,  which  is  based  on  articles  of 
Magna  Carta,  is  so  carefully  and  ingeniously  drawn  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  its  provisions  to  be  evaded  in  any  way.  It 
gives  every  person  almost  absolute  security  against  illegal  deten- 
tion in  prison,  and  is  the  strongest  safeguard  against  the  attempts 
of  a  despotic  ruler  upon  the  liberty  of  those  who  may  have  incurred 
his  displeasure.  It  has  been  the  model  of  all  laws  of  like  import 
throughout  the  Anglo-Saxon  world. 


JAMES'  ACCESSION  447 

Reign  of  James  the  Second  {168^-1688) 

496.  James'  Accession  ;  his  Despotic  Course.  —  After  a  reign  of 
just  one  quarter  of  a  century  Charles  died  in  1685,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  brother  James,  whose  rule  was  destined  to  be  short 
and  troubled. ^^ 

James,  like  all  the  other  Stuarts,  held  exalted  notions  of  the 
divine  right  of  kings  to  rule  as  they  please,  and  at  once  set  about 
carrying  out  these  ideas  in  a  most  reckless  manner.  Notwith- 
standing he  had  given  solemn  assurances  that  he  would  uphold 
the  Anglican  Church,  he  straightway  set  about  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  Catholic  worship.  He  arbitrarily  prorogued  and  dis- 
solved Parliament.  He  formed  a  league  against  his  own  subjects 
with  Louis  XIV.  The  High  Commission  Court  of  Elizabeth, 
which  had  been  abolished  by  Parliament,  he  practically  restored 
in  a  new  tribunal  presided  over  by  the  infamous  Jeffreys. 

The  despotic  course  of  the  king  raised  up  enemies  on  all 
sides.  No  party  or  sect,  save  the  most  zealous  Catholics,  stood  by 
him.  The  Tory  gentry  were  in  favor  of  royalty  indeed,  but  not 
of  tyranny.  Thinking  to  make  friends  of  the  Protestant  dissenters, 
James  issued  a  decree  known  as  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence, 
whereby  he  suspended  all  the  laws  against  nonconformists.  This 
edict  all  the  clergy  were  ordered  to  read  from  their  pulpits. 
Almost  to  a  man  they  refused  to  do  so.  Seven  bishops  even  dared 
to  send  the  king  a  petition  and  remonstrance  against  his  uncon- 
stitutional proceedings. 

The  petitioners  were  thrust  into  the  Tower,  and  soon  afterward 
were  brought  to  trial  on  the  charge  of  "  seditious  libel."  The  nation 
was  now  thoroughly  aroused,  and  the  greatest  excitement  prevailed 

18  James  was  barely  seated  upon  the  throne  before  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  an 
illegitimate  son  of  Charles  11,  who  had  been  in  exile  in  the  Netherlands,  asserted  his 
right  to  the  crown,  and  at  the  head  of  a  hundred  men  invaded  England.  Thousands 
flocked  to  his  standard,  but  in  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor  (1685)  he  was  utterly  defeated 
by  the  royal  troops.  Terrible  vengeance  was  wreaked  upon  all  in  any  way  connected 
with  the  rebellion.  The  notorious  Chief  Justice  Jeffreys,  in  what  were  called  the 
"  Bloody  Assizes,"  condemned  to  death  320  persons,  and  sentenced  841  to  transpor- 
tation. Jeffreys  conducted  the  so-called  trials  with  incredible  brutality.  See  Colby's 
SeUctions  from  the  Sources  of  English  History ^  No.  81. 


448      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

while  the  trial  was  progressing.  Judges  and  jury  were  overawed 
by  the  popular  demonstration,  and  the  bishops  w^ere  acquitted. 

497.  The  Revolution  of  1688  and  the  Declaration  of  Rights.  — 
The  crisis  which  it  was  easy  to  see  was  impending  was  hastened 
by  the  birth  of  a  prince,  as  this  cut  off  the  hope  of  the  nation 
that  the  crown  upon  James'  death  would  descend  to  his  Protes- 
tant daughter  Mary,  now  wife  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  Stadtholder 
of  Holland.  The  most  active  of  the  king's  enemies  therefore 
resolved  to  bring  about  at  once  what  they  had  been  inclined  to 
wait  to  have  accomplished  by  his  death.  They  sent  an  invitation 
to  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  come  over  with  such  force  as  he  could 
muster  and  take  possession  of  the  government,  pledging  him 
the  united  and  hearty  support  of  the  English  nation.  William 
accepted  the  invitation  and  straightway  began  to  gather  his  fleet 
and  army  for  the  enterprise. 

The  moment  the  ships  of  the  Prince  touched  the  shores  of  the 
island,  the  army  and  people  went  over  in  a  body  to  him.  The  King 
was  absolutely  deserted.  Flight  alone  was  left  him.  The  queen 
with  her  infant  child  was  secretly  embarked  for  France,  where  the 
king  soon  after  joined  her.  The  last  act  of  the  king  before  leaving 
England  was  to  disband  the  army  and  fling  the  Great  Seal  into 
the  Thames. ■^'^ 

Almost  the  first  act  of  the  Prince  was  to  issue  a  call  for  a  con- 
vention to  provide  for  the  permanent  settlement  of  the  crown. 
This  body  met  Jan.  22,  1689,  and  after  a  violent  debate  declared 
the  throne  to  be  vacant  through  James'  misconduct  and  flight. 
They  then  resolved  to  confer  the  royal  dignity  upon  William  and 
his  wife  Mary  as  joint  sovereigns  of  the  realm. 

But  this  convention  did  not  repeat  the  error  of  the  Parliament 
that  restored  Charles  H  and  give  the  crown  to  the  Prince  and 
Princess  without  proper  safeguards  and  guaranties  for  the  conduct 
of  the  government  according  to  the  ancient  laws  of  the  kingdom. 
They  drew  up  the  celebrated  Declaration  of  Rights,  which  plainly 
rehearsed  all  the  old  rights  and  liberties  of  Englishmen ;  denied 

17^  In  France  the  self-exiled  monarch  and  his  family  were  kindly  received  by  Louis, 
who  kept  up  for  them  the  shadow  of  a  court  in  one  of  the  royal  palaces  near  Paris. 


LITERATURE   OF  THE   RESTORATION  449 

the  right  of  the  king  to  lay  taxes  or  maintain  an  army  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament ;  and  asserted  that  freedom  of  debate  was 
the  inviolable  privilege  of  both  the  Lords  and  the  Commons. 
William  and  Mary  were  required  to  accept  this  declaration,  and  to 
agree  to  rule  in  accordance  with  its  provisions,  whereupon  they 
were  declared  King  and  Queen  of  England  (Feb.  13,  1689).  I" 
such  manner  was  effected  what  is  known  in  history  as  **  the 
Glorious  Revolution  of  1688." 


Literature  of  the  Restoration 

498.  The  Reaction  from  Puritanism  ;  Record  of  this  Reaction  in 
the  Literature  of  the  Period.  —  The  reigns  of  the  restored  Stuarts 
mark  the  most  corrupt  period  in  the  life  of  English  society.  The 
low  standard  of  morals,  and  the  general  profligacy  in  manners, 
especially  among  the  higher  classes,  are  in  part  attributable  to  the 
demoralizing  example  of  a  shockingly  licentious  and  shameless 
court ;  but  in  a  larger  measure,  perhaps,  should  be  viewed  as  the 
natural  reaction  from  the  over-stern,  repellant  Puritanism  of  the 
preceding  period.  The  Puritans  undoubtedly  erred  in  their  indis- 
criminate and  wholesale  denunciation  of  all  forms  of  harmless 
amusement  and  innocent  pleasure.  They  not  only  rebuked  gam- 
ing, drinking,  and  profanity,  and  stopped  bear  baiting,^^  but  they 
closed  all  the  theaters,  forbade  the  Maypole  dances  of  the  people, 
condemned  as  paganish  the  observance  of  Christmas,  frowned 
upon  sculpture  as  idolatrous  and  indecent,  and  considered  any 
color  or  adornment  in  dress  as  utterly  incompatible  with  a  proper 
sense  of  the  seriousness  of  life. 

Now  all  this  was  laying  too  heavy  a  burden  upon  human  nature. 
The  revolt  and  reaction  came,  as  come  they  must.  Upon  the 
Restoration,  society  swung  to  the  opposite  extreme.  In  place  of 
the  solemn-visaged,  psalm-singing  Roundhead,  we  have  the  gay, 
roistering  Cavalier.  Faith  gives  place  to  infidelity,  sobriety  to 
drunkenness,  purity  to  profligacy,  economy  to  extravagance,  Bible 

18  Macaulay  humorously  insists  that  the  Puritans  opposed  bear  baiting  not 
because  it  gave  pain  to  the  bear  but  because  it  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectator. 


450      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

study,  psalm  singing,  and  exhorting  to  theater  going,  profanity, 
and  carousing. 

The  Hterature  of  the  age  is  a  perfect  record  of  this  revolt  against 
the  "  sour  severity  "  of  Puritanism,  and  a  faithful  reflection  of  the 
unblushing  immoraUty  of  the  times.  The  book  most  read  and 
praised  by  Charles  II  and  his  court,  and  the  one  that  best  repre- 
sents the  spirit  of  the  victorious  party,  was  the  satirical  poem  of 
Hiidibras  by  Samuel  Butler.  The  object  of  the  work  was  to  satir- 
ize the  cant  and  excesses  of  Puritanism,  just  as  the  Don  Quixote 
of  Cervantes  burlesques  the  extravagances  and  follies  of  chivalry. 
Butler,  however,  displays  a  spirit  of  vindictiveness  and  hatred 
towards  the  object  of  his  wit  of  which  we  find  no  trace  in  the 
good-natured  Spanish  humorist. 

So  immoral  and  indecent  are  the  works  of  the  writers  for  the 
stage  of  this  period  that  these  authors  have  acquired  the  designa- 
tion of  "  the  corrupt  dramatists."  Holding  a  prominent  place 
among  them  was  the  poet  Dryden. 

IV.    Reign  of  William  and  Mary  (i 689-1 702) 

499.  The  Bill  of  Rights  (Dec.  16,  1689). —The  Revolution 
of  1688  and  the  settlement  of  the  crown  upon  William  and  Mary 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  constitutional  history  of  England.  It 
settled  forever  the  long  dispute  between  king  and  Parliament,  — 
and  settled  it  in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  Bill  of  Rights,  which 
was  substantially  the  articles  of  the  Declaration  of  Rights  framed 
into  a  law,  and  which  was  one  of  the  earliest  acts  of  the  first  Par- 
liament under  William  and  Mary,  in  effect  "  transferred  sovereignty 
from  the  king  to  the  House  of  Commons." 

By  shutting  out  James  from  the  throne  and  bringing  in  William, 
and  by  the  exclusion  of  Catholic  heirs  from  the  succession,  it 
plainly  announced  that  the  kings  of  England  derive  their  right 
and  title  to  rule  not  from  the  accident  of  birth  but  from  the  will 
of  the  people,  and  that  ParHament  may  depose  any  king,  and, 
excluding  from  the  throne  his  heirs,  settle  the  crown  anew  in 
another  family.    This  uprooted  quite  thoroughly  the  doctrine  that 


SETTLEMENT   OF   THE   REVENUE  451 

princes  have  a  divine  and  inalienable  right  to  the  throne  of  their 
ancestors,  and  when  once  seated  on  that  throne  rule  simply  as  the 
vicegerents  of  God,  above  all  human  censure  and  control.  We 
shall  hear  constantly  less  and  less  in  England  of  this  theory  of 
government  which  for  so  long  a  time  overshadowed  and  threatened 
the  freedom  of  the  English  people. 

The  separate  provisions  of  the  bill,  following  closely  the  language 
of  the  Declaration,  denied  the  dispensing  power  of  the  crown,  — 
that  is  to  say,  the  authority  claimed  by  the  Stuarts  of  annulling  a 
law  by  a  royal  edict ;  forbade  the  king  to  usurp  the  functions  of 
the  courts  of  justice,  to  levy  taxes,  or  to  keep  an  army  in  time  of 
peace  without  the  consent  of  Parliament ;  asserted  the  right  of  the 
people  to  petition  for  redress  of  grievances  and  freely  to  choose 
their  representatives ;  reaffirmed,  as  one  of  the  ancient  privileges 
of  both  Houses,  perfect  freedom  of  debate ;  and  demanded  that 
Parliament  should  be  frequently  assembled. 

Mindful  of  Charles'  attempt  to  reestablish  the  Catholic  wor- 
ship, the  framers  of  this  same  Bill  of  Rights  further  declared  that 
all  persons  holding  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome  or 
uniting  in  marriage  with  a  Catholic  should  be  "forever  incapable 
to  possess,  inherit,  or  enjoy  the  crown  and  government  of  the 
realm."  Since  the  Revolution  of  1688  no  Catholic  has  worn  the 
English  crown. 

All  of  these  provisions  now  became  inwrought  into  the  English 
constitution,  and  from  this  time  forward  were  recognized  as  part 
of  the  fundamental  law  of  the  realm. 

500.  Settlement  of  the  Revenue.  —  The  articles  of  the  Bill  of 
Rights  were  made  effectual  by  appropriate  legislation.  One  thing 
which  had  made  the  Tudors  and  Stuarts  so  independent  of  Parlia- 
ment was  the  custom  which  prevailed  of  granting  to  each  king,  at 
the  beginning  of  his  reign,  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the  kingdom 
during  his  life.  This  income,  with  what  could  be  raised  by  gifts, 
benevolences,  monopolies,  and  similar  expedients,  had  enabled 
despotically  inclined  sovereigns  to  administer  the  government, 
wage  war,  and  engage  in  any  wild  enterprise  just  as  individual 
caprice  or  ambition  might  dictate.    All  this  was  now  changed. 


452      STUARTS  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION 

Parliament,  instead  of  granting  William  the  revenue  for  life, 
restricted  the  grant  to  a  single  year,  and  made  it  a  penal  offense 
for  the  officers  of  the  treasury  to  pay  out  money  otherwise  than 
ordered  by  Parliament. 

We  cannot  overestimate  the  importance  of  this  change  in  the 
English  constitution.  It  is  this  control  of  the  purse  of  the  nation 
which  has  made  the  House  of  Commons  —  for  all  money  bills 
must  originate  in  the  Lower  House  —  the  actual  seat  of  govern- 
ment, constituting  them  the  arbiters  of  peace  and  war.^^ 

501.  James  attempts  to  recover  the  Throne :  Battle  of  the  Boyne 
(1690). — The  first  years  of  William's  reign  were  disturbed  by 
the  efforts  of  James  to  regain  the  throne  which  he  had  abandoned. 
In  these  attempts  he  was  aided  by  Louis  XIV,  and  by  the 
Jacobites,^°  the  name  given  to  the  adherents  of  the  exile  king. 
The  Irish  gave  William  the  most  trouble,  but  in  the  decisive 
battle  of  the  Boyne  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  them. 

The  results  of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  broke  the  spirit  of  the 
revolt,  and  soon  all  Ireland  acknowledged  the  authority  of  William. 
The  Protestant  Irish,  or  Orangemen,  as  they  are  called,  still  keep 
fresh  the  memory  of  the  great  victory  by  the  celebration,  even  in 
the  cities  of  the  New  World,  of  the  anniversary  of  the  event. 

502.  Plans  and  Death  of  William. — The  motive  which  had 
most  strongly  urged  William  to  respond  to  the  invitation  of 
the  English  revolutionists  to  assume  the  crown  of  England  was 
his  desire  to  turn  the  arms  and  resources  of  that  country  against 
the  great  champion  of  despotism  and  the  dangerous  neighbor  of 
his  own  native  country,  Louis  XIV  of  France. 

The  conduct  of  Louis  in  lending  aid  to  James  in  his  attempt 
to  regain  his  crown  had  so  enraged  the  English  that  they  were 
quite  ready  to  support  William  in  his  wars  against  him,  and  so 

19  The  most  important  constitutional  matter  of  William's  reign  after  those  men- 
tioned in  the  text  were  the  passage  by  Parliament  of  the  Mutiny  Bill,  by  which  the 
command  of  the  army  was  given  to  the  king  for  one  year  only,  and  of  the  act  of  Set- 
tlement (June  12,  1701),  which  was  "an  act  for  the  further  Umitation  of  the  crown, 
and  better  securing  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  subject."  The  most  important  article 
of  this  act,  after  that  determining  the  succession,  was  one  providing  that  the  judges 
should  hold  office  during  good  behavior,  not  simply  at  the  will  of  the  king,  as  hitherto. 

20  From  Jacobus,  Latin  for  "  James." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  453 

the  English  and  Dutch  sailors  fought  side  by  side  against  the 
common  enemy  in  the  War  of  the  Palatinate  (sec.  450). 

A  short  time  after  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  broke  out  the  War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession  (sec.  451).  In  the  midst  of  prepara- 
tions for  this  war  William  was  fatally  hurt  by  being  thrown  from 
his  horse  (1702). 

A  contemporary,  Bishop  Burnet,  speaks  as  follows  of  King 
William  and  his  place  among  English  sovereigns  :  "  I  considered 
him  as  a  person  raised  up  by  God  to  resist  the  power  of  France 
and  the  progress  of  tyranny  and  persecution.  .  .  .  After  all  the 
abatements  that  may  be  allowed  for  his  errors  and  faults,  he  ought 
still  to  be  reckoned  among  the  greatest  princes  that  our  history, 
or  indeed  that  of  any  other,  affords."  ^^ 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  In  opposition  to  Filmer,  Patriarcha 
(see  Sources  for  Chapter  XXVI),  read  Milton,  The  Tenure  of  Kings  and 
Magistrates.  Of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  and 
the  Commonwealth  are  The  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Oliver  Cromxvelly  with 
elucidations  by  Thomas  Carlyle  (ed.  by  S.  C.  Lomas).  For  additional 
material  see  Henderson,  Side  Lights  on  English  History,  pp.  33-214; 
Lee,  Source-Book,  pp.  335-438 ;  Colby,  Selections,  Nos.  68-85  5  ^'^d  Ken- 
dall, Source-Book,  chaps,  xi-xv. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Gardiner,  History  of  England ;  History  of  the 
Great  Civil  War ;  History  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate  ;  Oliver 
Cromwell,  and  The  First  Two  Stuarts  and  the  Puritan  Revolution,  i6oj- 
1660.  Dr.  Gardiner  made  this  period  especially  his  own.  His  works  are 
of  the  highest  authority  and  value.  Macaulay,  The  History  of  England 
from  the  Accession  of  fames  II ;  also  his  Essays  on  Milton  and  John  Hamp- 
den. GoLDWiN  Smith,  Three  English  Statesmen  ;  for  two  lectures  on 
Pym  and  Cromwell.  Morley,  Oliver  Cromwell ;  Harrison,  Oliver  Crom- 
well. Hale,  The  Fall  of  the  Stuarts.  Airy,  The  English  Restoration  and 
Louis  XIV.  Wakeman,  The  Church  of  the  Puritans.  Prendergast,  y-i^r 
Cromwellian  Settlement  of  Ireland.  The  admirable  articles  in  the  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography  should  not  be  overlooked. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports. —  i.  The  character  and  traits  of  James  I  and 
his  Damonologie.  2.  The  Plantation  of  Ulster  in  Ireland.  3.  Thomas 
Wentworth  (Earl  of  Strafford).  4.  The  Irish  "  Cromwellian  Settlement." 
5.  Milton's  Defense  of  the  English  People.  6.  The  Great  Plague.  7.  But- 
ler's Hudibras. 

21  Mary  had  preceded  William,  having  died  in  1694,  and  as  they  left  no  children, 
the  crown  descended  to  the  Princess  Anne,  Mary's  sister,  the  wife  of  Prince  George 
of  Denmark. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 
THE  RISE  OF  RUSSIA :   PETER  THE  GREAT  (1682-1725) 

503.  General  Remarks. — We  left  Russia  at  the  close  of  the 
Middle  Ages  a  semi- savage,  semi-Asiatic  power,  so  hemmed  in  by 
barbarian  bands  and  hostile  races  as  to  be  almost  entirely  cut  off 
from  intercourse  with  the  civilized  world  (sec.  266).  In  the 
present  chapter  we  shall  tell  how  her  boundaries  were  pushed  out 
to  the  sea  on  every  side,  —  to  the  Caspian,  to  the  Euxine,  and  to 
the  Baltic,  —  and  how  she  was  initiated  as  a  member  of  the 
European  family  of  nations.  The  main  interest  of  our  story  will 
gather  about  Peter  the  Great,  whose  almost  superhuman  strength 
and  energy  it  was  that  first  lifted  the  great  barbarian  nation  to 
a  prominent  place  among  the  Western  states. 

504.  Ivan  the  Terrible  (i 533-1584). — The  most  noteworthy 
name  among  the  rulers  of  Russia  after  the  opening  of  the  modern 
era  is  that  of  Ivan  IV,  surnamed  ''  the  Terrible,"  on  account  of  his 
many  cruel  and  revengeful  acts.  While  yet  a  child  of  thirteen  years 
he  caused  a  boyar,  or  noble,  who  had  offended  him,  to  be  torn  in 
pieces  in  his  presence  by  dogs.  Towards  the  close  of  his  reign 
he  killed  his  eldest  son  with  a  blow  of  his  iron  staff.  At  Nov- 
gorod, in  punishment  for  a  supposed  conspiracy  of  the  nobles,  he 
put  to  death  over  fifteen  hundred  persons. 

But  Ivan,  despite  his  terribly  cruel  disposition,  did  much  to 
extend  and  consolidate  the  Russian  dominions.  He  wrested 
from  the  Tartars  Kazan  (1552)  and  Astrakhan  (1554),  and  thus 
gained  possession  of  the  entire  length  of  the  Volga,  —  the  most 
important  highway  of  commerce  within  the  Russian  Empire,  — 
and  extended  the  limits  of  his  dominions  to  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian.  "In  the  Russian  annals,"  says  Rambaud,  "the  expe- 
dition to  Kazan  occupies  the  same  glorious  place  as  the  defeat 

454 


THE   HOUSE   OF   ROMANOV  455 

of  Abderrahman  in  the  history  of  the  Franks."  From  that  day  to 
this  Russia  has  steadily  pushed  the  Turanian  peoples  back  from 
their  conquests  in  Europe,  and  as  steadily  encroached  upon  their 
domains  in  Asia.  Even  before  the  death  of  Ivan  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains had  been  crossed  and  the  conquest  of  Siberia  fairly  begun. 

In  1547  Ivan  assumed  at  his  coronation  the  title  of  "  Tsar. "  ^  In 
adopting  this  imposing  title  it  was  his  purpose  not  only  to  pro- 
claim the  new  dignity  and  power  with  which  favoring  fortune 
had  invested  the  Grand  Princes  of  Moscow  but  also  to  give 
expression  to  the  idea  that  the  Muscovite  rulers  were  the  heirs 
and  successors  of  the  Caesars  of  Constantinople.  He  maintained 
that  **  if  Constantinople  had  been  the  second,  Moscow  was  the 
third  Rome,  —  the  living  heir  of  the  Eternal  City." 

505.  Beginning  of  the  House  of  Romdnov  (16 13);  Accession  of 
Peter  the  Great  (1682).  —  The  line  of  the  old  Norseman  Rurik 
ended  in  1598.  Then  followed  a  period  of  confusion  and  of 
foreign  invasion  known  as  the  "Troublous  Times,"  after  which, 
in  1 61 3,  Michael  Romanov,  the  first  of  the  family  that  bears  his 
name,  was  chosen  Tsar.  The  dynasty  thus  founded  has  held  the 
throne  up  to  the  present  time. 

For  more  than  half  a  century  after  the  accession  of  the  Romdnovs 
there  is  little  either  in  the  genius  or  the  deeds  of  any  of  the  line 
calculated  to  draw  our  special  attention.  But  towards  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century  there  ascended  the  Russian  throne 
"a  man  of  miracles," — a  man  whose  genius  and  energy  and 
achievements  instantly  drew  the  gaze  of  the  world,  and  who  has 
elicited  the  admiration  and  wonder  of  all  succeeding  generations. 
This  was  Peter  I,  later  to  be  known  as  Peter  the  Great,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  characters  of  history.  He  was  but  seventeen  years 
of  age  when  he  assumed  the  full  responsibilities  of  government. 

506.  Peter's  Character.  —  And  here,  as  Peter  steps  upon  the 
stage  to  play  his  great  part  in  the  drama  of  history,  we  must 
notice  what  sort  of  man  he  was. 

1  This  was  the  title  given  by  Russian  writers  to  potentates,  in  particular  to  the 
Caesars  of  Rome  and  Constantinople.  Ivan  III  (1462-1505)  had  made  use  of  the  title 
in  his  correspondence,  but  Ivan  IV  was  the  first  Russian  prince  upon  whom  the  title 
was  formally  bestowed  at  his  coronation. 


456 


THE  RISE   OF   RUSSIA 


Like  Philip  II  of  Spain,  Peter  was  the  true  child  of  his  race. 
In  him  all  the  forces  of  the  Russian  race  life  seem  to  have  been 
concentrated.  "  Never,"  says  his  latest  biographer  (Waliszewski), 
"  never  have  the  collective  qualities  of  a  nation,  good  and  bad, 
been  so  summed  up  in  a  single  personaHty,  destined  to  be  its 
historical  type.   .  .   .    Peter  is  Russia,  —  her  flesh  and  blood,  her 

temperament,  her  vir- 
tues, and  her  vices." 
Peter  has  been 
likened  to  the  legend- 
ary heroes  of  the  Rus- 
sian and  the  Gothic 
race.  He  was  a  man 
of  elemental  forces 
and  passions.  He 
had  fits  of  Berserker 
rage,  —  wild  frenzies 
during  which  the  life 
of  no  one  about  him 
was  safe.  He  in- 
dulged in  astonishing 
drinking  bouts  and 
dehghted  in  buffoon- 
ery and  coarse  jests. 
But  over  against 
Peter's  vices  were  set 
many  virtues.  He 
worked  strenuously 
at  his  kingly  trade, 
not  alone  from  sheer 
love  of  work  but  because  work  was  to  him  a  duty.  He  was  not  with- 
out truly  royal  thoughts,  like  those  of  the  best  of  the  enlightened 
despots,  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  kingly  office.  He  is  said 
to  have  uttered  this  sentiment :  "  I  am  the  first  servant  of  my 
people."  And  this  was  not  a  mere  sentiment  with  him,  as  the 
following  story  witnesses.    One  day  he  visited  a  park  which  he 


Fig.  83.  —  Peter  the  Great.     (After  a 
painting  by  Karel  de  Moor) 


THE   STATE   OF   RUSSIA  457 

had  made,  and  was  surprised  to  find  no  one  in  it.  "  Do  the  peo- 
ple suppose,"  he  inquired,  "  that  I  have  set  so  many  hands  at 
work  and  spent  so  much  money  simply  for  my  own  benefit  ? ' '  And 
then  he  ordered  proclamation  to  be  made  that  the  park  belonged 
to  the  people  and  that  they  were  to  use  it  as  their  own. 

507.  The  State  of  Russia  when  Peter  assumed  the  Government. 
—  In  order  to  understand  what  Peter  did  for  Russia  we  must  ac- 
quaint ourselves  with  the  condition  of  the  country  when  he  took 
into  his  hands  the  shaping  of  its  destinies. 

In  the  first  place,  we  shcftild  note  the  geographical  isolation  of 
Russia.  At  this  time  she  possessed  only  one  seaport,  Archangel, 
on  the  White  Sea,  which  harbor  for  a  large  part  of  the  year  is 
sealed  against  vessels  by  the  extreme  cold  of  that  high  latitude. 
The  Tartars  and  Turks  cut  her  off  from  the  Black  Sea ;  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Swedes  and  the  Poles  intervened  between  her  and 
the  Baltic.  She  looked  towards  Asia,  to  which  continent  she  in 
fact  belonged.  When  in  1 648  the  European  states  readjusted  their 
affairs  in  the  great  Westphalian  peace,  Russia  had  no  lot  or  part 
in  the  convention,  not  simply  because  she  had  stood  aloof  from 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  but  also  because  she  was  not  then  regarded 
as  forming  a  part  of  Europe. 

In  the  second  place,  we  should  recall  how  Russia  had  -been 
actually  Asiaticized  through  her  long  subjection  to  the  Mongol 
hordes  (sec.  175).  That  tide  of  conquest,  it  is  true,  had  now 
ebbed.  But  "  the  flood,"  as  Waliszewski  says,  "  receding  from 
the  soil  had  left  behind  it,  like  a  heavy  deposit,  all  its  stable  ele- 
ments, —  forms  of  government,  customs,  and  habits  of  thought." 
The  Russia  which  had  emerged  was,  as  our  author  says,  essentially 
Asiatic  and  barbaroua. 

508.  Peter's  Task ;  his  Programme  not  wholly  Original.  — 
Peter's  task  was  to  break  Russia's  isolation  and  to  undo  the  work 
of  the  Tartar  conquerors,  —  to  make  again  European  what  they 
had  made  Asiatic.  Hence  one  essential  part  of  Peter's  pro- 
gramme was  to  wrest  the  Euxine  from  the  hands  of  the  Turks  and 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Baltic  from  the  grasp  of  the  Swedes. 
Thus  would  he  gain  for  Russia  her  first  great  need,  —  access  to 


458  THE   RISE   OF   RUSSIA 

the  sea.  Thus  would  he  break  that  isolation  which  had  done  so 
much  to  keep  the  country  in  the  rear  of  the  nations  of  Western 
Europe  in  the  march  of  progress. 

Another  essential  article  of  Peter's  policy  was  the  introduction 
into  Russia  of  the  ideas,  customs,  arts,  and  industries  of  Western 
Europe,  —  in  a  word,  to  make  Russia  in  her  thoughts,  ideals,  and 
institutions  a  member  of  the  European  family  of  nations. 

This  programme  of  Peter's,  it  should  be  noted,  was  not  wholly 
original  with  him.  Russia  had  gradually  been  preparing^  for  his 
advent.  Her  expansion  towards  water  frontiers  had  already 
begun.  The  Caspian  had  been  reached,  Siberia  had  been  over- 
run, and  a  firm  foothold  secured  on  the  Pacific  shore.  Thus 
Peter  simply  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  an  expansion  movement 
already  well  under  way. 

It  was  the  same  in  regard  to  Peter's  internal  reforms.  The 
leaven  of  Western  ideas  was  already  working  in  the  mass  of 
Russian  conservatism,  causing  in  some  minds  a  great  fermenta- 
tion and  calling  into  existence  a  party  of  reform  and  progress. 
At  Moscow  there  was  a  large  settlement  of  foreigners,  including 
German  and  other  merchants,  and  adventurers  from  almost  every 
land  of  the  West.  It  was  in  the  free  air  of  this  foreign  suburb  that 
Peter,  while  yet  a  mere  boy,  overjoyed  to  escape  from  the  suffo- 
cating atmosphere  of  the  palace,  spent  much  of  his  time,  and  here 
it  was  that  he  got  his  advanced  ideas.  Among  the  foreign  residents 
of  the  palace  with  whom  Peter  fraternized  were  the  Swiss  Lefort, 
the  Scotch  Gordon,  and  the  Dutch  Timmermann.  Through  these 
and  other  foreign  companions  it  was  that  Peter  learned  how  back- 
ward and  barbarous  his  own  country  was  compared  with  the  pro- 
gressive and  civilized  states  of  the  West. 

509.  The  Conquest  of  Azov  (1696).  —  In  1695  Peter  sailed 
down  the  Don  and  made  an  attack  upon  Azov,  the  key  to  the 
Black  Sea,  but  was  unsuccessful.  The  next  year,  however,  repeat- 
ing the  attempt,  he  succeeded,  and  thus  gained  his  first  harbor 
on  the  south. 

No  sooner  had  Peter  secured  his  new  harbor  than  he  set  in 
earnest  about  the  construction  of  a  marine  fleet  (1696-169 7),  in 


PETER'S    FIRST   VISIT   TO   THE  WEST  459 

which  enterprise  he  was  aided  by  shipwrights  whom  he  had  called 
from  Venice  and  other  Western  states.  So  energetically  was  the 
work  pushed  that  in  less  than  two  years  a  great  fleet  of  war  ships 
was  floating  upon  the  streams  running  to  the  Sea  of  Azov. 

510.  Peter's  First  ^  Visit  to  the  West  (1697-1698).  — With  a 
view  to  advancing  his  naval  projects,  Peter  about  this  time  sent 
a  large  number  of  young  Russian  nobles  to  Italy,  Holland,  and 
England  to  acquire  in  those  countries  a  knowledge  of  naval  affairs, 
forbidding  them  to  return  before  they  had  become  good  sailors. 

Not  satisfied  with  thus  sending  to  foreign  parts  his  young  nobil- 
ity, Peter  formed  the  somewhat  startling  resolution  of  going  abroad 
himself  and  learning  the  art  of  shipbuilding  by  personal  experience 
in  the  dockyards  of  Holland.  Accordingly,  in  the  year  1697,  leav- 
ing the  government  in  the  hands  of  three  nobles,  he  set  out  for 
the  Netherlands. 

Peter,  with  his  uncouth  barbarian  suite,  made  a  great  sensation 
as  he  traveled  westward.  His  passage  with  his  court  was  like  the 
passage  of  a  horde  of  untamed  Cossacks.  Peter  himself  often  acted 
Hke  a  savage  and  made  his  entertainers  no  end  of  trouble  and 
anxiety.  At  Konigsberg  he  asked  to  see  a  man  broken  on  the 
wheel.  The  authorities  explained  to  him  that  they  were  unable 
to  gratify  his  wish,  since  there  was  no  criminal  at  hand  condemned 
to  undergo  that  form  of  punishment.  Peter  was  astonished  that 
that  should  stand  in  the  way  of  his  seeing  how  the  instrument 
worked.    "What  a  fuss  about  killing  a  man  !  "  he  said. 

The  palaces  in  which  Peter  and  his  company  were  lodged  were 
left  in  a  condition  that  could  hardly  have  been  worse  had  they 
been  subjected  to  a  regular  siege.  Prudent  hosts  removed  every- 
thing breakable  from  the  apartments  designed  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  "  barbarian  court."  * 

2  Peter  made  a  second  European  tour  in  1716-1717. 

8  Wilhelmina,  the  sister  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  saw  Peter  and  his 
company  at  Berlin  when  the  Tsar  was  on  his  second  visit  to  the  West  some  years 
after  this,  gives  in  her  Mntioirs  the  following  amusing  account  of  what  happened  at 
the  summer  palace,  near  the  capital,  where  Peter  and  his  suite  were  lodged.  Recount- 
ing the  prudent  measures  taken  by  the  queen  to  minimize  the  inevitable  damage,  she 
writes :  "  In  order  to  prevent  the  mischief  which  the  Russian  gentlemen  had  done  in 
other  places  where  they  had  lodged,  the  queen  ordered  the  principal  furniture,  and 


460  THE   RISE   OF   RUSSIA 

Upon  reaching  the  Netherlands  Peter  proceeded  to  Zaandam, 
a  place  a  short  distance  from  Amsterdam.  After  a  week's  stay 
here,  in  order  to  escape  the  annoyance  of  the  crowds,  Peter  left 
the  place  and  went  to  the  docks  of  the  East  India  Company  at 
Amsterdam,  who  set  about  building  a  frigate  that  he  might  see 
the  whole  process  of  constructing  a  vessel  from  the  beginning. 
Here  he  worked  for  four  months,  being  known  among  his  fellow- 
workmen  as  Baas  or  Master  Peter. 

It  was  not  alone  the  art  of  naval  architecture  in  which  Peter 
interested  himself ;  he  attended  lectures  on  anatomy,  studied  sur- 
gery, gained  some  skill  in  pulling  teeth  and  in  bleeding,  inspected 
paper  mills,  flour  mills,  printing  presses,  and  factories,  and  visited 
cabinets,  hospitals,  and  museums,  thus  acquainting  himself  with 
every  industry  and  art  that  he  thought  might  be  advantageously 
introduced  into  his  own  country. 

From  Holland  Master  Peter  went  to  England  to  study  her 
superior  naval  establishment  and  to  learn  "  the  why  "  and  "  the 
wherefore."  Here  he  was  fittingly  received  by  King  William  III, 
who  had  presented  Peter  while  in  Holland  with  a  splendid  yacht 
fully  equipped,  and  who  now  made  his  guest  extremely  happy  by 
getting  up  for  him  a  naval  review. 

While  in  England  Peter  gathered  a  company  of  several  hundred 
engineers,  captains,  surgeons,  mechanics,  and  persons  learned  in 
the  various  sciences,  and  by  magnificent  promises  —  which  the 
truth  requires  us  to  say  were  very  badly  kept  —  induced  them 
to  go  to  Russia  to  help  him  build  fleets,  train  soldiers,  cut  canals, 
and  Europeanize  his  country.  Returning  from  England  to  Hol- 
land, Peter  went  thence  to  Vienna,  intending  to  visit  Venice ; 

whatever  was  most  brittle,  to  be  removed."  And  this  is  what  she  has  to  say  of  the 
condition  of  the  palace  after  the  Russian  guests  had  left  it :  "  What  desolation  was 
there  visible !  I  never  beheld  anything  like  it ;  indeed,  I  think  Jerusalem  after  its 
siege  and  capture  could  not  have  presented  such  another  scene.  This  elegant  palace 
was  left  by  them  in  so  ruinous  a  state  that  the  queen  was  absolutely  obliged  to  rebuild 
the  whole  of  it."  A  similar  story  comes  from  England.  The  English  government 
lodged  Peter  and  his  court  in  the  fine  residence  of  the  celebrated  writer,  John  Evelyn. 
The  owner  of  the  premises  felt  constrained  to  ask  the  government  to  pay  for  the 
injury  they  had  sustained.  The  damages  were  carefully  assessed  and  amounted  to 
^350  9s.  6d. 


PETER   DISBANDS   THE   STRELTSI  461 

but  hearing  of  an  insurrection  at  home,  he  set  out  in  haste  for 
Moscow. 

511.  Peter  disbands  the  Streltsi  and  creates  a  New  Army  after 

Western  Models The  revolt  which  had  hastened  Peter's  return 

from  the  West  was  an  uprising  among  the  Streltsi,  a  body  of  mili- 
tia, numbering  twenty  or  thirty  thousand,  who  formed  the  nearest 
thing  to  a  standing  Russian  army.  In  their  ungovernable  turbu- 
lence they  remind  us  of  the  Pretorians  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
or  the  Janizaries  of  the  later  Turkish  sultans.  The  present  mutiny 
had  been  suppressed  before  Peter's  arrival,  so  that  there  was  noth- 
ing now  remaining  for  him  to  do  save  to  mete  out  punishment  to 
the  ringleaders,  of  whom  a  thousand  or  more  were  put  to  death 
with  the  crudest  tortures.  Peter  beheaded  some  of  the  wretches 
with  his  own  hands,  and  compelled  the  nobles  of  his  court  also 
to  help  strike  off  the  heads  of  the  condemned.  Nothing  better 
illustrates  the  barbarism  of  the  Russia  of  Peter's  time  than  the 
fact  that  his  acting  thus  as  an  executioner  never  shocked  his 
subjects  in  the  least. 

This  revolt  settled  Peter  in  his  determination  to  rid  himself 
altogether  of  the  insolent  and  turbulent  Streltsi.  A  royal  edict 
disbanded  those  regiments  that  had  had  any  part  in  the  uprising ; 
a  subsequent  revolt  led  to  the  abolition  of  the  remaining  regi- 
ments. Thus  at  a  blow  did  the  resolute  Peter  destroy  a  power 
that  had  come  to  overshadow  the  throne  itself.  The  place  of  the 
Streltsi  was  taken  by  a  well-disciplined  force  trained  according  to 
the  tactics  of  the  Western  nations. 

512.  Peter's  Other  Reforms.  —  The  reorganization  of  the  Rus- 
sian military  system  was  only  one  of  the  many  reforms  undertaken 
by  Peter.  The  variety  of  these  was  so  great,  and  Peter's  manner 
of  affecting  them  so  harsh  and  strenuous,  that,  as  one  has  aptly 
expressed  it,  he  fairly  "  knouted  the  Russians  into  civilization." 

As  outgrowths  of  what  he  had  seen  or  heard  or  had  had  sug- 
gested to  him  on  his  foreign  tour,  Peter  issued  a  new  coinage, 
introduced  schools,  built  factories,  constructed  roads  and  canals, 
established  a  postal  system,  opened  mines,  framed  laws  modeled 
after  those  of  the  West,  and  reformed  the  government  of  the 


462  THE   RISE   OF  RUSSIA 

towns  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  citizens  some  voice  in  the 
management  of  their  local  affairs,  as  he  had  observed  was  done 
in  the  Netherlands  and  in  England. 

Most  important  in  its  political  as  well  as  religious  consequences 
was  Peter's  reform  in  the  ecclesiastical  system.  At  this  time  the 
Russian  Church  formed  a  sort  of  state  within  the  state.  The  head 
of  the  Church,  bearing  the  title  of  Patriarch,  was  a  kind  of  Rus- 
sian pope.  Through  his  censorship  of  the  temporal  authority  and 
his  interference  in  matters  secular,  he  hampered  and  embarrassed 
the  government.  Peter  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  things.  He 
abolished  the  patriarchate,  and  in  its  place  created  an  adminis- 
trative body,  appointed  by  himself  and  called  the  Holy  Synod,  to 
take  charge  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Thus  the  last  restraint  upon 
the  authority  of  the  Tsar  was  destroyed.  The  Russian  govern- 
ment became  an  unlimited  monarchy  of  the  purest  Oriental  type. 

513.  Charles  XII  of  Sweden;  the  Swedish  Monarchy  at  his 
Accession.  — Peter's  history  now  becomes  intertwined  with  that  of 
a  man  quite  as  remarkable  as  himself,  —  Charles  XII  of  Sweden. 
Charles  was  but  fifteen  years  of  age  when,  in  1697,  the  death  of 
his  father  called  him  to  the  Swedish  throne.* 

Sweden  was  at  this  time  one  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 
The  basis  of  her  greatness  had  been  laid  during  the  period  of 
the  Reformation.  The  traditions  of  the  hero  Gustavus  Adolphus 
cast  a  halo  about  the  Swedish  throne.  The  ideal  of  this  great 
sovereign  had  been  the  creation  of  a  state  embracing  all  the 
lands  bordering  upon  the  Baltic.  In  a  certain  measure  this 
magnificent  ideal  had  been  realized.  The  Baltic  was  virtually 
a  Swedish  lake,  —  the  Mediterranean  of  an  empire  which  aspired 
to  be  the  mistress  of  the  North. 

But  unfortunately  Sweden  could  not  maintain  such  a  sea  empire 
without  hemming  in  and  cramping  in  their  normal  development, 
territorial  or  commercial,  various  neighboring  states, — in  particular 


4  The  government  of  Sweden  had  now  become  an  absolute  autocracy.  In  1693  the 
Riksdag,  or  Diet,  had  proclaimed  the  Swedish  monarch  to  be  an  "  all-commanding 
sovereign-king  responsible  for  his  actions  to  none  on  earth,  but  with  authority  as  a 
Christian  king  to  rule  as  it  seemeth  to  him  best." 


THE   BATTLE   OF    NARVA  463 

Russia,  Poland,  and  Denmark.  In  this  situation  lay  hidden  the 
germ  of  the  long  and  obstinate  so-named  Swedish  Wars,  which  were 
essentially  a  struggle  for  the  control  of  the  Baltic. 

The  accession  to  the  throne  of  the  young  and  inexperienced 
Charles  offered  to  the  jealous  enemies  and  watchful  rivals  of 
Sweden  seemingly  too  good  an  opportunity  to  be  lost  for  pushing 
her  back  into  the  northern  peninsula.  Accordingly  three  sover- 
eigns, Frederick  IV  of  Denmark,  Augustus  the  Strong,  Elector  of 
Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  and  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia, 
leagued  against  him  for  the  purpose  of  appropriating  such  por- 
tions of  his  dominions  as  they  severally  coveted. 

514.  The  Battle  of  Narva  (1700).  —  But  the  conspirators  had 
formed  a  wrong  estimate  of  the  young  Swedish  monarch.  Not- 
withstanding the  insane  follies  in  which  he  was  accustomed  to 
indulge,  he  possessed  talent;  especially  had  he  a  remarkable 
aptitude  for  military  affairs,  though  lacking  many  of  the  qualities 
of  a  great  commander. 

With  a  well-trained  force  —  a  veteran  army  that  had  not  yet 
forgotten  the  discipline  of  the  hero  Gustavus  Adolphus  —  Charles 
now  threw  himself  first  upon  the  Danes,  and  in  two  weeks  forced 
the  Danish  king  to  sue  for  peace ;  then  he  turned  his  httle  army 
of  eight  thousand  men  upon  the  Russian  forces  of  twenty  thou- 
sand, which  were  besieging  the  city  of  Narva,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  and  inflicted  upon  them  a  most  ignominious  defeat. 
The  only  comment  of  the  imperturbable  Peter  upon  the  disaster 
was,  **  The  Swedes  will  have  the  advantage  of  us  at  first,  but  they 
will  teach  us  how  to  beat  them." 

515.  The  Founding  of  St.  Petersburg  (i  703) .  —  After  chastising 
the  Tsar  at  Narva,  the  Swedish  king  turned  south  and  marched  into 
Poland  to  punish  Augustus  for  the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  conspir- 
acy against  him.  While  Charles  was  busied  in  this  quarter,  Peter, 
having  made  good  by  strenuous  exertions  his  loss  in  men  and  arms 
at  Narva,  was  gradually  making  himself  master  of  the  Swedish 
lands  on  the  Baltic,  and  upon  a  marshy  island  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Neva  was  laying  the  foundations  of  the  city  of  Petersburg, 
which  he  proposed  to  make  the  western  gateway  of  his  empire. 


464  THE   RISE   OF   RUSSIA 

The  spot  selected  by  Peter  as  the  site  of  his  new  capital  was 
low  and  subject  to  inundation/  so  that  the  labor  requisite  to 
make  it  fit  for  building  purposes  was  simply  enormous.  But 
difficulties  never  dismayed  Peter.  He  gathered  workmen  from 
all  parts  of  his  dominions,  cut  down  and  dragged  to  the  spot 
whole  forests  for  piles  and  buildings,  and  caused  a  city  to  rise 
as  if  by  magic  from  the  morasses.  The  splendid  capital  stands 
to-day  one  of  the  most  impressive  monuments  of  the  indomitable 
and  despotic  energy  of  Peter. 

516.  Invasion  of  Russia  by  Charles  XII ;  the  Battle  of  Poltava 
(1709).  —  Having  defeated  the  armies  of  King  Augustus  and 
given  his  crown  to  another,  Charles  was  now  ready  to  turn  his 
attention  once  more  to  the  Tsar.  With  an  army  of  barely  forty 
thousand  men  he  began  his  eastward  march.  It  soon  developed 
that  his  bold  plan  was  to  strike  the  ancient  capital  Moscow,  and 
there  to  dictate  terms  of  peace. 

It  was  a  terrible  march  that  the  Swedes  made,  a  march  some- 
what like  that  of  the  Grand  Army  under  Napoleon  a  century 
later.  The  Russian  tactics  were  almost  the  same  now  as  then, 
the  villages  being  abandoned  and  burned,  and  the  entire  country 
made  a  desert  in  front  of  the  advancing  Swedes. 

Thus  impeded  in  his  march,  Charles  suddenly  gave  up  his 
direct  advance  upon  Moscow  and  turned  south  into  the  Ukraine. 
Here  he  finally  laid  siege  to  the  town  of  Poltava.  Peter  marched 
to  its  relief,  and  the  two  armies  met  in  decisive  combat  in  front 
of  the  place.  The  Swedish  army  was  virtually  annihilated.  Escap- 
ing with  a  few  followers  from  the  field,  Charles  fled  southward 
and  found  an  asylum  in  Turkey.^ 

5  Peter  tells  us  of  an  inundation  which  occurred  in  1706,  "It  was  amusing,"  he 
writes,  "  to  see  how  the  people  sat  on  roofs  and  trees,  just  as  in  the  time  of  the 
Deluge."  In  selecting  such  a  marshy  site  for  his  capital,  Peter  may  have  been  aiming 
to  reproduce  Amsterdam,  in  which  city  he  had  spent  so  much  of  his  time  when  abroad. 

6  After  spending  five  years  among  the  Turks,  during  which  time  he  acted  in  a 
manner  which  abundantly  justified  his  title  of  the  "  Madman  of  the  North,"  Charles 
returned  to  Sweden.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was  killed  in  battle.  At  the  time  of 
his  death  Charles  was  only  thirty-six  years  of  age.  Perhaps  we  can  understand  him 
best  by  regarding  him,  as  his  biographer  Voltaire  suggests,  as  an  old  Norse  sea  king 
born  ten  centuries  after  his  time.    He  was  indeed  "  the  last  of  the  Vikings." 


SIGNIFICANCE   OF   PETER'S   WORK  465 

517.  Russia's  Title  to  Baltic  Land  confirmed ;  Peter's  Death.  — 

In  1 72 1  the  Swedish  Wars  which^had  so  long  disturbed  Europe 
were  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Peace  of  Nystad,  which  con- 
firmed Russia's  title  to  all  the  eastern  Baltic  lands  that  Peter 
had  wrested  from  the  Swedes.  The  undisputed  possession  of  so 
large  a  strip  of  the  Baltic  seaboard  vastly  increased  the  impor- 
tance and  influence  of  Russia,  which  now  assumed  a  place  among 
the  leading  European  powers. 

Peter's  eventful  reign  was  now  drawing  to  a  close.  Four  years 
after  the  end  of  the  Swedish  Wars,  being  then  in  his  fifty-fourth 
year,  he  died  of  a  fever  brought  on  by  his  excesses  and  care- 
less exposures.  It  was  characteristic  of  his  lack  of  prudence  and 
foresight  that  he  left  no  will  nor  any  directions  regarding  the 
succession  to  the  throne. 

518.  Peter's  Significance  for  Russian  History Probably  in 

the  case  of  no  other  European  nation  has  any  single  personality 
left  so  deep  and  abiding  an  impress  upon  the  national  life  and 
history  as  Peter  the  Great  left  upon  Russian  society  and  Russian 
history.  He  planted  throughout  his  vast  empire  the  seeds  of 
Western  civilization,  and  by  his  giant  strength  lifted  the  great 
nation  which  destiny  had  placed  in  his  hands  out  of  Asiatic 
barbarism  into  the  society  of  the  European  peoples. 

But  it  is  the  remote  influence  of  Peter's  work  upon  the  Rus- 
sian government  which  is  of  special  interest  to  us  as  students  of 
the  Political  Revolution.  In  destroying  all  checks,  military  and 
ecclesiastical,  upon  the  power  of  the  crown,  Peter,  it  is  true, 
rendered  the  Russian  government  a  perfect  despotism  of  the 
Asiatic  type.  But  in  bringing  into  his  dominions  Western  civili- 
zation, he  introduced  influences  which  were  destined  in  time  to 
neutralize  all  he  had  done  in  the  way  of  strengthening  the  basis 
of  despotism.  He  introduced  a  civilization  which  fosters  popular 
liberties  and  undermines  personal  despotic  government.  "  No 
avowed  champion  of  the  people,  aided  by  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,"  says  Noble,  "  could  have  done  such  effective 
battle  for  Russian  liberties  as  that  compassed  by  the  champion 
of  absolute  power.  .  .  .    Peter  was  the  first  to  fairly  roll  Russian 


466 


THE   RISE   OF   RUSSIA 


tyranny  in  the  Nessus  shirt  of  European  civilization.    This  was 
the  reformer's  real  significance  for  the  national  life." 

519.  Reign  of  Catherine  the  Great  (17 62-1 796);  the  Partition 
of  Poland.  —  From  the  death  of  Peter  on  to  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Russian  throne  was  held,  the  greater  part 
of  the  time,  by  women,  the  most  noted  of  whom  was  Catherine  II, 
the  Great,  who  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  representatives 
of  the  so-called  enlightened  despots  (sec.  439).    But  while  a  woman 

of  great  genius  she 
had  most  serious 
faults  of  character, 
being  incredibly 
profligate  and  un- 
scrupulous. 

Carrying  out  ably 
the  policy  of  Peter 
the  Great,  Catherine 
extended  vastly  the 
limits  of  Russian 
dominion  and  opened 
the  country  even 
more  thoroughly  than 
he  had  done  to  the 
entrance  of  Western 
influences.  She  was 
a  genuine  admirer  of 
the  French  philoso- 
phers and  was  at 
pains  to  disseminate  their  teachings  in  her  dominions.  Aside 
from  internal  reforms,  the  most  noteworthy  matters  of  Catherine's 
reign  were  her  conquest  of  the  Crimea  and  her  participation  in 
the  dismemberment  of  Poland. 

It  was  in  the  year  1783  that  Catherine  effected  the  subjugation 
and  annexation  to  Russia  of  the  Crimea.  The  possession  of  this 
peninsula  gave  Russia  dominion  on  the  Black  Sea,  which  once 
virtually  secured  by  Peter  the  Great  had  been  again  lost  through 


Fig.  84.  —  Catherine  II  of  Russia. 
a  portrait  by  Rosselin) 


(After 


REIGN   OF   CATHERINE   THE   GREAT  467 

his  misfortunes.  This  extension  of  the  rule  of  the  Muscovite  to 
the  Euxine  was  a  matter  of  moment  to  all  Eastern  Europe  ;  for  now, 
as  Freeman  says,  "  the  road  through  which  so  many  Turanian  in- 
vaders had  pressed  into  the  Aryan  continent  was  blocked  forever." 

On  the  West  Catherine  succeeded,  by  intrigue  and  the  most 
shameful  disregard  of  the  law  of  nations,  in  greatly  extending  the 
limits  of  her  dominions.  This  she  effected  at  the  expense  of 
Poland,  the  partition  of  which  state  she  planned  in  connection 
with  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  —  who  suggested  the  crime 
—  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  On  the  first  division,  which 
was  made  in  1772,  the  imperial  robbers  each  took  a  portion  of 
the  spoils.  This  act  of  brigandage  was  consummated  in  spite  of 
the  efforts  of  patriotic  Poles  for  reform,  the  anarchical  condition 
of  the  PoHsh  state  being  the  pretext  of  the  despoiling  sovereigns 
for  their  action.' 

It  is  difficult  to  apportion  the  blame  among  the  participators 
in  this  transaction.  Maria  Theresa  seems  to  have  been  the  only 
one  connected  with  the  iniquitous  business  who  had  any  scruples 
of  conscience  respecting  the  act.  She  justly  characterized  the 
proposed  partition  as  downright  robbery,  for  a  long  time  stood 
out  against  it,  and  yielded  at  last  and  took  her  portion  only  when 
she  realized  that  she  was  powerless  to  prevent  the  others  from 
carrying  out  the  policy  of  dismemberment. 

In  1793  a  second  partition  was  made,  this  time  between  Russia 
and  Prussia ;  and  then,  in  1 7  95 ,  after  the  suppression  of  a  determined 

7  The  Polish  constitution  was  a  survival  of  the  age  of  mediseval  feudal  anarchy. 
In  the  struggle  here  between  the  royal  power  and  the  feudal  nobility  the  aristocracy 
had  triumphed,  and  had  reduced  the  kingly  authority  to  the  mere  shadow  of  elective 
kingship.  One  particular  source  of  the  anarchical  state  of  things  was  a  provision  of 
the  constitution  which  gave  to  every  single  member  of  the  Diet  the  right  and  power 
to  defeat  any  measure  by  his  vote  cast  in  opposition  (libcrum  veto).  Every  noble  was 
virtually  a  king.  But  it  must  be  added  that  this  anarchical  state  of  the  kingdom  can- 
not be  pleaded  by  the  dismemberers  of  Poland  in  extenuation  of  their  crime,  for  they 
in  every  possible  way  prevented  all  schemes  of  reform  and  fostered  the  anarchy 
because  it  served  their  interests  and  furthered  their  plans  to  do  so.  Louis  XIV  of 
France  gave  his  ambassador  these  instructions:  "  The  government  of  Poland  must 
be  regarded  as  an  anarchy ;  but  this  anarchy  serves  the  interests  of  France,  and  so  it 
must  be  fostered."  Further,  an  admirable  new  constitution  was  drawn  up  for  Poland 
in  1 791,  which  would  have  made  it  a  strong  state  had  a  chance  been  allowed. 


468  THE   RISE   OF   RUSSIA 

revolt  of  the  Poles  under  the  lead  of  the  patriot  Kosciuszko, 
a  third  and  final  division  among  the  three  powers  completed  the 
dismemberment  of  the  unhappy  state  and  erased  its  name  from 
the  map  of  Europe. 

This  was  the  first  instance  in  two  hundred  years  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  a  sovereign  Christian  state  by  sister  states.  Unfortunately 
the  pages  of  the  history  of  the  following  century  were  to  be  stained 
with  the  record  of  many  similar  acts  of  international  brigandage, 
yet  by  none  quite  as  wicked  or  as  far-reaching  in  its  regrettable 
consequences  as  was  this  assassination  of  Poland. 

The  territory  gained  by  Russia  in  the  dismemberment  of  Poland 
brought  her  western  frontier  close  alongside  the  civilization  of 
Central  Europe.  In  Catherine's  phrase,  Poland  had  become  her 
"door  mat,"  upon  which  she  stepped  when  visiting  the  West. 

By  the  close  of  Catherine's  reign  Russia  was  beyond  question 
one  of  the  foremost  powers  of  Europe,  and  was  henceforward  to 
have  a  voice  in  all  matters  of  general  European  concern.  She 
was  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  Napoleonic  Wars 
and  in  the  great  struggle  between  the  people  and  their  despotic 
rulers,  —  a  struggle  already  inaugurated  on  the  Continent  by  the 
Revolutionists  in  France. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Sigismund  von  Herberstein,  Notes 
upon  Russia  (Hakluyt  Society  publications).  The  author  of  these  valuable 
"  Notes "  was  a  German  ambassador  at  the  Russian  court  during  the 
years  1 517-1526. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Rambaud,  History  of  Russia.  This  is  the  best 
comprehensive  history  of  Russia  available  in  English.  Schuyler,  Peter  the 
Great,  Emperor  of  Russia.  The  best  biography  of  the  great  Tsar.  For  a 
shorter,  delightfully  written  life,  see  Motley,  Peter  the  Great.  Morfill, 
Story  of  Russia,  chaps,  v-ix,  and  Story  of  Poland,  chap,  xi ;  the  last  for  the 
Partition  of  Poland.  Bain,  Charles  XII.  There  have  recently  appeared 
from  the  pen  of  a  brilliant  writer  biographies  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Cath- 
erine II,  but  unfortunately  they  are  works  which  cannot  be  recommended 
as  wholesome  reading  for  the  young,  or  as  impartial  history. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Geography  of  the  Russian  Empire. 
2.  Ivan  tlie  Terrible.  3.  Peter's  boyhood.  4.  The  founding  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. 5.  Charles  XII  at  Bender  in  Turkey.  6.  Peter  and  his  son  and  heir 
Alexis.     7.  Catherine  the  Great  and  the  Partition  of  Poland. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE  RISE  OF  PRUSSIA:   FREDERICK  THE  GREAT 

(1740-1786) 

520.  The  Beginnings  of  Prussia. — The  foundation  of  the 
Prussian  kingdom  was  laid  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  (in  161 1)  by  the  union  of  two  small  states  south  of  the 
Baltic,  one  in  Germany  and  one  in  Poland.  These  were  the  Elect- 
orate of  Brandenburg  and  the  Duchy  of  Prussia.  Brandenburg 
had  been  gradually  growing  into  prominence  since  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. Its  ruler  at  this  time  was  a  prince  of  the  noted  House  of 
HohenzoUern,  and  was  one  of  the  seven  princes  to  whom  belonged 
the  right  of  electing  the  Emperor. 

Prussia,  so  called  from  the  Borussi,  a  tribe  of  desperate  heathen 
of  Lithuanian  race,  was  a  small  state  lying  along  the  Baltic  shore 
in  Poland,  east  of  the  Vistula.  It  had  been  conquered  by  the 
valor  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  dur- 
ing this  and  the  following  centuries  had  been  gradually  German- 
ized (sec.  154). 

521.  The  Great  Elector  Frederick  William  (i  640-1 688). — 
Although  this  new  Prussian  power  was  destined  to  become  the 
champion  of  German  Protestantism,  it  acted  a  very  unworthy  and 
vacillating  part  in  the  Thirty  Years*  War.  But  just  before  the 
close  of  that  struggle  a  strong  man  came  to  the  throne, —  Frederick 
William,  better  known  as  the  "  Great  Elector."  He  infused  vigor 
and  strength  into  every  department  of  the  state  and  acquired 
such  a  position  for  his  government  that  at  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia he  was  able  to  secure  new  territory,  which  greatly  enhanced 
his  power  and  prominence  among  the  German  princes. 

The  Great  Elector  ruled  for  nearly  half  a  century,  and  left  to 
his  successor  a  strongly  centralized  authority.    He  was  one  of  the 

469 


470  THE   RISE   OF   PRUSSIA 

most  ideal  representatives  of  the  principle  of  absolute  monarchy 
then  so  dominant.  Like  all  absolute  rulers,  he  placed  his  faith  in 
soldiers,  and  laid  the  basis  of  the  military  power  of  Prussia  by  the 
creation  of  a  standing  army. 

522 .  How  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  acquired  the  Title  of  King. 
—  Elector  Frederick  III  (1688-17 13),  son  of  the  Great  Elector, 
was  ambitious  for  the  title  of  King,  a  dignity  that  the  weight  and 
influence  won  for  the  Prussian  state  by  his  father  fairly  justified 
him  in  seeking.  He  saw  about  him  other  princes  less  powerful 
than  himself  enjoying  this  dignity,  and  he  too  "  would  be  a  king 
and  wear  a  crown." 

It  was  necessary  of  course  for  Frederick  to  secure  the  consent 
of  the  Emperor,  a  matter  of  some  difficulty,  for  the  Catholic 
advisers  of  the  Austrian  court  were  bitterly  opposed  to  having  an 
heretical  prince  thus  honored  and  advanced.  But  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  was  just  about  to  open,  and  the  Emperor  was 
extremely  anxious  to  secure  Frederick's  assistance  in  the  coming 
struggle.  Therefore,  on  condition  of  his  furnishing  him  aid  in  the 
war,  the  Emperor  consented  to  Frederick's  assuming  the  new  title 
and  dignity  iri  the  Duchy  of  Prussia,  which,  unlike  Brandenburg, 
was  not  included  in  the  Empire.  Accordingly,  early  in  the  year 
1 70 1,  Frederick,  amidst  imposing  ceremonies,  was  crowned  and 
hailed  as  King  at  Konigsberg.  Hitherto  he  had  been  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  and  Duke  of  Prussia ;  now  he  was  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg and  King  of  Prussia. 

Thus  was  a  new  king  born  among  the  kings  of  Europe.  Thus 
did  the  House  of  Hapsburg  invest  with  royal  dignity  the  rival 
House  of  Hohenzollern.  The  event  is  a  landmark  in  German, 
and  even  in  European,  history.  The  cue  of  German  history  from 
this  on  is  the  growth  of  the  power  of  the  Prussian  kings  and  their 
steady  advance  to  imperial  honors  and  to  the  control  of  the 
affairs  of  the  German  race. 

523.  Frederick  William  I  (1713-1740). — The  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  first  Prussian  king,  known  as  Frederick  Wilham  I, 
was  a  most  extraordinary  character.  He  was  a  strong,  violent, 
brutal  man,  full  of  the  strangest  freaks,  yet  in  many  respects  just 


FREDERICK  WILLIAM   I  471 

the  man  for  the  times.  He  despised  culture  and  treated  scholars 
with  studied  contempt,  being  reported  as  having  declared  that 
"  a  pinch  of  common  sense  was  worth  a  university  full  of  learning." 
He  would  tolerate  no  idlers.  He  carried  a  long  cane,  which  he 
laid  upon  the  back  of  every  unoccupied  person  he  chanced  to 
meet,  whether  man,  woman,  or  child. 

Frederick  William  had  a  mania  for  big  soldiers.  With  infinite 
expense  and  trouble  he  gathered  a  regiment  of  the  tallest  men  he 
could  find,  who  were  known  as  the  "  Potsdam  Giants,"  —  a  regi- 
ment numbering  twenty-four  hundred  men.  Not  only  were  the 
Goliaths  of  his  own  dominions  impressed  into  the  service,  but  tall 
men  in  all  parts  of  Europe  were  coaxed  and  hired  to  join  the 
regiment.  No  present  was  so  acceptable  to  him  as  a  tall  grena- 
dier. The  Princess  Wilhelmina,  referring  to  her  father's  ruling 
passion,  says  :  "  This  regiment  might  justly  be  styled  *  the  chan- 
nel of  royal  favor,'  for  to  give  or  to  procure  tall  men  for  the  king 
was  sufficient  to  obtain  anything  of  him."  On  the  other  hand, 
nothing  angered  him  more  than  any  interference  with  his  recruit- 
ing service.  To  the  Dutch,  who  had  hanged  two  of  his  recruiting 
sergeants  and  then  later  wanted  from  Prussia  a  famous  scholar  for 
one  of  their  universities,  he  is  said  to  have  replied  curtly,  "  No 
tall  fellows,  no  professor." 

Considering  the  trouble  and  expense  Frederick  William  had  in 
collecting  his  giants,  the  care  which  he  took  of  them  was  quite 
natural.  He  looked  after  them  as  tenderly  as  though  they  were 
infants,  and  was  very  careful  never  to  expose  them  to  the  dangers 
of  a  battle. 

Notwithstanding  Frederick  William  was  so  eccentric  in  many 
of  his  public  acts,  and  in  his  domestic  relations  was  a  perfect 
savage,  in  the  general  administration  of  his  government  he 
evinced  such  energy  and  good  judgment  that  he  is  admitted  to 
have  been  one  of  the  greatest  administrators  of  his  age.  He  did 
very  much  to  consolidate  the  power  of  Prussia,  and  at  his  death 
in  1740  left  to  his  successor  a  considerably  extended  dominion 
and  a  splendidly  drilled  army  which  he  had  increased  from  thirty- 
five  thousand  to  eighty  thousand  men. 


472  THE   RISE   OF   PRUSSIA 

524.  Accession  of  Frederick  the  Great  (1740);  his  Youth. — 
Frederick  William  was  followed  by  his  son  Frederick  II,  to  whom 
the  world  has  agreed  to  give  the  title  of  Great.  He  was  one  of 
the  few  kings  of  whom  it  can  be  said  that  they  were  kings  by  right 
of  genius  as  well  as  by  right  of  birth.  Around  his  name  gather 
events  of  world-wide  interest  for  forty-six  years  just  preceding  the 
French  Revolution. 

It  was  a  rough  nurture  Frederick  had  received  in  the  home  of 
his  brutal  father.  His  sister  Wilhelmina  tells  incredible  tales  of 
her  own  and  her  brother's  treatment  at  the  hands  of  their  savage 
parent.  He  made  the  palace  a  veritable  hell  for  them  both.  He 
threw  plates  from  the  table  at  their  heads  and  kept  them  in  con- 
stant fear  for  their  lives.  Frederick's  fine  tastes  for  music  and  art 
and  reading  exposed  him  in  particular,  to  use  the  words  of  Wil- 
helmina, to  his  royal  father's  "customary  endearments  with  his 
fist  and  cane." 

Frederick  had  a  genius  for  war,  and  his  father  had  prepared  to 
his  hand  one  of  the  most  efficient  instruments  of  that  art  since 
the  time  of  the  Roman  legions.  *'The  Prussian  battalion,"  says 
Frederick,  speaking  of  the  army  he  had  inherited  from  his  paren- 
tal drillmaster,  "  had  become  a  walking  battery."  One  Prussian, 
he  asserts,  was  equal  to  three  adversaries. 

The  two  great  wars  in  which  Frederick  was  engaged,  and 
which  raised  Prussia  to  the  first  rank  among  the  military  powers 
of  Europe,  were  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  and  the 
Seven  Years'  War. 

525.  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (i  740-1 748).  —  Through 
the  death  of  Charles  VI  the  imperial  office  became  vacant  in 
the  very  year  that  Frederick  II  ascended  the  Prussian  throne. 
Charles  was  the  last  of  the  direct  male  line  of  the  Hapsburgs, 
and  disputes  straightway  arose  respecting  the  succession  to  the 
dominions  of  the  House  of  Austria,  which  resulted  in  the  long 
struggle  known  as  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 

Now,  not  long  before  his  death  Charles  had  bound  all  the 
different  states  of  his  dominion  and  all  the  leading  powers  of 
Europe  to  a  sort  of  agreement  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by 


PRUSSIA. 

at  the  Accession,  of 

FREDERICK  THE  GREAT 

In  1740 


Scale  or  M!lc8 


WAR   OF  THE   AUSTRIAN   SUCCESSION         473 

the  terms  of  which,  in  case  he  should  leave  no  son,  all  his  hered- 
itary dominions  —  that  is,  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  the  kingdom 
of  Bohemia,  the  archduchy  of  Austria,  and  the  other  possessions 
of  the  House  of  Austria  —  should  descend  to  his  elder  daughter, 
Maria  Theresa.  Accordingly,  upon  the  death  of  Charles  these 
dominions  passed  to  the  archduchess,  who  was  now  called  Queen 
of  Hungary,  that  being  the  highest  title  of  all  those  which  she 
was  entitled  to  bear.-^ 

Solemnly  as  the  powers  of  Europe  had  agreed  to  maintain  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  no  sooner  was  Charles  dead  than  Bavaria, 
Spain,  Sardinia,  and  Saxony  each  laid  claim  to  all  or  to  portions 
of  the  Hapsburg  inheritance.  France,  quite  willing  to  aid  in  the 
dismemberment  of  Austria,  supported  the  pretensions  of  Bavaria. 
Before  any  of  these  claimants,  however,  had  begun  hostilities, 
Frederick, — whose  father  had  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
—  without  any  declaration  of  war,  marched  his  army  into  Silesia 
and  took  forcible  possession  of  that  country.  Frederick's  act  was 
an  act  of  pure  brigandage.  He  himself  frankly  tells  posterity 
that  the  mixed  motive  under  which  he  acted  was  a  desire  to  aug- 
ment his  dominions,  to  render  himself  and  Prussia  respected  in 
Europe,  and  to  acquire  fame. 

Thus  stripped  of  one  of  her  fairest  provinces,  Maria  Theresa 
finally  appealed  to  the  Hungarian  nobility  to  avenge  her  wrongs. 
They  were  at  this  time  discontented  because  certain  of  their  rights 
had  not  been  respected.  By  restoring  or  confirming  all  their  ancient 
liberties,  the  queen  gained  their  ardent  and  loyal  support. 

England,  the  Protestant  Netherlands,  and  eventually  Russia 
were  drawn  into  the  war  as  allies  of  Maria  Theresa.  The  theater 
of  the  struggle  came  to  embrace  India  and  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish colonies  in  the  New  World.  Macaulay's  well-known  words 
picture  the  world-wide  range  of  the  conflagration  which  Freder- 
ick's act  had  kindled  :  "  In  order  that  he  might  rob  a  neighbor," 


1  The  imperial  crown  could  not  of  course  be  worn  by  her.  This  was  given  by  the 
Electors  to  Charles  Albert,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  became  Emperor  Charles  VII 
(1742).  Three  years  later  Charles  died  and  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa  was  raised 
by  the  Electors  to  the  imperial  throne  as  Emperor  Francis  I. 


474  THE   RISE   OF   PRUSSIA 

he  says,  ''  whom  he  had  promised  to  defend,  black  men  fought  on 
the  coast  of  Coromandel,  and  red  men  scalped  each  other  by  the 
Great  Lakes  of  North  America." 

The  war  went  on  until  1748,  when  it  was  closed  by  the  Peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Carlyle's  summing  up  of  the  provisions  of  the 
various  treaties  of  this  peace  can  be  easily  remembered,  and  is 
not  misleading  as  to  the  essentials  :  "  To  Frederick,  Silesia ;  as  to 
the  rest,  wholly  as  they  were." 

526.  The  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763).  —  The  eight  years 
of  peace  which  followed  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  were 
improved  by  Frederick  in  developing  the  resources  of  his  king- 
dom and  perfecting  the  organization  and  discipline  of  his  army. 
During  this  time  Maria  Theresa  was  busy  forming  a  league  of  the 
chief  European  powers  against  the  unscrupulous  despoiler  of  her 
dominions.  Russia,  Sweden,  many  of  the  states  of  the  Germanic 
body,  and  even  France,  who  now  abandoned  her  traditional  policy 
of  opposition  to  the  House  of  Austria, — all  ultimately  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  the  empress  queen.  Frederick  could  at  first  find 
no  ally  save  England,  —  towards  the  close  of  the  war  Russia 
came  for  a  short  time  to  his  side,  —  so  that  he  was  left  almost 
alone  to  fight  the  combined  armies  of  half  the  Continent.^ 
Throughout  the  struggle  Prussia  was  scarcely  more  than  a 
"Spartan    camp." 

.  The  long  war  is  known  in  European  history  as  the  Seven  Years' 
War.  At  the  very  outset  it  became  mixed  with  what  in  American 
history  is  called  the  French  and  Indian  War,  which  had  practi- 
cally begun  with  the  disastrous  defeat  of  Braddock  in  1755. 

At  first  the  fortunes  of  the  war  were  all  on  Frederick's  side. 
In  the  celebrated  battles  of  Rossbach,  Leuthen,  and  Zorndorf  he 
defeated  successively  the  French,  the  Austrians,  and  the  Russians, 
and  startled  all  Europe  into  an  acknowledgment  of  the  fact  that 
the  armies  of  Prussia  had  at  their  head  one  of  the  greatest  com- 
manders of  the  world.  His  name  became  everywhere  a  household 
word,  and  everybody  coupled  with  it  the  admiring  epithet  of  Great. 

2  The  population  of  Prussia  at  this  time  was  about  5,000,000 ;  the  aggregate  popu- 
lation of  the  states  leagued  against  her  is  estimated  at  100,000,000. 


THE   SEVEN   YEARS'  WAR 


475 


But  fortune  finally  deserted  him.  In  sustaining  the  unequal 
contest  his  dominions  became  drained  of  men ;  England  with- 
drew her  aid,*  and  inevitable  ruin  seemed  to  impend  over  his 
throne  and  kingdom.  He  himself  despaired  of  being  able  much 
longer  to  hold  his  enemies  at  bay,  and  carried  about  his  person 
poison  to  use  when  the  last 
effort  should  have  been 
made. 

A  change  by  death  in  the 
government  of  Russia  now 
put  a  new  face  upon  Fred- 
erick's affairs.  In  1762 
Empress  Elizabeth  of  that 
country  died,  and  Peter  III, 
an  ardent  admirer  of  Fred- 
erick, came  to  the  throne, 
and  immediately  transferred 
the  armies  of  Russia  from 
the  side  of  the  allies  to  that 
of  Prussia.  "  Together  we 
will  conquer  the  whole 
world,"  was  the  sanguine 
declaration  of  the  Tsar  as 
he  joined  his  forces  to  those 
of  his  friend. 

The  alliance  lasted  only 
a  few  months,  Peter  being 
deposed  and  murdered  by 
his  wife,  who  now  came  to 
the  throne  as  Catherine  II. 

She  adopted  a  neutral  policy  and  recalled  her  armies ;  but  the 
temporary  alliance  had  given  Frederick  a  decisive  advantage,  and 
the  year  following  the  defection  of  Russia,  England  and  France 
were  glad  to  give  over  the  struggle  and  sign  the  Peace  of  Paris 

«  William  Pitt  (later,  Earl  of  Chatham)  fell  from  pow-er  in  1761,  and  his  policy  of 
fighting  France  by  helping  Frederick  was  abandoned.   Consult  sec.  540. 


Fig.  85.  —  Frkhkrick  the  Great  of 
Prussia.  (From  a  photograph  of  the 
statue  presented  to  the  United  States 
by  Emperor  William  II,  and  unveiled 
at  Washington,  Nov.  19,  1904) 


4/6  THE   RISE   OF   PRUSSIA 

(1763).  Shortly  after  this  another  peace  (the  Treaty  of  Huberts- 
burg)  was  arranged  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  one  of  the 
most  terrible  wars  that  had  ever  disturbed  Europe  was  over. 
Silesia  was  left  in  the  hands  of  Frederick. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  was  one  of  the  decisive  combats  of  his- 
tory. Besides  the  Anglo-French  question  in  India  (sec.  540),  it 
settled  two  questions  of  vast  reach  and  significance.  First,  it 
settled,  or  at  least  put  in  the  way  of  final  settlement,  the  Austro- 
Prussian  question,  —  the  question  as  to  whether  Austria  or  Prussia 
should  be  leader  in  Germany.  It  made  Prussia  the  equal  of  Aus- 
tria and  foreshadowed  her  ascendancy. 

Second,  it  settled  the  Anglo-French  question  in  America,  a 
question  like  the  Austro-Prussian  question  in  Europe.  It  decided 
that  North  America  should  belong  to  the  Protestant  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  not  to  the  Catholic  Latin,  race. 

Thus,  though  the  war  was  in  no  sense  a  religious  war,  still  the 
outcome  of  the  tremendous  struggle  was  the  humiHation  of  two 
Catholic  states,  Austria  and  France,  and  the  lifting  into  promi- 
nence of  two  Protestant  states,  Prussia  and  England.  There  was 
in  this  vast  significance  for  both  Old  and  New  World  history. 

527.  Frederick  rounds  out  his  Dominions  at  the  Expense  of 
Poland.  —  It  was  about  a  decade  after  the  close  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War  that  Frederick,  as  has  already  been  related,  joined 
with  Catherine  II  of  Russia  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  in  the 
First  Partition  of  Poland  (sec.  519). 

Respecting  the  value  to  Prussia  of  the  territory  she  received 
in  this  transaction,  Frederick  in  his  History  of  my  Own  Times 
comments  as  follows  :  ''  This  was  one  of  the  most  important 
acquisitions  we  could  possibly  make,  because  it  joined  Pomerania 
and  Eastern  Prussia  (see  map,  p.  472),  and,  by  rendering  us  mas- 
ters of  the  Vistula,  we  gained  the  double  advantage  of  being  able 
to  defend  this  kingdom  and  of  levying  very  considerable  tolls  on 
the  Vistula,  the  whole  trade  of  Poland  being  carried  on  upon  that 
river."  But  this  aggrandizement  of  Prussia  was  secured  only  by 
just  such  a  cynical  disregard  of  international  honesty  by  Frederick 
as  marked  his  annexation  of  Silesia. 


FREDERICK  AS   A   RULER  477 

528.  Frederick  as  an  Enlightened  Despot.  —  Frederick  in  all  his 
relations  to  his  own  subjects  had  a  wholly  different  moral  stand- 
ard from  that  which  he  adopted  in  his  dealings  with  his  brother 
sovereigns.  In  all  matters  concerning  foreign  states,  expediency 
was  his  only  guide  ;  he  did  whatever  he  thought  would  aggrandize 
Prussia  and  glorify  himself,  without  any  regard  to  truth,  honesty, 
or  honor.  But  for  his  guidance  in  his  relations  to  his  own  people 
he  had  an  admirable  moral  code.  Duty  was  his  watchword  here. 
So  just  and  exalted  was  his  conception  of  his  kingly  office,  and 
so  worthy  the  use  he  made  of  it,  that  he  has  been  assigned  a  first 
place  among  the  enlightened  despots  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Professor  Morse  Stephens  illustrates  the  difference  between  the 
despotism  of  Louis  XIV  and  that  of  Frederick  by  thus  setting 
in  contrast  their  respective  maxims  :  "  Louis  said,  *  I  am  the 
State';  Frederick  said,  'I  am  the  first  servant  of  the  State.'" 
And  Carlyle  thus  sums  up  his  praise  of  his  hero  :  **  Frederick  was 
a  real  shepherd  of  his  people." 

It  is  in  these  words  that  Frederick  records  his  idea  of  royal 
duty :  "  If  I  had  more  than  one  life,  I  would  give  it  for  my 
fatherland."  And  again  :  "  I  have  always  regarded  the  revenues 
of  the  state  as  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  which  no  unholy  hand 
ought  to  touch.  I  have  never  applied  the  public  revenues  to  my 
personal  advantage." 

It  was  in  the  spirit  of  these  declarations  that  Frederick  labored, 
during  the  intervals  of  peace  between  his  great  wars,  and  for  the 
half  of  his  reign  which  followed  the  Peace  of  Hubertsburg,  to  de- 
velop the  resources  of  his  dominions  and  to  promote  the  material 
welfare  of  his  people.  He  dug  canals,  constructed  roads,  drained 
marshes,  encouraged  agriculture  and  manufactures,  and  improved 
in  every  possible  way  the  administration  of  the  government. 

But  Frederick's  attention  was  not  wholly  engrossed  with  look- 
ing after  the  material  well-being  of  his  subjects.  He  was  a  philoso- 
pher and  believed  himself  to  be  a  poet,  and  usually  spent  several 
hours  each  day  in  philosophical  and  literary  pursuits.  It  has  been 
said  of  him  that  "  he  divided  with  Voltaire  the  intellectual  mon- 
archy of  the  eighteenth  century."    He  gathered  about  him  a 


478  THE   RISE   OF   PRUSSIA 

company  selected  from  among  the  most  distinguished  authors,  sci- 
entists, and  philosophers  of  the  age,  among  whom  was  his  ''  co- 
sovereign"  Voltaire,  whom  Frederick  coaxed  to  Berlin  to  add 
brilliancy  to  his  court,  and  to  criticise  and  correct  his  verses. 
Frederick  felt  very  proud  —  for  a  time  —  of  this  acquisition,  and 
rejoiced  that  to  his  other  titles  he  could  now  add  that  of  "  the 
Possessor  of  Voltaire."  But  it  was  an  ill-assorted  friendship ;  the 
two  "  sovereigns "  soon  quarreled,  and  Voltaire  was  dismissed 
from  court  in  disgrace. 

Frederick  was  a  freethinker.  His  paganism  made  him  indiffer- 
ent toward  all  religions,  and  hence  tolerant.  He  said  in  effect,  as 
Carlyle  reports  him,  *'  In  this  country  every  man  must  get  to 
heaven  in  his  own  way."  The  company  which  he  gathered  at 
Sans  Souci,  his  favorite  palace  at  Potsdam,  near  Berlin,  was  a 
most  extraordinary  collection  of  heretics,  agnostics,  misbelievers, 
and  unbelievers.  It  was  a  company  very  representative  of  that 
learned  literary  and  philosophical  society  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury whose  ideas  and  teachings  did  so  much  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  French  Revolution. 

It  was  on  the  very  eve  of  this  great  political  and  social  upheaval 
that  Frederick  died,  —  in  1786.  Carlyle  calls  him  ''the  last  of 
the  kings."  He  was  of  course  not  the  last  in  name,  but  there  was 
none  after  him  as  great  as  he.  Only  three  years  after  he  had 
been  laid  in  the  tomb  broke  out  the  revolution  which  closed  the 
Age  of  the  Kings  and  ushered  in  the  i\ge  of  the  People. 

529.  Summary :  Prussia  made  a  New  Center  of  German 
Crystallization.  — This  chapter  may  be  summarized  in  this  way. 
The  all-important  result  of  Frederick  the  Great's  strong  reign  was 
the  making  of  Prussia  the  equal  of  Austria,  and  thereby  the  lay- 
ing of  the  basis  of  future  German  unity.  Hitherto  Germany  had 
been  trying  unsuccessfully  to  concentrate  about  Austria;  now 
there  was  a  new  center  of  crystallization, —  one  which  was  destined 
to  draw  to  itself  the  Protestant  elements  of  German  nationality. 

The  internal  history  of  Germany  from  Frederick's  reign  on,  if 
we  leave  out  of  consideration  the  period  of  Napoleon's  domina- 
tion, is  very  largely  the  story  of  the  rivalry  of  these  two  powers, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  479 

resulting  in  the  final  triumph  of  Prussia  and  the  unification  of 
Germany  under  her  leadership,  Austria  with  the  mixed  races 
under  her  rule  being  pushed  out  as  though  entitled  to  no  part  in 
the  affairs  of  the  German  fatherland.  This  story  we  shall  tell  in 
a  later  chapter. 

Selections  from  the  Sources. — Memoirs  of  Frederica  Sophia  Wil- 
helmina  (Margravine  of  Baireuth,  sister  of  Frederick  the  Great).  These 
memoirs  form  one  of  the  most  graphic  and  piquant  autobiographies  ever 
written.  They  hold  striking  portraits  of  the  author's  savage  father,  Fred- 
erick William  I,  of  her  brother,  to  whom  sbe  was  devotedly  attached,  and 
of  many  other  distinguished  contemporaries.  But  Wilhelmina's  lively 
imagination  and  her  mischievous  if  not  malicious  spirit  caused  her  to 
overcolor  and  to  exaggerate.  Consequently  the  numerous  portraits  which 
she  delights  in  sketching,  while  always  interesting  and  often  amusing,  are 
not  to  be  taken  too  seriously. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Tuttle,  History  of  Prussia.  This  work  was 
unhappily  interrupted  at  the  year  1757  by  the  death  of  the  author.  It 
is  the  best  history  in  English  of  the  period  covered.  Reddaway,  Fred- 
erick the  Great  and  the  Rise  of  Prussia.  Carlyle,  History  of  Friedrich 
the  Second.  This  is  one  of  Carlyle's  masterpieces.  Like  his  French  Revo- 
lution it  will  be  best  appreciated  if  read  after  some  acquaintance  with  its 
subject  has  been  gained  from  other  sources.  It  deals  almost  exclusively 
with  Frederick's  twenty-three  years  of  war  and  utterly  neglects  or  mini- 
mizes the  twenty-three  of  his  reign  which  were  years  of  peace.  Hassali^ 
The  Balance  of  Power,  lyij-i^Sg,  chaps,  vi-ix.  Longman,  Frederick  the 
Great  and  the  Seven  Years^  War.  Bright,  Maria  Theresa.  Henderson, 
A  Short  History  of  Germany,  vol.  ii,  chaps,  i-v.  Macaulay,  Essay  on 
Frederick  the  Great. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  Teutonic  Knights  and  the  begin- 
nings of  Prussia,  2.  The  Great  Elector  Frederick  William.  3.  Character  of 
the  father  of  Frederick  the  Great.  4.  The  Regiment  of  Giants.  5.  The 
Empress-Queen  Maria  Theresa.  6.  Frederick  the  Great  and  Voltaire. 
7.  Frederick  the  Great  as  an  enlightened  despot. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 
ENGLAND  IN   THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

I.  The  Reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1702-17 14) 

530.  The  Formula  for  Eighteenth-Century  English  History.  — 

"The  expansion  of  England  in  the  New  World  and  in  Asia,"  says 
Professor  Seeley,  "  is  the  formula  which  sums  up  for  England  the 
history  of  the  eighteenth  century." 

This  expansion  movement  was  simply  the  continuation  of  a 
trade  and  commercial  development  which  had  begun  in  the' 
sixteenth  century,  and  which  had  shaped  large  sections  of  the 
history  of  England  by  bringing  her  into  sharp  rivalry  first  with 
Spain  and  then  with  the  Dutch  Netherlands.  Before  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century  England  had  practically  triumphed 
over  both  these  commercial  rivals.  Her  great  and  dangerous 
rival  in  the  eighteenth  century  was  France.  "  The  whole  period," 
says  Seeley,  referring'  to  the  period  between  1688  and  18 15, 
"  stands  out  as  an  age  of  gigantic  rivalry  between  England  and 
France,  a  kind  of  second  Hundred  Years'  War." 

To  indicate  from  the  viewpoint  of  English  history  the  chief 
episodes  in  this  great  struggle  between  the  two  rivals  for  suprem- 
acy in  the  commercial  and  colonial  world  will  be  our  chief  aim 
in  the  present  chapter.  We  shall,  however,  in  order  to  render 
more  complete  our  sketch  of  this  century  of  English  history, 
touch  upon  some  other  matters  of  special  interest  and  signifi- 
cance, though  connected  in  no  direct  manner  with  the  dominant 
movement  of  the  period. 

531.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (i 701-17 14).  —  The 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  covered  the  whole  of  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne.    Respecting  the  causes  and  results  of  this  war, 

480 


WAR  OF  THE   SPANISH   SUCCESSION  48 1 

and  of  England's  part  in  it,  we  have  already  spoken  in  connection 
with  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  (sec.  451).  Of  what  was  there  said 
we  need  here  recall  only  the  enumeration  of  the  territorial  gains 
which  the  war,  and  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  which  closed  it,  brought 
to  England ;  namely,  Gibraltar  and  the  island  of  Minorca  in  the 
Old  World,  and  Nova  Scotia  together  with  a  clear  title  to  New- 
foundland and  the  Hudson  Bay  Territory  in  the  New. 

Of  special  interest  in  the  present  connection  is  that  clause  of 
the  treaty  between  England  and  Spain  whereby  England  took 
away  from  the  French  and  secured  for  English  merchants  the 
contract  known  as  the  "  Assiento,"  which  gave  English  subjects 
the  sole  right  for  thirty  years  of  shipping  annually  forty-eight 
hundred  African  slaves  to  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.^ 
This  slave  trade  was  as  lucrative  a  traffic  as  the  old  spice  trade, 
and  at  this  time  was  some  such  object  of  rivalry  among  the  com- 
mercial states  of  Europe  as  that  had  formerly  been.  The  secur- 
ing of  this  contract  by  England  made  her  the  chief  slave-trading 
power  in  the  world. 

At  the  same  time  that  England  got  the  Assiento  contract  she 
secured  from  Spain  the  further  right  to  send  each  year  one  vessel 
on  a  trading  voyage  to  Spanish  America. 

Thus  as  results  of  the  first  war  of  the  eighteenth  century  Eng- 
land had  got  practical  control  of  the  Mediterranean,  had  secured 
a  monopoly  of  the  lucrative  slave  trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies, 
had  made  a  beginning  of  wresting  from  France  her  possessions  in 
the  New  World,  and  had  gained  mastery  of  the  seas.  "  Before 
the  war,"  says  Mahan,  "England  was  one  of  the  sea  powers; 
after  it  she  was  the  sea  power,  without  any  second." 

532.  Parliamentary  Union  of  England  and  Scotland  (1707). — 
The  most  noteworthy  matter  in  the  domestic  history  of  England 
during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  was  the  union  of  the  Parliaments 

1  The  Papal  Line  of  Demarcation  (sec.  307)  and  treaty  engagements  with  the 
Portuguese  shut  the  Spaniards  out  from  Africa,  and  hence  they  had  to  depend  upon 
intermediaries  to  fetch  them  slaves  from  thence.  The  Dutch  had  had  the  contract 
before  the  French.  For  an  account  of  the  Assiento  and  the  economic  condition  at  this 
time  of  Spanish  America,  see  Moses,  Establishment  of  Spanish  RuU  in  America, 
chap.  xi. 


482   ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

of  England  and  Scotland.'^  This  important  transaction  was  closely 
connected  with  that  commercial  and  colonial  expansion  movement 
which  characterized  eighteenth-century  English  history. 

At  this  time  England,  dealing  with  Scotland  in  the  same  spirit 
as  she  dealt  with  Ireland,  by  means  of  navigation  laws  and  high 
customs  duties  practically  excluded  her  merchants,  as  though 
Scotland  were  a  foreign  state,  from  participation  in  that  com- 
mercial prosperity  which  English  traders  were  enjoying.  The 
Scotch  traders  were  shut  out  not  only  from  the  English  colonies 
but  also  from  the  English  home  market.  Scotch  trade  was  thus 
strangled.  In  the  hope  of  creating  an  outlet  for  their  commerce, 
the  Scots  undertook  to  estabHsh  a  colony  of  their  own  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  or  Darien,  which  was  given  the  name  of 
New  Caledonia.*  The  settlement  was  to  be  the  halfway  station 
between  Scotland  and  the  East  Indies.  The  enterprise  raised 
great  expectations.  The  isthmian  city  was  to  be  the  Alexandria 
of  the  New  World,  "  the  key  of  the  universe."  *  But  the  spot 
selected  for  the  settlement  proved  unhealthy ;  besides,  the  Span- 
iards made  trouble  and  drove  out  the  colonists,  claiming  that 
the  settlement  was  an  encroachment  upon  their  territory.  The 
outcome  was  the  disastrous  failure  of  the  undertaking. 

The  commercial  distress  occasioned  in  Scotland  by  reason  of 
the  miscarriage  of  this  enterprise  caused  the  feeling  against  Eng- 
land to  become  more  intense  than  ever,  and  there  were  threats 
of  breaking  the  dynastic  ties  which  united  the  two  countries. 
The  English  government,  realizing  the  danger  which  lurked  in 
the  situation,  —  for  the  national  sentiment  in  Scotland  was  still 
strong,  —  now  met  the  Scots  in  a  spirit  of  reasonable  compro- 
mise. It  was  agreed  that  the  Parliaments  of  the  two  countries 
should  be  united ;  that  perfect  free  trade  should  be  established 
between  them ;  and  that  all  the  English  colonies  should  be  open 

2  It  was  only  the  crotvns  of  the  two  kingdoms  which  were  united  upon  the  acces- 
sion of  the  House  of  Stuart  to  the  English  throne  in  1603  (sec.  458). 

3  The  promoter  of  the  project  was  a  Scotchman  named  William  Paterson.  The 
active  efforts  to  found  the  colony  covered  the  years  1698-1700. 

*  The  scheme,  it  will  be  noted,  was  substantially  only  an  anticipation  of  the  later 
unfortunate  French  Panama  Canal  project. 


LITERATURE   UNDER  QUEEN   ANNE  483 

to  Scotch  traders.  On  this  basis  was  brought  about  the  union  of 
the  two  realms  into  a  single  kingdom  under  the  name  of  Great 
Britain  (1707).  From  this  time  forward  the  two  countries  were 
represented  by  one  Parliament  sitting  at  Westminster. 

The  union  was  advantageous  to  both  countries ;  for  it  was  a 
union  not  simply  of  hands  but  of  hearts.  England's  constant 
and  costly  watch  of  her  northern  frontiers  through  ten  centuries 
against  raid  and  invasion  could  now  be  intermitted.  As  to  Scot- 
land, her  entrance  into  England's  home  and  colonial  markets, 
and  her  participation  in  English  manufacturing  and  commercial 
enterprises,  resulted  in  a  wonderful  expansion  of  her  energies 
and  resources.  Manufactories  sprang  up  on  every  side ;  insig- 
nificant hamlets  grew  quickly  into  great  centers  of  industry.  Ten 
years  after  the  union  the  first  Scotch  vessel  intended  for  the 
transatlantic  trade  was  launched  on  the  Clyde.  The  Clyde  to-day 
is  one  of  the  greatest  centers  of  the  shipbuilding  industry,  and 
Glasgow  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  seaports  of 
the  world. 

533.  Literature  under  Queen  Anne.  — The  reign  of  Queen  Anne 
was  an  illustrious  one  in  English  literature.  Under  her  began  to 
write  a  group  of  brilliant  authors  whose  activity  continued  on 
into  the  reign  of  her  successor,  George  I.  Their  productions  are, 
many  of  them,  of  special  interest  to  the  historian,  because  during 
this  period  there  was  an  unusually  close  connection  between  liter- 
ature and  politics.  Literature  was  forced  into  the  service  of 
party.  A  large  portion  of  the  writings  of  the  era  was  in  the  form 
of  political  pamphlets,  wherein  all  the  resources  of  wit,  satire,  and 
literary  skill  were  exhausted  in  defending  or  ridiculing  the  oppos- 
ing principles  and  policies  of  Whig  and  Tory. 

The  four  most  prominent  and  representative  authors  of 
the  times  were  Alexander  Pope  (i 688-1 744),  Jonathan  Swift 
(1667-1745),  Joseph  Addison  (1672-1719),  and  Daniel  Defoe 
(i66i?-i73i). 

In  the  scientific  annals  of  the  period  the  name  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  (1642-17 2 7)  is  most  prominent.  As  the  discoverer  of 
the  law  of  gravitation  and  the  author  of  the  Principia,  his  name 


k 


484   ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

will  ever  retain  a  high  place  among  the  few  who  belong  through 
their  genius  or  achievements  to  no  single  nation  or  age,  but  to 
the  world. 

534.  Death  of  Queen  Anne ;  the  Succession.  —  Queen  Anne 
died  in  the  year  1714,  leaving  no  heirs.  In  the  reign  of  William 
a  statute  known  as  the  Act  of  Settlement  had  provided  that  the 
crown,  in  default  of  heirs  of  Wilham  and  Anne,  should  descend 
to  the  Electress  Sophia  of  Hanover  (grandchild  of  James  I),  or 
her  heirs,  "  being  Protestants."  The  Electress  died  only  a  short 
time  before  the  death  of  Queen  Anne ;  so,  upon  that  event,  the 
crown  passed  to  the  Electress'  eldest  son,  George,  who  thus 
became  the  founder  of  a  new  line  of  English  sovereigns,  the 
House  of  Hanover,  or  Brunswick,  the  family  in  whose  hands  the 
royal  scepter  still  remains. 

II.  England  under  the  Earlier  Hanoverians^ 

535.  The  Sovereign's  Loss  of  Political  Influence ;  the  Prime 
Minister  and  the  Cabinet.  —  The  new  Hanoverian  king,  George  I 
(17 1 4-1 7 2 7),  was  utterly  ignorant  of  the  language  and  the  affairs 
of  the  people  over  whom  he  had  been  called  to  rule.  He  was  not 
loved  by  the  English,  but  he  was  tolerated  by  them  for  the  reason 
that  he  represented  Protestantism  and  those  principles  of  political 
liberty  for  which  they  had  so  long  battled  with  their  Stuart  kings. 
On  account  of  his  ignorance  of  English  affairs  the  king  was 
obliged  to  intrust  to  his  ministers  the  practical  administration  of 
the  government.  The  same  was  true  in  the  case  of  George  11 
(172 7-1 760).  George  III  (i 760-1820),  having  been  born  and 
educated  in  England,  regained  some  of  the  old  influence  of 
former  kings.  But  he  was  the  last  English  sovereign  who  had 
any  large  personal  influence  in  shaping  governmental  policies. 

The  power  and  patronage  lost  by  the  crown  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  chief  minister,  popularly  called  the  Prime  Minister, 

6  The  sovereigns  of  the  House  of  Hanover  are  George  I  (1714-1727),  George  II 
(1727-1760),  George  III  (1760-1820),  George  IV  (1820-1830),  William  IV  (1830- 
1837),  Victoria  (1837-1901),  and  Edward  VII  (1901-        ). 


THE   PRIME   MINISTER  AND   CABINET         .     485 

or  Premier,  whose  tenure  of  office  was  dependent  not  upon  the 
good  will  of  the  sovereign  but  upon  the  support  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  This  transfer  of  power  was  not  made  all  at  once,  but 
by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  practically  com- 
pleted, although  this  fact  was  not  always  gracefully  and  promptly 
recognized  by  the  crown.  In  the  English  government  of  to-day 
the  Prime  Minister  is  the  actual  and  fully  acknowledged  execu- 
tive. The  king  remains  the  titular  sovereign,  indeed,  but  all  real 
power  and  patronage  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Premier. 

The  first  English  Prime  Minister  in  the  modem  sense  was  Sir 
Robert  Walpole.  He  did  not  exercise  all  the  functions  of  the 
Premier  of  to-day,  but  his  control  of  affairs  and  his  relation  to  the 
dominant  party  in  Parliament  were  such  that  to  give  him  this  name 
is  not  misleading.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  government,  as  the 
leader  of  the  Whig  party,  for  about  twenty-one  years  (i  721-1 742). 
He  maintained  a  favorable  majority  in  Parliament  by  gifts  of  office, 
titles,  pensions,  and,  it  is  charged,  by  the  grossly  corrupt  use  of 
the  immense  secret-service  funds  of  which  he  had  the  disposal.* 

It  was  during  the  ^administration  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  that 
what  is  known  as  the  Cabinet  assumed  substantially  the  form 
which  it  has  at  the  present  time.  This  body  is  practically  a  com- 
mittee composed  of  a  dozen  or  more  members  of  Parliament, 
headed  by  the  Prime  Minister,  and  dependent  for  its  existence 
upon  the  will  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  Premier  and  his 
colleagues  stand  and  fall  together.  When  the  Cabinet  can  no 
longer  command  a  majority  in  the  Commons,  its  members  resign, 
and  a  new  Prime  Minister,  appointed  nominally  by  the  sovereign, 
but  really  by  the  party  in  control  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
forms  a  new  Cabinet.'^ 

536.  "The  South  Sea  Bubble"  (i 720-1 721).  —  One  of  the 
earUest  matters  of  moment   of  the  Hanoverian   period  was  a 

6  To  him  has  been  attributed  the  cynical  saying,  "  Every  man  has  his  price."  But 
he  did  not  utter  this  "  famous  slander  on  mankind."  What  he  actually  did  say  was, 
"  All  these  men  have  their  price,"  —  referring  to  a  group  of  his  opponents.  See  Mor- 
ley,  WalpoUy  p.  127;  and  Lecky,  England  tn  the  Eighteenth  Century  ySo\.  i,  p.  399. 

'■  The  Cabinet  is  an  essential  feature  of  all  modem  self-governing  states  which  have 
constitutions  copied  after  the  parliamentary  system  developed  by  the  English. 


486      ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

financial  episode  very  like  that  connected  with  the  name  of  John 
Law  in  French  history  (sec.  457).  The  affair  grew  directly  out  of 
the  treaty  arrangements  which  closed  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession. As  we  have  seen,  England  then  secured  certain  trading 
privileges  with  the  Spanish  colonies.  Now,  at  this  time  there 
were  abroad  most  exaggerated  ideas  of  the  wealth  of  Spanish 
America,  and  it  was  conceived  that  trading  privileges  in  those 
parts  meant  unlimited  wealth  for  everybody  sharing  them.  In 
anticipation  of  the  treaty  there  was  formed  in  England  a  com- 
pany to  engage  in  trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies.  The  shares 
of  the  company  were  eagerly  sought  after,  and  soon  began  to  rise 
in  price  like  the  shares  of  the  famous  French  Mississippi  Com- 
pany. Other  projects  were  started,  and  a  perfect  mania  for  specu- 
lation developed.  The  outcome  could  of  course  have  been  fore- 
seen. The  bubble  collapsed,  and  to  the  melancholy  record  of  "the 
Mississippi  Bubble"  was  added  that  of  "the  South  Sea  Bubble." 

537.  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (i  740-1 748). — 
From  our  present  viewpoint  we  can  easily  see  what  was  Eng- 
land's main  interest  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (sec. 
525).  She  entered  the  struggle  on  the  side  of  Austria  especially 
in  order  to  thwart  France  in  the  two  ambitious  objects  which 
she  was  then  pursuing,  namely,  to  make  herself  arbiter  of  Europe 
through  the  dismemberment  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  and  to  gain 
supremacy  on  the  sea  and  in  the  colonial  world. 

The  French- Enghsh  phase  of  the  war  was  in  the  main  a  naval 
combat.  The  outcome  was  the  practical  destruction  of  the  French 
navy  and  the  firmer  establishment  of  England's  sea  power.  The 
relations  of  the  two  rivals  in  India  and  in  America  were  left  essen- 
tially unchanged,^  yet  England's  confirmed  mastery  of  the  sea 
foreshadowed  the  disastrous  issue  for  France  of  the  next  conflict, 
which  was  only  a  little  way  in  the  future. 

538.  The  "Young  Pretender";  the  Last  Rally  of  the  Jacobites 
(1745).  —  Several  times  during  the  earher  half  of  the  eighteenth 

8  In  India  the  French  had  taken  Madras  from  the  English,  while  in  America  the 
English  had  taken  Louisburg  in  Cape  Breton  from  the  French.  There  was  a  mutual 
restoration  of  conquests  at  the  end  of  the  war. 


THE    RELIGIOUS    REVIVAL  487 

century,  the  exiled  Stuarts  attempted  to  get  back  the  throne  they 
had  lost.  The  last  of  these  attempts  was  made  in  1745,  when 
the  "Young  Pretender"  (grandson  of  James  II),  taking  advan- 
tage of  English  reverses  on  the  Continent,  landed  in  Scotland, 
effected  a  rising  of  the  Scotch  Highlanders,  worsted  the  English 
at  Prestonpans,  and  marched  upon  London.  Forced  to  retreat 
into  Scotland,  he  was  pursued  by  the  English  and  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  CuUoden  Moor,  and  the  Stuart  cause  was  ruined  forever. 

539.  The  Religious  Revival ;  the  Rise  of  Methodism.  —  It  will 
be  well  for  us  here,  midway  in  the  century,  to  turn  aside  from  the 
political  affairs  of  England  and  cast  a  glance  upon  the  religious 
life  of  the  time. 

In  its  spiritual  and  moral  life  the  England  of  the  earlier  Han- 
overians was  the  England  of  the  restored  Stuarts.  The  nation 
was  still  under  the  influence  of  its  reaction  from  the  Puritan 
regime  —  the  hated  rule  of  the  "Saints."  Among  the  higher 
classes  there  was  widespread  infidelity;  religion  was  a  matter  of 
jest  and  open  scoff.  The  Church  was  dead ;  the  higher  clergy 
were  neglectful  of  their  duties ;  sermons  were  cold  and  formal 
essays.  The  lower  classes  were  stolid,  callous,  and  brutal.  Drunk- 
enness was  almost  universal  among  high  and  low.  The  nation 
was  immersed  in  material  pursuits,  and  was  without  thought  or 
care  for  things  ideal  and  spiritual. 

Such  a  state  of  things  in  society  as  this  has  never  failed  to 
awaken  in  select  souls  a  vehement  protest.  And  it  was  so  now. 
At  Oxford,  about  the  year  1730,  a  number  of  earnest  young  men, 
among  whom  we  find  John  and  Charles  Wesley  and  George  White- 
field,  formed  a  little  society,  the  object  of  which  was  mutual  help- 
fulness in  true  Christian  living.  From  their  strict  and  methodical 
manner  of  life  they  were  derisively  nicknamed  "  Methodists." 

This  Oxford  movement  was  the  starting  point  of  a  remarkable 
religious  revival.  John  Wesley  was  the  organizer,  WTiitefield  the 
orator,  and  Charles  Wesley  the  poet  of  the  movement.^  They 
and  their  helpers  reached  the  neglected  masses  through  open-air 

*  Charles  Wesley  wrote  over  six  thousand  hymns,  niany  of  which  are  still  favorites 
in  the  hymnals  of  to-day. 


488      ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


meetings.  They  preached  in  the  fields,  at  the  street  corners, 
beneath  the  trees,  at  the  great  mining  camps.  The  effects  of 
their  fervid  exhortations  were  often  as  startling  as  were  those 
of  the  appeals  of  the  preachers  of  the  Crusades. 

The  leaders  of  the  revival  at  first  had  no  thought  of  estab- 
lishing a  Church  distinct  from  the  Anglican,  but  simply  aimed 
at  forming  within  the  Established  Church  a  society  of  earnest, 

devout  workers,  some- 
what like  that  of  the 
Christian  Endeavor 
societies  in  our  present 
churches.  Their  enthu- 
^^^^V"  <^^^^^^ft         siasm  and  their  often 

^~^^     "  -      "^^^^^^^^^        extravagant  manners, 

however,  offended  the 
staid,  cold  conservatism 
of  the  regular  clergy, 
and  they  were  finally 
constrained  by  petty 
persecution  to  go  out 
from  the  established 
organization  and  form  a 
Church  of  their  own. 

The  revival,  like  the 
Puritan  movement  of 
the  seventeenth  century, 
left  a  deep  impress  upon 
the  life  of  England.  It 
is  due  largely  to  this  movement  that  in  true  religious  feeling,  in 
social  purity,  in  moral  earnestness,  in  humanitarian  sentiment,^^ 
the  England  of  to-day  is  separated  by  such  a  gulf  from  the 
England  of  the  first  two  Georges. 

540.  The  Seven  Years'  "War  (i 756-1 763).  —  Just  after  the 
middle  of  the  century  there  broke  out  between  the  French  and 
the  English  colonists  in  America  the  so-called  French  and  Indian 

10  Cf.  sec.  543. 


Fig.  86.  —  John  Wesley.    (After  a 
painting  by  G.  Romney) 


THE   SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR 


489 


War.  This  struggle  became  blended  with  what  in  Europe  is 
known  as  the  Seven  Years'  War  (sec.  526),  and  consequently  it 
is  from  the  viewpoint  both  of  Europe  and  of  America  that  we 
must  regard  it.* 

At  first  the  war  went  disastrously  against  the  English,  —  Brad- 
dock's  expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne,  upon  the  march  to 
which  he  suffered  his  memorable  defeat  in  the  wilderness,  being 
but  one  of  several 
ill-starred  English 
undertakings.^^  In 
the  Old  World 
Minorca  had  been 
lost,  and  with  it  vir- 
tually the  control  of 
the  Mediterranean. 
Never  were  Eng- 
lishmen cast  into 
deeper  despair. 
Never  had  they  so 
completely  lost 
faith  in  themselves. 
The  Earl  of  Ches- 
terfield wrote:  "We 
are  undone  both  at 
home  and  abroad. 
.  .  .  We  are  no 
longer  a  nation." 

The  gloom  was  at 
its  deepest  when  the  elder  William  Pitt  (later  Earl  of  Chatham), 
known  as  "  the  Great  Commoner,"  came  to  the  head  of  affairs  in 
England.  Pitt  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  the  English  race  has 
ever  produced.  Frederick  the  Great  expressed  his  estimate  of 
him  in  these  words :  "  England  has  at  last  brought  forth  a  man." 
Pitt's  estimate  of  himself  was  equally  high  :  "I  believe  that  I  can 


Fig.  87.  —  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham 
(After  a  portrait  by  R.  Brompton) 


11  Braddock's  defeat  occurred  in  1755,  before  the  formal  declaration  of  war  by 
either  party. 


490      ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

save  this  country  and  that  no  one  else  can,"  was  the  way  in  which 
he  expressed  his  belief  in  his  abihty  to  retrieve  past  misfortunes. 

Pitt  exercised  the  full  authority  of  Prime  Minister  —  though 
he  was  not  the  nominal  head  of  the  ministry  —  from  1757  to 
1 76 1..  These  were  great  years  in  EngHsh  history.  It  was  like 
a  return  of  Cromwell's  rule.  Pitt's  indomitable  will  and  tireless 
energy  pervaded  at  once  every  department  of  the  government. 
"No  person,"  it  was  said,  ''ever  entered  his  closet  who  did  not 
come  out  of  it  a  braver  man."  Incompetent  men  who  had 
received  appointments  in  the  army  and  the  navy  solely  on  social 
grounds  or  through  poHtical  influence  were  replaced  by  men  of 
capacity,  men  upon  whom  Pitt  could  rely  to  carry  out  his  plans. 

The  war  against  France  was  pushed  not  only  in  America  and 
upon  the  sea,  but  also  in  India  and  upon  the  Continent.  Many 
disapproved  of  Pitt's  policy  of  fighting  France  by  aiding  Fred- 
erick, but  this  opposition  to  his  measures  only  called  out  Pitt's 
memorable  declaration  that  he  would  conquer  America  in  Germany. 

The  turning  point  in  the  war,  so  far  as  America  was  concerned, 
was  the  great  victory  gained  by  the  English  under  the  youthful 
Major  General  Wolfe  over  the  French  under  Montcalm  on  the 
Heights  of  Quebec  (1759).  The  victory  gave  England  Quebec, 
the  key  to  the  situation  in  the  New  World. 

In  India  also  victory  was  declaring  for  the  English  in  their 
struggle  there  with  the  French  and  their  native  allies.^^  Two 
years  before  the  battle  of  Quebec,  Colonel  Robert  Clive,  an 
officer  in  the  employ  of  the  English  East  India  Company,  with 
eleven  hundred  English  soldiers  and  two  thousand  sepoys,^^  in 
the  memorable  batde  of  Plassey  (1757)  had  put  to  flight  a  native 
army  of  sixty  thousand  foot  and  horse,  and  had  thus  virtually 
laid,  in  the  northeastern  region  of  the  peninsula,  the  basis  of 
England's  great  Indian  Empire.-^^ 

12  The  situation  here  was  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  the  New  World.  Both  the 
French  and  the  English  had  been  long  on  the  ground,  but  merely  as  traders,  and  not 
as  builders  of  empires.  About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  however,  they 
began  to  conquer  the  country  and  to  lay  the  foundations  of  territorial  dominion. 

13  The  name  given  native  soldiers  in  European  employ. 

14  The  prelude  to  this  battle  was  a  terrible  crime  committed  by  Siraj-ud-DauIa, 
viceroy  of  Bengal  and  other  provinces.    Moved  by  anger  at  the  refusal  of  the  English 


THE  AMERICAN   REVOLUTION  491 

The  end  came  in  1763  with  the  Peace  of  Paris.  France  ceded 
to  England  Canada  and  all  her  possessions  in  North  America  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  save  New  Orleans  and  a  little  adjoining 
land  (which,  along  with  the  French  territory  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, had  already  been  given  to  Spain),  and  two  little  islands  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Newfoundland,  which  she  was  allowed  to 
retain  to  dry  fish  on.  She  also  withdrew  from  India  as  a  poHtical 
rival  of  England. ^^  England's  supremacy  in  the  colonial  world 
and  her  mastery  of  the  sea  were  now  firmly  established.  This 
position,  notwithstanding  severe  losses  of  which  we  shall  speak 
immediately,  she  has  maintained  up  to  the  present  day. 

541.  The  American  Revolution  (17 75-1 783). — The  French 
and  Indian  War  was  the  prelude  to  the  War  of  American  Inde- 
pendence. The  overthrow  of  the  French  power  in  America  made 
the  English  colonists  less  dependent  than  hitherto  upon  the 
mother  country,  since  this  removed  their  only  dangerous  rival 
and  enemy  on  the  continent.  Clear-sighted  statesmen  had  pre- 
dicted that  when  the  colonists  no  longer  needed  England's  help 
against  the  French  they  would  sever  the  bonds  uniting  them  to 
the  home  land,  if  at  any  time  these  bonds  chafed  them. 

And  very  soon  the  bonds  did  chafe.  A  majority  in  Parliament, 
thinking  that  the  colonists  should  help  pay  the  expenses  of  colo- 
nial defense,  insisted  upon  taxing  them.  The  colonists  maintained 
that  they  could  be  justly  taxed  only  through  their  own  legislative 
assemblies.  The  British  government  refusing  to  acknowledge  this 
principle,  the  colonists  took  up  arms  in  defense  of  those  rights 
and  liberties  which  their  fathers  had  won  with  so  hard  a  struggle 
from  English  kings  on  English  soil. 

oflficial  to  surrender  certain  fugitives,  and  urged  on  by  French  agents,  the  viceroy 
attacked  the  English  fort  and  factory  at  Calcutta,  and  having  secured  one  hundred 
and  forty-six  prisoners,  thrust  them  into  a  contracted  guardroom  which  was  provided 
with  only  two  small  grated  windows,  —  what  in  the  story  of  India  is  known  as  "  the 
Black  Hole  of  Calcutta."  During  the  course  of  a  sultry  night  all  but  twenty-three 
of  the  unfortunate  prisoners  died  of  suffocation.  It  was  in  response  to  the  cry  which 
arose  for  vengeance  that  Robert  Clive  was  sent  by  the  English  officials  at  Madras  to 
succor  Bengal. 

18  Pondicherry,  a  French  trading  post  on  the  eastern  coast  of  India,  was  restored 
to  France,  and  she  still  remained  in  the  peninsula  as  a  trader ;  but  her  political  power 
was  as  completely  broken  there  by  the  war  as  in  America. 


492      ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

France  seized  the  opportunity  presented  by  the  war  to  avenge 
herself  upon  England  for  the  loss  of  Canada/^  and  gave  aid  to 
the  colonists.  Spain  and  Holland  also  were  both  drawn  into  the 
struggle,  fighting  against  their  old-time  rival  and  foe. 

The  war  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Paris  (1783).  England 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  thirteen  colonies,  —  and 
a  Greater  England  began  its  separate  career  in  the  New  World. 
At  the  same  time  England  was  constrained  to  restore  or  to  cede 
various  islands  and  territories  to  France  and  to  Spain.  The 
magnificent  empire  with  which  she  had  emerged  from  the  Seven 
Years'  War  seemed  shattered  and  ruined  beyond  recovery.  Not 
only  England's  enemies  but  many  Englishmen  themselves  believed 
that  her  days  of  imperial  rule  were  ended. 

But  there  were  yet  left  to  England  Canada  and  India;  and 
only  recently  Australia  had  come  into  her  possession  (sec.  734). 
And  then  England  was  yet  mistress  of  the  seas ;  her  commercial 
supremacy  remained  unshaken.  There  were  elements  here  which 
might  become  factors  of  a  new  empire  greater  than  the  one  which 
had  been  lost.  But  no  Englishman  standing  in  the  gloom  of  the 
year  1783  could  look  far  enough  into  the  future  to  foresee  the 
greatness  and  splendor  of  England's  second  empire  which  was  to 
rise  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  first. 

542.  Legislative  Independence  of  Ireland  (1782).^ — While  the 
War  of  American  Independence  was  going  on,  the  Irish,  taking 
advantage  of  the  embarrassment  of  the  English  government, 
demanded  legislative  independence.  Since  the  Norman  period 
Ireland  had  had  a  Parliament  of  her  own,  but  it  was  depend- 
ent upon  the  English  crown,  and  at  this  time  was  subordinate  to 
the  EngUsh  Parliament,  which  asserted  and  exercised  the  right 
to  bind  Ireland  by  its  laws.  This  the  Anglo-Irish  patriots  strenu- 
ously resisted  and  drew  up  a  Declaration  of  Rights  wherein  they 
demanded  the  legislative  independence  of  Ireland.  Fear  of  a 
revolt  led  England  to  grant  the  demands  of  the  patriots  and 
acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  Irish  Parliament  (1782). 

16  There  were  other  and  more  admirable  motives  animating  many  of  the  individual 
Frenchmen  who,  like  Lafayette,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  American  patriots  (sec.  560). 


ABOLITION   OF  THE  SLAVE   TRADE  493 

543.  The  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade.  —  Intimately  connected 
with  the  great  rehgious  revival  led  by  the  Wesleys  and  Whitefield 
were  certain  philanthropic  movements  which  hold  a  prominent 
place  in  the  history  of  the  moral  and  social  life  not  only  of  Eng- 
land but  of  humanity.  The  most  noteworthy  of  these  was  that 
resulting  in  the  abolition  of  the  African  slave  trade. 

We  have  noticed  how  at  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century 
England  secured  from  Spain  the  contract  for  providing  her  Amer- 
ican colonies  with  negro  slaves  (sec.  531).  There  was  then  Httle 
or  no  moral  disapproval  of  this  iniquitous  traffic.  But  one  effect 
of  the  religious  revival  was  the  calling  into  existence  of  much 
genuine  philanthropic  feeling.  This  sentiment  expressed  itself  in 
a  movement  for  the  abolition  of  the  inhuman  trade. 

The  leaders  of  the  movement  were  Thomas  Clarkson  (1760- 
1846)  and  William  Wilberforce  (i 759-1833).  The  terrible  dis- 
closures which  were  made  of  the  atrocious  cruelty  of  the  slave 
dealers  stirred  the  public  indignation  and  awakened  the  national 
conscience.  Finally,  in  1807,  after  twenty  years  of  agitation,  a 
law  was  passed  abolishing  the  trade.^^  This  signaled  as  great 
a. moral  victory  as  ever  was  won  in  the  English  Parliament,  for  it 
was  the  aroused  moral  sentiment  of  the  nation  which  was  the  main 
force  that  carried  the  reform  measure  through  the  Houses.^^ 

544.  The  Industrial  Revolution.  —  We  turn  now  from  the 
political,  religious,  and  moral  realms  to  the  industrial  domain. 
In  this  sphere  of  English  life  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  witnessed  a  wonderful  revolution.  It  was  England's 
commercial  supremacy  which  had  prepared  the  way  for  the  great 
industrial  development.  The  outward  movement  had  created  a 
world-wide  market  for   English  goods.    She  had  become  "  the 


17^  England  had  been  anticipated  by  Denmark  in  the  condemnation  of  the  slave 
trade.  That  country  had  abolished  the  traffic  in  1802.  In  the  United  States  the 
importation  of  slaves  was  illegal  after  1808.  Before  1820  most  civilized  states  had 
placed  the  trade  under  the  ban. 

18  Another  important  humanitarian  movement  of  the  century  was  that  of  prison 
reform.  This  was  effected  chiefly  through  the  labors  of  a  single  person,  the  philan- 
thropist John  Howard  (1726-1790),  who  devoted  his  life  to  effecting  a  reform  in 
prison  conditions  and  discipline. 


494      ENGLAND   IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

workshop  of  the  world."  Naturally  manufactures  were  encour- 
aged, and  inventive  genius  and  ingenuity  stimulated  to  the  utmost 
in  devising  improved  processes  in  the  industrial  arts.  The  result 
was  an  industrial  revolution  such  as  the  centuries  known  to  his- 
tory had  never  witnessed  before. 

In  order  that  we  may  get  the  right  point  of  view  here  and  be 
able  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  industrial  revolution 
of  which  we  speak,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  first  note  the 
remarkable  fact  that  while  civilization  during  historic  times  had 
made  great  advances  on  many  lines  and  in  many  domains,  in 
the  industrial  realm  it  had  remained  almost  stationary  from  the 
dawn  of  history.  At  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  all  the 
industrial  arts  were  being  carried  on  in  practi(;ally  the  same  way 
that  they  were  followed  six  or  seven  thousand  years  before  in 
ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia. 

Suddenly  all  this  was  changed  by  a  few  inventions.  About  1 767 
Hargreaves  invented  the  spinning  jenny.  From  the  beginning 
of  history,  indeed  from  a  period  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  prehistoric 
times,  all  the  thread  used  in  weaving  had  been  made  by  twisting 
each  thread  separately.  The  spinning  jenny,  when  perfected, ^^ 
with  a  single  attendant  twisted  hundreds  of  threads  at  once. 
Within  twenty  years  from  the  time  of  this  invention  there  were 
between  four  and  five  million  spindles  in  use  in  England. 

It  was  now  possible  to  produce  thread  in  unlimited  quantities. 
The  next  thing  needed  was  improved  machinery  for  weaving  it 
into  cloth.  This  was  soon  provided  by  Cartwright's  power  loom 
(1785).  The  next  requisite  was  motive  power  to  run  the  new 
machinery.  At  just  this  time  James  Watt  brought  out  his  inven- 
tion, or  rather  improvement,  of  the  steam  engine  (1785).  In  its 
ruder  form  it  had  been  used  in  the  mines ;  now  it  was  introduced 
into  the  factories. 

The  primary  forces  of  the  great  industrial  revolution  —  the 
spinning  jenny,  the  power  loom,  and  the  steam  engine  —  were 
now  at  work.  The  application  of  the  steam  engine  to  transporta- 
tion purposes  gave  the  world  the  steam  railroad  and  the  steamship. 

19  It  was  perfected  by  Arkwright  and  Crompton  by  1779. 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION  495 

These  inventions  and  discoveries  in  the  industrial  realm  mark 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  civilization.  We  have  to  go  back  to 
prehistoric  times  to  find  in  this  domain  any  inventions  or  dis- 
coveries like  them  in  their  import  for  human  progress.  There  is 
nothing  between  Menes  in  Egypt  and  George  III  in  England 
with  which  to  compare  them.  The  discovery  of  fire,  the  invention 
of  metal  tools,  and  the  domestication  of  animals  and  plants,^*'  — 
these  inventions  and  achievements  of  prehistoric  man  are  alone 
worthy,  in  their  transforming  effect  upon  human  society,  of  being 
placed  alongside  them. 

545.  Import  to  England  of  the  Industrial  Revolution.  —  In  the 
present  connection  we  can  note  the  bearing  of  the  great  industrial 
revolution  upon  only  one  episode  in  the  general  historical  move- 
ment. It  exerted  a  determining  influence  upon  the  course  and 
issue  of  the  great  French  Revolution  and  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars 
which  grew  out  of  it.  It  armed  England  for  the  great  fight,  and 
enabled  her  to  play  the  important  part  she  did  in  that  period  of 
titanic  struggle.  "  It  is  our  improved  steam  engine,"  says  Lord 
Jeffrey  in  his  eulogy  of  Watt  (written  in  181 9),  "  which  has  fought 
the  battles  of  Europe  and  exalted  and  sustained  through  the  late 
tremendous  contest  the  political  greatness  of  our  land."  It  was 
the  steam  engine  which  created  the  wealth  which  England  used 
so  lavishly  in  carrying  on  the  fight  against  Napoleon,  and  which 
did  more  perhaps  than  any  other  force  in  giving  direction  to  the 
course  of  events  during  the  years  of  his  domination. 

546.  Conclusion.  —  With  the  French  Revolution  we  reach  a 
period  in  which  English  history  must  be  regarded  from  the  view- 
point of  France.  Indeed,  for  the  space  of  half  a  generation  after 
the  rise  of  Napoleon  to  power,  all  European  history  becomes 
largely  biographical  and  centers  about  that  unique  personality. 
Consequently  we  shall  drop  the  story  of  English  history  at  this 
point  and  let  it  blend  with  the  story  of  the  Revolution  and  that 
of  the  Napoleonic  Empire. 

All  that  we  need  here  notice  is  that  the  Napoleonic  Wars,  in 
their  Anglo-French  phase,  were  essentially  a  continuation  —  and 

*>  See  Ancient  History,  sees.  8-10. 


496      ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

the  end  —  of  the  second  Hundred  Years'  War  between  England 
and  France.  Napoleon,  having  seized  supreme  power  in  France, 
endeavored  to  destroy  England's  commercial  supremacy  and  to 
regain  for  France  that  position  in  the  colonial  world  from  which 
she  had  been  thrust  by  England.  But  this  tremendous  struggle, 
Uke  all  the  others  in  which  England  had  engaged  with  her  ancient 
foe,  —  save  the  one  in  which  she  lost  her  American  colonies,  — 
only  resulted,  as  we  shall  see  later,  in  bringing  into  her  hands 
additional  colonial  possessions,  and  in  placing  her  naval  power 
and  commercial  supremacy  on  a  firmer  basis  than  ever  before. 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Henderson,  Side  Lights  on  English 
History,  pp.  214-283;  Kendall,  Source-Book,  chaps,  xvi-xviii,  particularly 
Extract  No.  1 1 1,  "  A  View  of  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  by  Swift ; 
Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of  English  Constitutional  History^ 
pp.  475-506 ;  and  Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  chaps,  xi  and  xii.  For  the  slave 
trade,  see  Clarkson,  The  History  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and  Accomplish- 
ment of  the  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade  by  the  British  Parliament.  Clark- 
son  was  himself  a  main  instrument  in  bringing  about  the  great  reform. 

Secondary  Works.  —  For  the  most  suggestive  short  work  on  the  period 
turn  to  Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England.  Written  on  somewhat  similar 
lines  is  Caldecott,  English  Colonization  and  Empire,  chaps,  iii-v.  Lecky, 
History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  is  the  best  comprehensive 
work.  Morris,  The  Age  of  Queen  Anne.  For  the  naval  history  of  the  period, 
see  Mahan,  The  Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  History,  chaps,  v-xiv. 

Biographies:  Morley,  Walpole ;  Southey,  Life  of  Wesley;  Green, 
William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham  ;  Macaulay,  Essays  on  Horace  Walpole, 
the  Earl  of  Chatham  (two  essays).  Lord  Clive,  and  Warren  Hastings. 

For  the  growth  of  the  English  Cabinet :  Blauvelt,  The  Development 
of  Cabinet  Government  in  England ;  and  Jenks,  Parliamentary  England. 
For  the  rise  of  Methodism :  Overton,  The  Evangelical  Revival  in  the 
Eighteetith  Century.  For  the  French  and  English  in  America:  Fiske, 
New  England  and  New  France,  chaps,  vii-x;  and  Parkman,  Montcalm 
and  Wolfe.  For  the  conflict  between  England  and  her  American  colonies  : 
Lecky,  The  Amej-ican  Revolution  (ed.  by  James  Albert  Woodbum).  For 
the  English  in  India:  Lyall,  The  Rise  of  the  British  Dominion  in  India. 
For  industrial  and  Social  England:  Cheyney,  An  Introduction  to  the 
Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  chap.  viii. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  "Assiento"  and  the  slave  trade 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  2.  The  Scotch  project  of  a  Panama  colony. 
3.  The  English  Cabinet.  4.  The  South  Sea  Bubble.  5.  John  Wesley. 
6.  The  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.    7.  John  Howard  and  prison  reform. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

AUSTRIA  UNDER  THE  BENEVOLENT  DESPOT,  EMPEROR 
JOSEPH  II  (1780-1790) 

547.  Emperor  Joseph  II's  Ideal  and  Aim.  —  Most  worthy  of 
remembrance  among  the  royal  contemporaries  of  Frederick  the 
Great  was  Emperor  Joseph  II,  the  son  of  the  Empress-Queen 
Maria  Theresa.  He  became  Emperor  in  1765,  and  upon  the 
death  of  his  mother  in  1780  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Austrian  dominions.  He  was  the  best,  though  not  the  greatest, 
of  the  enhghtened  despots. 

Joseph  II's  aim  was  to  make  of  the  Austrian  dominions  an 
ideal  state.  This,  in  his  conception,  was  a  state  possessing  geo- 
graphical and  moral  unity ;  that  is  to  say,  a  state  with  well- 
rounded  scientific  frontiers,  with  all  power  concentrated  in  the 
hands  of  the  sovereign,  with  all  its  provinces  ruled  alike,  and 
with  all  its  inhabitants  using  the  same  language  and  having  the 
same  ideas,  customs,  and  aspirations. 

548.  His  Reforms.  —  Now  the  Austrian  monarchy  was,  and 
still  is,  just  the  opposite  of  all  this.  Joseph's  endeavor  was  to 
make  it  like  France,  compact  geographically,  and  homogeneous 
in  language  and  customs.  He  wiped  out  many  of  the  old  divi- 
sions based  on  race,  language,  and  historical  antecedents,  and  in 
the  interest  of  uniformity  and  simplicity  of  administration  divided 
a  great  part  of  the  monarchy  into  thirteen  provinces,  and  each  of 
these  again  into  smaller  subdivisions  called  circles.  He  abolished 
serfdom  in  several  of  his  states.  He  Closed  over  two  thousand 
monasteries  and  devoted  their  property  to  the  establishment  of 
colleges,  hospitals,  and  other  public  institutions.  He  issued  a 
celebrated  Edict  of  Toleration  (1781),  giving  to  all  Christian  sects 
equality  of  rights  and  privileges.    He  provided  the  cities  of  his 

497 


498  AUSTRIA   UNDER  JOSEPH    II 

dominions  with  schools  in  which  all  the  pupils  were  taught  exactly 
the  same  lessons  in  exactly  the  same  way.  He  founded  libraries 
and  encouraged  research.  He  softened  the  harsh  punishments  of 
the  mediaeval  criminal  code,  and  made  the  laws  to  conform  to  rea- 
son. He  fostered  manufactures,  and  by  his  own  laborious  life  — 
he  is  said  to  have  worked  more  hours  each  day  than  any  other 
man  in  his  dominions  —  set  an  example  of  industry  to  his  subjects. 

549.  His  Dealings  with  the  Low  Countries  and  with  Hungary. 

—  In  the  furtherance  of  his  plans,  Joseph  attempted  to  reduce 
the  Low  Countries,  which  constituted  almost  an  independent  state 
loosely  united  to  Austria,  to  the  condition  of  an  administrative 
province  of  the  Austrian  monarchy.  He  disregarded  the  constitu- 
tion, laws,  and  customs  of  the  provinces,  interfered  with  the 
religion  of  the  people,  and  substituted  for  the  existing  system  of 
education  a  new  system  conforming  to  his  own  ideas  of  what 
should  be  taught  the  youth.  Angered  by  all  this  meddling  with 
their  affairs,  the  Netherlanders  rose  in  open  revolt  and  declared 
themselves  independent  of  the  Austrian  crown  (1790). 

At  the  same  time  Joseph  drove  his  Hungarian  subjects  to  the 
verge  of  rebellion  by  attempting  to  deal  with  Hungary  in  some 
such  arbitrary  way  as  he  had  dealt  with  the  Netherlands,  —  in  a 
word,  to  Germanize  the  country.  The  situation  became  so  threat- 
ening that  Joseph,  upon  his  dying  bed,  was  constrained  to  annul 
all  his  reform  measures  and  put  everything  back  as  it  was,  save  as 
regards  the  serfs,  who  retained  the  freedom  with  which  he  had 
dowered  them. 

550.  Causes  of  the  Failure  of  Joseph  II's  Attempted  Reforms. 

—  The  Emperor  Joseph  II  is  one  of  the  most  pathetic  figures  in 
history.  He  died  in  1790,  a  weary,  heartbroken  man,  lamenting 
that  though  he  had  labored  his  life  through  to  make  his  subjects 
contented  and  happy  and  to  deserve  their  love,  he  had  simply 
filled  his  empire  with  unrest  and  unhappiness,  and  instead  of 
winning  the  gratitude  of  his  subjects  had  awakened  only  their 
ingratitude. 

The  most  of  Joseph's  attempted  reforms,  save  those  of  the 
abolition  of  serfdom  and  the  revision  of  the  laws,  had  in  truth 


^^^ 


BENEVOLENT   DESPOTISM  499 

resulted  in  dismal  failures.  This  was  not  because  what  he  aimed 
to  do  was  not  in  sad  need  of  being  done,  but  because  in  such 
matters  the  good  intention  is  not  sufficient  without  patience  and 
wisdom.  Joseph  had  neither.  His  lack  of  patience  to  wait  for 
results  is  well  shown  in  his  method  of  creating  a  park  :  at  great 
expense  he  set  out  full-grown  trees  instead  of  saplings. 

And  Joseph  lacked  that  wisdom  which  recognizes  that  the 
reformer  must  take  account  of  the  beliefs,  habits,  and  prejudices 
of  men  and  of  races.  As  his  biographer  Paganel  comments,  "  It 
is  only  in  th'e  hands  of  God  that  man  is  as  clay." 

551.  Reform  from  above  versus  Reform  from  below. — Joseph 
II  was  one  of  the  last  of  the  benevolent  despots.  Europe  owes 
much  to  them.  Some  of  their  reforms  were  permanent  and  effected 
great  amelioration  in  the  condition  of  the  people  in  several  of 
the  countries  of  the  Continent.  But  the  enlightened  despots 
were  hampered  in  their  work  through  being  despots.  Their 
theory  of  government  shut  out  the  people  from  all  participation 
in  the  work  of  reform.  But  all  true  reform  must  proceed  from 
below  and  not  from  above.  As  Buckle  in  his  History  of  Civiliza- 
tion in  England  writes,  "  No  reform  can  produce  real  good  unless 
it  is  the  work  of  public  opinion,  and  unless  the  people  themselves 
take  the  initiative."  Nor  should  reforms  inaugurated  be  depend- 
ent upon  a  single  life.  This  was  a  fatal  weakness  in  the  move- 
ment of  reform  by  the  kings  themselves.  When  a  benevolent 
despot  died,  too  often  his  work  ended  with  his  life. 

The  year  preceding  the  death  of  Joseph  II  the  French  Revolu- 
tion had  begim.  The  people  as  well  as  their  kings  had  been 
studying  the  philosophers  and  the  political  economists,  and  they 
were  now  themselves  to  assume  the  role  of  reformers.  We  shall 
see  with  what  success  they  met  in  their  new  part. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Bright, /<?.f^/,4  //,  is  the  best  short  biography  of 
the  Emperor  in  English.  CoXE,  History  of  the  House  of  Austria^  vol.  iii, 
chaps,  cxxiv-cxxxi.  Hassall,  The  Balance  of  Power ^  171^-178^,  chap.  xiii. 
Stephens,  Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  Modern  European  History^  Lect.  xlvii, 
gives  a  helpful  summary  of  Emperor  Joseph's  policies  and  reforms. 


II.    THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION   AND   THE 

NAPOLEONIC   ERA 

(1 789-181 5) 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 
THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  (1789-1799) 

I.   Causes  of  the  Revolution  ;  the  States-General 

OF  1789 

552.  Introductory. — The  French  Revolution,  in  its  deepest 
impulses,  was  a  continuation  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Refor- 
mation. It  was  the  spirit  of  the  intellectual  revival  and  the  reli- 
gious reform  at  work  in  the  political  and  the  social  realm.  It  was 
the  revolt  of  the  French  people  against  royal  despotism  and  class 
privilege.  "Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity"  was  the  motto 
of  the  Revolution.  In  the  name  of  these  principles  great  crimes 
were  indeed  committed  ;  but  these  excesses  of  the  Revolution  are 
not  to  be  confounded  with  its  true  spirit  and  aims.  The  French 
people  in  1789  contended  for  substantially  the  same  principles 
that  the  English  people  defended  in  1642  and  1688,  and  that  the 
American  colonists  maintained  in  1776.  It  is  only  as  we  view 
them  in  this  light  that  we  can  feel  a  sympathetic  interest  in  the 
men  and  events  of  this  tumultuous  period  of  French  history. 

553.  Causes  of  the  Revolution.  —  Chief  among  the  causes  of 
the  French  Revolution  were  the  abuses  and  extravagances  of  the 
Bourbon  monarchy,  the  unjust  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  nobil- 
ity and  the  higher  clergy,  the  wretched  condition  of  the  poorer 
classes  of  the  people,  and  the  revolutionary  character  and  spirit 
of  French  philosophy  and  literature.    To  these  must  be  added,  as 

500 


THE  BOURBON  MONARCHY         501 

a  proximate  cause,  the  influence  of  the  American   Revolution. 
We  will  speak  briefly  of  these  several  matters. 

Even  the  hastiest  examination  of  the  condition  of  France  dur- 
ing the  century  preceding  the  tremendous  social  upheaval  will 
enable  us  to  understand  how  an  English  statesman/  writing  a 
generation  before  the  bursting  of  the  storm,  could  say,  "  All  the 
symptoms  which  I  have  ever  met  with  in  history,  previous  to 
great  changes  and  revolutions  in  government,  now  exist  and  daily 
increase  in  France." 

554.  The  Bourbon  Monarchy. — We  simply  repeat  what  we 
have  already  learned  when  we  say  that  the  authority  of  the  French 
crown  under  the  Bourbons  had  become  unbearably  despotic  and 
oppressive.  The  life  and  property  of  every  person  in  France  were 
at  the  arbitrary  disposal  of  the  king.  Persons  were  thrown  into 
prison  without  even  knowing  the  offense  for  which  they  were 
arrested.  Lettres  de  cachet^  or  sealed  warrants  for  arrest,  were 
even  signed  by  the  king  in  blank  and  given  to  his  favorites  to  use 
against  their  personal  enemies. 

The  taxes  were  imposed  by  the  authority  of  the  king  alone. 
They  struck  the  poor  rather  than  the  rich,  and,  in  consequence 
of  a  miserable  and  corrupt  system  of  collection,  not  more  than 
one  half  or  two  thirds  of  the  money  wrung  from  the  taxpayers 
ever  reached  the  royal  treasury.  The  public  money  thus  gathered 
was  squandered  in  maintaining  a  court  the  scandalous  extrava- 
gances and  debaucheries  of  which  would  shame  a  Turkish  sultan. 

Meanwhile  all  public  works  and  all  national  interests,  after 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  were  utterly  neglected.  Louis  XV,  it  is 
asserted,  "  probably  spent  more  money  on  his  harem  than  on 
any  department  of  state."  Louis  XVI  was  sincerely  desirous  of 
reform.  So  far  as  good  intentions  go,  he  deserves  a  place  among 
the  best  of  the  benevolent  despots.  But  unfortunately  he  did  not 
possess  the  qualities  essential  in  a  reformer;  he  was  weak  and 
irresolute.  Besides,  it  was  too  late.  Matters  had  gone  too  far. 
France  was  already  caught  in  the  rapids  that  sweep  down  to  the 
abyss  of  revolution. 

1  Lord  Chesterfield,  writing  in  1753. 


502  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

555.  The  Nobility.  —  The  French  nobility  on  the  eve  of  the 
Revolution  numbered  probably  between  twenty  and  thirty  thou- 
sand families,  comprising  about  a  hundred  or  a  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  persons.  Although  owning  one  fifth  of  the  soil  of  France 
and  exercising  feudal  rights  over  much  of  the  land  belonging  to 
peasant  proprietors,  still  these  nobles  paid 'scarcely  any  taxes. 

The  higher  nobility  were  chiefly  the  pensioners  of  the  king, 
the  ornaments  of  his  court,  living  in  riotous  luxury  at  Paris  and 
Versailles.  Stripped  of  their  ancient  power,  they  still  retained  all 
the  old  pride  and  arrogance  of  their  order,  and  clung  tenaciously 
to  all  their  feudal  privileges  and  exemptions.  The  rents  of  their 
estates,  with  which  they  supplemented  the  bounty  of  the  king, 
were  wrung  from  their  wretched  tenants  with  pitiless  severity. 
That  absentee  landlordism  which  has  created  such  poverty  in 
Ireland  and  engendered  such  bitterness  in  the  hearts  of  the  Irish 
peasants  towards  their  English  landlords  will  serve  to  illustrate 
in  some  measure  the  relation  of  the  French  nobles  to  their  tenants 
at  the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

556.  The  Higher  Clergy.  —  The  upper  clergy  formed  a  decayed 
feudal  hierarchy.  A  third  of  the  lands  of  France  was  in  their 
hands,  and  this  immense  property  was  almost  wholly  exempt 
from  taxation.  The  bishops  and  abbots  were  usually  drawn  from 
the  ranks  of  the  nobility,  being  attracted  to  the  service  of  the 
Church  rather  by  its  enormous  revenues  and  the  social  distinc- 
tion conferred  by  its  offices  than  by  the  inducements  of  piety. 
They  owed  their  position  to  royal  appointment,  and  commonly 
spent  their  princely  incomes  in  luxurious  life  at  court. 

The  relation  of  these  "  patrician  prelates  "  to  the  people  and 
to  the  humbler  clergy  should  be  carefully  noted,  otherwise  cer- 
tain important  phases  of  the  Revolution  will  not  be  understood. 
Though  there  were  noble  exceptions,  the  most  of  these  dignitaries 
were  narrow-minded  and  self-seeking,  and  many  of  them  so  shame- 
lessly immoral  that  as  a  class  they  had  lost  all  credit  and  authority 
with  the  people  whose  shepherds  they  ostensibly  were.  And  not 
only  had  they  discredited  themselves,  but  they  had  brought  the 
Church  and  even  Christianity  itself  into  disrepute.    The  hatred 


THE   COMMONS,   OR   THIRD   ESTATE  503 

the  people  felt  towards  them  ,was  transferred  to  the  religion  which 
they  so  unworthily -represented. 

The  lower  clergy,  made  up  in  the  main  of  humble  parish  priests, 
were  drawn  largely  from  the  peasant  class,  and  shared  their  poverty. 
Their  salaries  were  mere  pittances  compared  with  the  princely 
incomes  enjoyed  by  the  bishops  and  abbots.  Their  exemplary 
lives  and  their  faithfulness  in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of 
their  sacred  calling  presented  a  reproving  contrast  to  the  debauch- 
eries and  infidelities  of  their  ecclesiastical  superiors.  They  were 
naturally  in  sympathy  with  the  lower  classes  to  which  by  birth  they 
belonged,  and  shared  their  feelings  of  dislike  towards  the  great 
prelates  on  account  of  their  selfish  pride  and  odious  arrogance. 

557.  The  Commons,  or  Third  Estate.  —  Below  the  two  privileged 
orders  stood  the  nonprivileged  commons,  known  as  the  Tiers 
Etaf,  or  Third  Estate.  This  class  embraced  all  the  nation  aside 
from  the  nobility  and  the  clergy,  —  that  is  to  say,  the  great  bulk 
of  the  population.  It  numbered  probably  about  twenty-five  million 
souls.  The  order  was  divided  into  two  chief  classes,  namely,  the 
bourgeoisie,  or  middle  class,  and  the  peasantry. 

The  middle  class,  which  was  comparatively  small  in  numbers, 
was  made  up  of  the  well-to-do  and  wealthy  merchants,  traders, 
lawyers,  and  other  professional  men.  It  constituted  the  most  intel- 
ligent portion  of  the  French  nation.  It  was  from  this  class  that 
came  most  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolutionary  movement  during 
its  earlier  stages. 

The  peasants  constituted  the  majority  of  the  Third  Estate. 
The  condition  of  most  of  them  could  hardly  have  been  worse. 
Their  only  recognized  use  in  the  state  was  "  to  pay  feudal  serv- 
ices to  the  lords,^  tithes  to  the  priests,  and  imposts  to  the  king." 
Especially  vexatious  were  the  old  feudal  regulations  to  which  they 
were  subjected  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Thus  they  were  for- 
bidden to  fence  their  fields  for  the  protection  of  their  crops,  as 


2  Though  practically  all  the  French  peasantry  had  long  since  been  emancipated 
from  the  personal  servitude  of  mediaival  serfdom,  still  the  majority  of  them  owed  to 
some  lord  feudal  dues  for  the  land  they  tilled,  and  were  bound  to  pay  tolls  at  his 
mill,  oven,  and  wine  press.     See  sec.  95. 


504  THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

the  fences  interfered  with  the  lord's  progress  in  the  hunt;  they 
were  not  allowed  to  frighten  away  the  game  which  fed  upon  their 
vegetables ;  and  they  were  even  prohibited  from  cultivating  their 
fields  at  certain  seasons,  as  this  disturbed  the  nesting  partridges. 

Being  kept  in  a  state  of  abject  poverty,  a  failure  of  their  crops 
reduced  the  French  tenants  to  absolute  starvation.  It  was  not  an 
unusual  thing  to  find  women  and  children  dead  in  the  woods  or 
along  the  roadways.  The  words  addressed  by  Fenelon  to  Louis 
XIV  in  1693  might  with  almost  equal  truth  have  been  addressed 
to  Louis  XVI :  "  Your  people  are  dying  of  hunger,"  he  said ; 
"  instead  of  money  being  wrenched  from  these  poor  creatures, 
clothes  and  food  should  be  given  them.  France  is  simply  a  large 
hospital,  full  of  woe  and  empty  of  food." 

Another  who  saw  all  this  misery  thus  pictures  the  appearance 
of  the  peasantry :  "  One  sees  certain  fierce  animals,  male  and 
female,  scattered  through  the  fields ;  they  are  black,  livid,  and 
burned  by  the  sun,  and  attached  to  the  soil,  which  they  dig  up 
and  stir  with  indomitable  industry ;  they  have  what  is  like  an 
articulate  voice,  and  when  they  rise  up  on  their  feet  they  show  a 
human  face,  —  in  truth  they  are  human  beings.  They  retire  at 
night  into  dens,  where  they  live  on  black  bread  and  water  and 
roots ;  they  save  other  men  the  trouble  of  sowing  and  delving 
and  harvesting,  and  hence  deserve  not  to  lack  of  this  bread 
which  they  have  sown."  ^ 

It  is  true  that  during  the  eighteenth  century  the  condition  of 
perhaps  the  majority  of  the  French  peasants  had  been  much 
improved,  and  that  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution  their  state  was 
much  more  tolerable  than  that  of  the  peasantry  in  the  countries 
of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.  The  number  of  peasant  proprie- 
tors had  become  large  and  was  steadily  increasing,  and  in  many 
districts  at  least  was  greater  than  at  any  earlier  period.  Yet 
never  had  a  more  rebellious  spirit  stirred  in  the  French  peasantry 
than  at  just  this  time.  And  the  reason  of  this  was  not  because 
the  system  under  which  they  lived  was  "  more  severe,  but  more 
odious  "  than  ever  before,  —  more  odious  because  the  peasant  of 

3  La  Bruyere,  Les  Caractires,  "  De  I'Homme,"  §  cxxviii. 


FRENCH   PHILOSOPHY  505 

1789,  being  more  intelligent,  realized  more  keenly  the  wrongs  he 
suffered,  and  knew  better  his  rights  as  a  man  than  did  the  igno- 
rant, stolid  peasant  of  the  previous  century.  So  true  is  it,  as  Hegel 
affirms,  that  Revolution  is  impossible  without  Renaissance.* 

558.  The  Revolutionary  Spirit  of  French  Philosophy ;  Repre- 
sentative Authors.  —  French  philosophy  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury was  bold,  skeptical,  and  revolutionary.  Its  dominant  note 
was  one  of  passionate  protest  against  the  inequalities  of  the  exist- 
ing system  of  society  and  government.  The  great  writers  — 
Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert  — 
represent  its  prevailing  spirit  and  tendency.^ 

Montesquieu  (1689-1755)  was  a  great  admirer  of  English 
institutions.  He  had  passed  almost  two  years  of  his  early  life  in 
England  and  had  thus  become  imbued  with  English  ideas  and 
English  love  of  constitutional  government.  His  most  important 
work  was  entitled  The  Spirit  of  Laws^  a  work  which  had  a 
remarkable  influence  upon  the  enlightened  despots  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Voltaire  (1694-17 78)  was  the  very  impersonation  of  the  tend- 
encies of  his  age.  He  gave  expression,  forcible  and  striking,  to 
what  the  people  were  vaguely  thinking  and  feeling.  In  the  use 
of  satire  and  irony  he  never  had  a  superior,  if  a  peer.    He  has 

*  The  truth  of  this^aw  underlying  the  historical  development  is  shown  in  the 
antecedents  of  the  English  Revolution  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  of  the  American 
Revolution  of  the  eighteenth.  In  neither  case  was  it  the  actual  burdens  imposed  by 
despotic  authority  which  provoked  rebellion.  The  real  cause  of  revolt  in  each  case 
was  that  general  intelligence  of  the  people  which  made  even  the  slightest  infringement 
of  rights  seem  intolerable.    Compare  sec.  725. 

s  The  fountain  head  of  this  freedom-loving  and  skeptical  philosophy  was  in  Eng- 
land. From  the  death  of  Louis  XIV  on  to  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution, 
England  was  a  sort  of  Mecca  for  the  literary  and  philosophical  French  world.  Speak- 
ing of  the  results  of  this  worship  of  the  men  of  France  at  the  English  shrine,  Buckle 
writes  as  follows :  "  Their  determination  to  search  for  liberty  in  the  place  where  alone 
it  could  be  found,  gave  rise  to  that  junction  of  the  French  and  English  intellects 
which,  looking  at  the  immense  chain  of  its  effects,  is  by  far  the  most  important  fact 
in  the  history  of  the  eighteenth  century  "  (^History  of  Civilization  in  England,  vol.  i, 
chap.  xii).  Prominent  among  the  English  scientists  and  writers  who  most  deeply 
influenced  French  science  and  philosophy  were  Sir  Isaac  Newton  (1642-1727),  John 
Locke  (1632-1704),  Lord  Shaftesbury  (1671-1713),  and  Lord  Rolingbroke  (1678- 
1751).  Much  of  Voltaire's  work  was  largely  a  popularization  of  the  science  of  New- 
ton and  the  philosopliy  of  Ix)cke. 


5o6 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


been  well  called  ^'  the  magician  of  the  art  of  writing."  He  had  a 
most  marvelous  faculty  of  condensing  thought ;  putting  whole 
philosophies  in  an  epigram,  he  supplied  the  French  people  with 
proverbs  for  a  century.  He  loved  justice,  in  Carlyle's  phrase,  as 
it  should  be  loved.  His  aim  was  to  do  away  with  injustice,  preju- 
dices, and  superstitions,  and  to  make  justice  and  reason  domi- 
nant in  human  affairs.  He  disbelieved  in  revealed  religion ;  ^  he 
would  have  men  follow  simply  their  inner  sense  of  what  is  right 
and   reasonable.     His    influence  upon   Frederick  the  Great  of 

Prussia  and  upon  other  reforming 
kings  and  ministers  was  very  great. 
In  truth  his  writings  stirred  all  Eu- 
rope as  well  as  all  France,  and  did 
so  much  to  prepare  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  men  for  the  Revolution 
and  to  determine  its  course  that  in 
one  sense  there  was  much  truth  in 
his  declaration,  "  I  have  accom- 
plished more  in  my  day  than  either 
Luther  or  Calvin." 

Rousseau  (i  7 12-17  78), like  Vol- 
taire, had  neither  faith  nor  hope  in 
existing  institutions.  Society  and 
government  seemed  to  him  contriv- 
ances designed  by  the  strong  for  the  enslavement  of  the  weak  : 
*'  Man  was  born  free  and  is  everywhere  in  chains  "  is  the  burden 
of  his  complaint.  Consequently  he  would  do  away  with  all  these 
things.  He  would  have  men  give  up  their  artificial,  complex  life 
in  society  and  return  to  the  simplicity  of  what  he  called  "  a  state 
of  nature."  He  idealized  the  life  of  savages,  and  declared  that 
untutored  tribes  were  happier  than  civilized  men.  He  drew  such 
an  idyllic  picture  of  the  life  of  man  in  a  state  of  nature  that 
Voltaire,  after  reading  his  treatise  thereon,  wrote  him  that  it  filled 
him  with  a  longing  to  go  on  all  fours. 


Fig.  88.  —  Voltaire.    (From  a 
statue  by  Houdori) 


6  By  some  of  Voltaire's  disciples  his  doctrines  were  developed  into  atheism;  but 
Voltaire  himself  was  a  deist,  combating  alike  atheism  and  Christianity. 


EP^FECTS   OF   THIS   PHILOSOPHY  507 

Rousseau's  greatest  work  was  entitled  The  Social  Contract. 
The  state,  according  to  him,  is  a  voluntary  association  or  brother- 
hood of  equals.  From  this  followed  the  sovereignty  of  the  people 
and  the  abolition  of  inequality  and  class  oppression.  The  writings 
of  Rousseau  had  an  extraordinary  influence  upon  liberal-minded 
and  generous  souls  everywhere.  The  framers  of  the  American 
Declaration  of  Rights  drew  from  his  works  many  of  their  ideas 
and  even  phrases.  The  aid  which  France  extended  to  the 
American  colonists,  in  so  far  as  that  aid  was  prompted  by  a  gen- 
erous enthusiasm  for  republican  ideals,  was  a  direct  outcome  of 
the  teachings  of  Rousseau.  The  idealists  and  dreamers  of  the 
French  Revolution  were  wholly  under  the  spell  cast  upon  the 
world  by  the  "  New  Gospel  of  Humanity"  preached  so  fervently 
by  the  author  of  The  Social  Contract. 

Diderot  (17 13-1784)  and  D'Alembert  (17 17-1783)  were  the 
chief  of  the  so-called  Encyclopedists,  the  compilers  of  an  im- 
mense work  in  twenty-eight  volumes.  The  purpose  of  this  pro- 
digious compilation  was  to  gather  up  and  systematize  all  the  facts 
in  science  and  history  in  possession  of  the  world,  in  order  that 
this  knowledge  might  be  made  the  basis  of  a  philosophy  of  life 
and  of  the  universe  which  should  supersede  all  the  old  systems  of 
thought  and  belief  resting  simply  on  authority. 

559.  The  Effects  of  this  Philosophy.  —  The  tendency  and  effect 
of  this  skeptical  philosophy  was  to  create  hatred  and  contempt 
for  the  institutions  of  both  State  and  Church,  and  to  foster  discon- 
tent with  the  established  order  of  things. 

Nor  was  it  difficult  for  the  theoretical  revolutionists  to  secure 
the  ear  of  a  people  proverbially  impulsive  and  imaginative,  and 
suffering  to  the  point  of  desperation  from  the  unequal  and  oppres- 
sive arrangements  of  a  wholly  artificial  society.  The  grand  ideas 
of  the  proposed  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  the  rights  of  man 
could  not  fail  of  appealing  powerfully  to  that  imaginative  genius 
of  the  French  people  which  had  led  them  to  be  foremost  in  the 
romantic  expeditions  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 

This  daring,  skeptical,  revolutionary  philosophy,  having  once 
taken  possession  of  the  minds  of  the  French  people,  was  bound. 


508  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

sooner  or  later,  to  find  expression  in  their  acts.  "  Human  thought," 
says  Lamartine,  "is  like  the  Divine  Mind  :  it  makes  everything 
in  its  own  image."  We  shall  soon  see  this  philosophy  making 
history,  and  making  it  like  unto  itself.' 

560.  Influence  of  the  American  Revolution.  —  Not  one  of  the 
least  potent  of  the  proximate  causes  of  the  French  Revolution  was 
the  successful  establishment  of  the  American  republic.  "The 
American  Revolution  has  laid  the  foundation  of  another  in  France, 
if  the  government  does  not  take  care  of  itself,"  wrote  Arthur 
Young  just  on  the  eve  of  the  outbreak  in  France.  "  Without  the 
successful  termination  of  the  American  War  of  Independence," 
writes  Professor  H.  Morse  Stephens,  "it  may  be  doubted  whether 
the  French  Revolution  would  have  developed  as  it  did,  or  whether 
it  would  have  taken  place  at  all." 

The  French  people  sympathized  deeply  with  the  English  colo- 
nists in  their  struggle  for  independence.  Many  of  the  nobility, 
like  Lafayette,  —  for  the  French  nobles,  strangely  blind  to  the 
logical  consequences  of  the  new  philosophy,  were  very  many  of 
them  its  enthusiastic  disciples,  —  offered  to  the  patriots  the  serv- 
ice of  their  swords ;  and  the  popular  feeling,  combined  with  a 
revengeful  wish  to  see  the  British  Empire  dismembered,  finally 
led  the  French  government  to  extend  to  them  openly  the  aid  of 
the  armies  of  France. 

The  final  triumph  of  the  cause  of  liberty  awakened  scarcely 
less  enthusiasm  and  rejoicing  in  France  than  in  America.  The 
republican  simpHcity  of  the  newborn  state,  contrasting  so  strongly 
with  the  extravagance  and  artificiality  of  the  court  at  Versailles, 
elicited  the  unbounded  admiration  of  the  French  people.  In  this 
young  repubhc  of  the  Western  world  they  saw  realized  the  Arcadia 
of  their  philosophy.^  It  was  no  longer  a  dream.  They  themselves 
had  helped  to  make  it  real.    Here  the  rights  of  man  had  been 

7  The  teachings  of  the  eighteenth-century  French  political  economists  were  in  spirit 
and  tendency  like  the  doctrines  promulgated  by  the  French  thinkers  and  writers  in 
other  fields.  The  most  noted  of  these  economists  were  Quesnay  (1694-1774),  Vincent 
de  Gournay  (1712-1759),  and  Turgot  (1727-1781). 

8  For  a  fine  illustration  of  this,  see  Trevelyan's  American  Revolution,  Part  I, 
PP-  52,  53- 


END   OF   THE   REIGN   OF   LOUIS   XV  509 

recovered  and  vindicated.  And  now  this  liberty  which  the  French 
people  had  helped  the  American  colonists  to  secure,  they  were 
impatient  to  see  France  herself  enjoy. 

561.  End  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XV;  "  After  us  the  Deluge." 
—  The  long-gathering  tempest  is  now  ready  to  break  over  France. 
Louis  XV  died  in  1 774.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  his  subjects 
had  affectionately  called  him  "  the  Well-Beloved,"  but  long  before 
he  laid  down  his  scepter  all  their  early  love  and  admiration  had 
been  turned  into  hatred  and  contempt.  Besides  being  overbear- 
ing and  despotic,  the  king  was  indolent  and  scandalously  profli- 
gate. During  twenty  years  of  his  reign,  as  we  have  already  learned, 
he  was  wholly  under  the  influence  of  the  notorious  Madame  de 
Pompadour  (sec.  457). 

The  inevitable  issue  of  this  orgy  of  folly  and  extravagance 
seems  to  have  been  clearly  enough  perceived  by  the  chief  actors 
in  it,  as  is  shown  by  that  reckless  phrase  attributed  to  the  king 
and  his  favorite,  —  "After  us  the  Deluge."  And  after  them  the 
deluge  indeed  did  come.  The  near  thunders  of  the  approaching 
tempest  could  already  be  heard  when  Louis  XV  lay  down  to  die. 

562.  The  Accession  of  Louis  XVI  (1774) ;  Financial  Troubles; 
the  Meeting  of  the  Notables  (1787).  —  Louis  XV  left  the  tottering 
throne  to  his  grandson,  Louis  XVI,  then  only  t\venty  years  of 
age.  He  had  recently  been  married  to  the  beautiful  and  light- 
hearted  Archduchess  Marie  Antoinette  of  Austria.  The  first  act  of 
the  young  couple,  upon  learning  that  the  burdens  of  sovereignty 
had  descended  upon  their  shoulders,  was,  it  was  rumored,  to  cast 
themselves  upon  their  knees  with  the  prayer,  "  O  God  !  guide  and 
protect  us ;  we  are  too  young  to  govern  !  "  Well  indeed  might 
they  appeal  to  Heaven  ;  there  was  no  earthly  help. 

How  to  raise  money  was  the  urgent  and  anxious  question  with 
the  government.  France  was  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy.  The 
king  called  to  his  side  successively  Turgot,  Necker,  and  other 
eminent  statesmen  as  his  ministers  of  finance ;  but  their  policies 
and  remedies  availed  little  or  nothing.  The  traditions  of  the 
court,  the  rigidity  of  long-established  customs,  and  the  heartless 
selfishness  of  the  privileged  classes  rendered  reform  in  taxation 


5IO  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

and  efficient  retrenchment  impossible.  The  national  debt  grew 
constantly  larger.  The  people  charged  all  to  the  extravagance  of 
the  queen,  whom  they  called  ''  Madame  Deficit." 

In  1787  the  king  summoned  the  Notables,  a  body  composed 
chiefly  of  great  lords  and  prelates,  who  had  not  been  called  to 
advise  with  the  king  since  the  year  1626.  But  miserable  coun- 
selors were  they  all.  Refusing  to  give  up  any  of  their  feudal  privi- 
leges, or  to  tax  the  property  of  their  own  orders  that  the  enormous 
public  burdens  which  were  crushing  the  commons  might  be  light- 
ened, their  coming  together  resulted  in  nothing. 

563.  The  Calling  of  the  States-General ;  the  Elections ;  the 
Cahiers.  —  As  a  last  resort  it  was  resolved  to  summon  the  united 
wisdom  of  the  nation,  to  call  together  the  States-General,  the 
almost-forgotten  national  assembly,  composed  of  representatives 
of  the  three  estates,  —  the  nobiUty,  the  clergy,  and  the  commons. 

In  December,  1788,  the  king  by  proclamation  called  upon  the 
French  people  to  elect  deputies  to  this  body,  which  had  not  met 
to  deliberate  upon  the  affairs  of  France  for  a  period  of  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  years.  Divine-right  royalty  had  seen  no 
necessity  hitherto  of  seeking  counsel  of  the  people.  The  sum- 
moning of  the  ancient  assembly  was  an  acknowledgment  that 
absolute  monarchy  had  failed  in  France.  How  complete  and  irre- 
mediable that  failure  was,  was  recognized  by  no  one  as  yet. 

In  connection  with  the  elections  there  had  been  made  by  the 
king's  advisers  a  momentous  decision,  one  which  practically  in- 
volved the  fate  of  the  monarchy.  The  commons,  conscious  that 
they  formed  the  overwhelming  majority  of  the  nation,  insisted 
upon  being  allowed  double  representation,  that  is,  as  many  deputies 
as  both  the  other  orders.  The  minister,  Necker,  yielded  to  this 
demand.  They  were  authorized  to  send  up  six  hundred  deputies, 
.while  the  nobility  and  the  clergy  were  each  to  have  only  three 
hundred  representatives. 

The  electors  had  been  instructed  to  draw  up  statements  of 
grievances  and  suggestions  of  reform  for  the  information  and 
guidance  of  the  States- General.  Very  many  of  these  documents, 
which  are  known  as  cahiers,  were  substantially  copies  of  models 


MEETING   OF   THE  STATES-GENERAL  511 

drawn  up  by  lawyers  and  others  and  widely  distributed  ;  never- 
theless they  form  a  valuable  record  of  the  France  of  1789,  —  of 
the  grievances  of  the  people,  of  their  ideas  of  reform,  and  of  their 
aspirations.  One  demand  common  to  them  all  is  that  the  nation 
through  its  representatives  shall  have  part  in  the  government. 
Those  of  the  Third  Estate  call  for  the  abolition  of  feudal  rents 
and  services,  and  for  the  equalization  among  the  orders  of  the 
burdens  of  taxation.  In  a  word,  they  were  petitions  for  equality 
and  justice. 

564.  The  States-General  changed  into  the  National  Assembly. 
—  On  the  fifth  of  May,  1789,  a  memorable  date,  the  deputies  to 
the  States-General  met  at  Versailles.  Thither  the  eyes  of  the 
nation  were  now  turned  in  hope  and  expectancy.  Surely  if  the 
redemption  of  France  could  be  worked  out  by  human  wisdom,  it 
would  now  be  effected. 

At  the  very  outset  a  dispute  arose  between  the  privileged  orders 
and  the  commons  respecting  the  manner  of  voting.  It  had  been 
the  ancient  custom  of  the  body  for  each  order  to  deliberate  in  its 
own  hall,  and  for  the  vote  upon  all  questions  to  be  by  orders.® 
But  the  commons  now  demanded  that  this  old  custom  should  be 
ignored,  and  that  the  voting  should  be  by  individuals  ;  for  should 
the  vote  be  taken  by  orders,  then  their  double  representation  would 
be  a  mere  mockery,  and  the  clergy  and  nobility  by  combining 
could  always  outvote  them.  For  five  weeks  the  quarrel  kept  every- 
thing in  a  deadlock. 

Finally,  the  commons,  emboldened  by  the  tone  of  public  opinion 
without,  took  a  decisive,  revolutionary  step.  They  declared  them- 
selves the  National  Assembly,  and  then  invited  the  other  two 
orders  to  join  them  in  their  deliberations,  giving  them  to  under- 
stand that  if  they  did  not  choose  to  do  so  they  should  proceed  to 
the  consideration  of  public  affairs  without  them. 

King,  nobles,  and  prelates  were  alarmed  at  the  bold  attitude 
assumed  by  the  commons.    The  king,  in  helpless  alarm,  suspended 

»  That  is  to  say,  the  majority  of  the  representatives  of  each  order  decided  the 
vote  for  that  order,  and  then  two  of  these  majority  votes  registered  the  decision  of 
the  whole  body  of  deputies. 


512  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

the  sitting  of  the  rebellious  deputies  and  guarded  the  door  of 
their  hall.  But  the  commons,  gathering  in  the  tennis  court,  a 
great  barnlike  building  without  seats,  bound  themselves  by  oath 
not  to  separate  until  they  had  framed  a  constitution  for  France. 
This  act  was  very  much  like  that  of  the  members  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  who  practically  opened  the  English  Revolution  by 
resolving  that  they  should  not  be  dissolved  without  their  own 
consent  (sec.  467). 

Shut  out  from  the  tennis  court,  the  representatives  of  the  Third 
Estate  met  in  one  of  the  churches  of  Versailles.  Here  they  were 
joined  by  two  of  the  nobility  and  a  large  number  of  the  deputies 
of  the  clergy.  It  looked  as  though  the  three  orders  would  soon 
coalesce.  The  court  party  labored  to  prevent  this.  A  royal  sitting, 
or  joint  meeting  of  the  three  estates,  was  held.  The  king,  influ- 
enced by  his  advisers,  read  a  speech  in  which,  assuming  the  tone 
of  an  English  Stuart,  he  admonished  the  commons  not  to  attack 
the  privileges  of  the  other  orders,  and  then  commanded  the  depu- 
ties of  the  three  orders  to  retire  to  their  separate  halls.  The  clergy 
and  the  nobility  obeyed.    The  commons  kept  their  seats. 

At  this  juncture  the  master  of  ceremonies  somewhat  pertly  said 
to  them,  "You  heard  the  king's  command?  "  Thereupon  Mirabeau, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  commons,  a  man  of  "  Jupiter-like  "  mien 
and  tone,  turned  upon  the  messenger  with  these  memorable  words  : 
"  Go,  tell  those  who  sent  you  that  we  are  here  by  the  command 
of  the  people,  and  here  we  shall  stay  until  driven  out  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet."  The  poor  official  was  so  frightened  at  the  ter- 
rible Mirabeau  that  he  straightway  sought  the  door,  withdrawing 
from  the  assembly,  however,  backwards,  as  he  had  been  wont  to 
do  in  retiring  from  the  presence  of  the  king.  His  instincts  were 
right.  He  was  indeed  in  the  presence  of  the  sovereign,  —  the  new- 
born sovereign  of  France. 

The  triumph  of  the  Third  Estate  was  soon  complete.  Real- 
izing that  it  was  futile  and  dangerous  longer  to  oppose  the  will  of 
the  commons,  the  king  ordered  those  of  the  nobles  and  clergy 
who  had  not  yet  joined  them  to  do  so,  and  they  obeyed.  The 
States-General  thus  became  in  reality  the  National  Assembly. 


THE    NATIONAL   ASSEMBLY 


513 


This  union  of  the  three  estates  in  the  National  Assembly  was 
merely  the  registering  of  the  result  of  the  silent  revolution  which 
through  the  preceding  centuries  had  been  gradually  transforming 
the  France  of  feudal  times,  made  up  of  the  three  orders  of  the 
clergy,  nobility,  and  Third  Estate,  into  the  France  of  1789,  made 
up  not  of  orders  but  of  individuals,  —  of  individuals  who  were 
already  potentially  citizens  free  and  equal  before  the  law. 


II.    The  National  or  Constituent  Assembly 
(June  17,  1789-Sept.  30,  1791) 

565.  Prominent  Men  in  the  Assembly.  —  Lamartine  declares 

that  the  National  Assembly  was  "  the  most  imposing  body  of  men 
that  ever  represented  not  only  France  but  the  human  race."  It 
was  impressive  not  so  much  from  the 
ability  or  genius  of  its  individual 
members,  though  the  picked  men  of 
France  were  here  gathered,  as  through 
the  tremendous  interest  it  held  in  its 
hands.  Yet  there  were  in  the  Assem- 
bly a  number  of  men  whose  names 
cannot  be  passed  in  silence. 

Among  the  nobility  was  the  pa- 
triotic Lafayette,  who  had  won  the 
admiration  of  his  countrymen  by 
splendid  services  rendered  the  strug- 
gling republic  in  the  New  World.  His 
influence  at  this  time  was  probably 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  man. 

Belonging  by  birth  to  the  same  order,  but  sitting  now  as  a 
deputy  of  the  commons,  was  Mirabeau,  a  large-headed,  dissolute, 
unscrupulous  man,  an  impetuous  orator,  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
Revolution.  But  though  violent  in  speech  he  was  moderate  in 
counsel.  He  wanted  to  right  the  wrongs  of  the  people,  yet  with- 
out undermining  the  throne.  He  wanted  reform  but  not  revo- 
lution.    He  aspired  to  be  a  leader,  but  no  one  at  first  had 


Fig.  89.  —  Mirabeau.  (After 
a  painting  by  Z.  Massard) 


514  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

confidence  in  him,  such  had  been  his  past  life.  Arthur  Young 
said  of  him,  *'  His  character  is  a  dead  weight  upon  him."  Yet, 
notwithstanding  his  lack  of  private  virtues,  Mirabeau's  qualities 
of  leadership  at  length  gained  for  him  recognition,  and  he  was 
at  one  time  president  of  the  National  Assembly.  But  his  life  of 
dissipation  had  undermined  his  constitution.  He  died  in  1791, 
despairing  of  the  future  for  France. 

Also  among  the  deputies  of  the  Third  Estate  sat  another  man 
whom  we  must  notice,  —  Robespierre,  not  much  known  as  yet, 
but  of  whom  we  shall  hear  enough  by  and  by. 

Still  another  most  eminent  representative  of  the  commons  was 
Abbe  Sieyes,  a  person  of  wonderful  facility  in  framing  constitu- 
tions. France  will  have  much  need  of  such  talent,  as  we  shall 
see.  Sieyes  had  recently  stirred  the  whole  country  by  a  remark- 
able pamphlet  entitled  What  is  the  Third  Estate?  (^Qu'est-ce 
que  le  Tiers  Etat?).  He  answers,  "  Everything  !  "  "  What  has  it 
been  hitherto?  "  "  Nothing  !  "  "  What  does  it  wish?  "  " To  be 
something." 

566 .  Origin  of  the  Revolutionary  Commune  of  Paris ;  the  National 
Guards. — While  the  States-General  was  metamorphosing  itself  into 
the  National  Assembly,  the  government  of  Paris  was  undergoing 
a  somewhat  similar  transformation.  During  all  these  weeks  the 
capital  was  in  a  seething  ferment.  The  king  at  last  imprudently 
began  to  mass  troops  about  Versailles,  as  if  to  overawe  the  national 
representatives.  The  inhabitants  of  the  capital  resolved  to  take 
precautionary  measures.  The  municipal  authorities  showing  them- 
selves irresolute  and  timid,  the  leading  men  of  the  different  sections 
or  ward^  of  the  city  ousted  them,  and  then,  forming  themselves 
into  a  sort  of  provisional  city  council,  assumed  the  government 
of  the  capital.  Thus  in  this  moment  of  tumult  and  confusion  was 
born  the  revolutionary  Commune  of  Paris,  a  body  whose  power 
came  to  overshadow  that  of  the  National  Assembly  itself. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  self-constituted  Commune  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  capital  now  formed  themselves  into  a  sort  of  police 
force.  Other  cities  throughout  France  imitated  Paris  and  organ- 
ized their  militia.    These  hastily  recruited  popular  bodies  took  the 


STORMING   OF  THE   BASTILLE  515 

name  of  National  Guards,  and  under  that  title  were  destined  to 
act  a  most  conspicuous  part  in  the  scenes  of  the  Revolution. 

567.  Storming  of  the  Bastille  (July  14,  1789).  —Thus  all  Paris 
was  ready  to  burst  into  conflagration.  The  news  of  the  dismissal 
by  the  king  of  Necker,  a  minister  in  whom  the  people  had  great 
confidence,  kindled  the  inflammable  mass.  On  the  morning  of 
July  14  a  great  mob  assaulted  the  Bastille,  the  old  state  prison 
and,  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  the  emblem  of  royal  despotism. 
In  a  few  hours  the  fortress  was  in  the  hands  of  the  people.  The 
curious  crowds  ransacked  every  corner  of  the  grim  old  dungeon, 
hberating  the  seven  prisoners  they  found  in  its  gloomy  cells. 
The  governor  and  others  of  the  defenders  of  the  place  were 
murdered,  their  heads  placed  at  the  end  of  pikes,  and  thus  borne 
through  the  streets.  The  walls  of  the  hated  old  prison  were  razed 
to  the  ground,  and  the  people  danced  on  the  spot.  The  key  of 
the  dungeon  was  sent  by  Lafayette  to  Washington  "  as  a  trophy 
of  the  spoils  of  despotism."  In  a  letter  accompanying  the  gift, 
Lafayette  wrote  :  "  That  the  principles  of  America  opened  the 
Bastille  is  not  to  be  doubted,  and  therefore  the  key  goes  to  the 
right  place." '' 

The  destruction  by  the  Paris  mob  of  the  Bastille  was  the  death 
knell  not  only  of  Bourbon  despotism  in  France  but  of  royal 
tyranny  everywhere.  The  intelligence  of  the  event  was  received 
with  rejoicing  in  America  and  wherever  the  ideas  and  principles 
of  self-government  were  entertained.  When  the  news  reached 
England,  the  great  statesman  Fox,  perceiving  its  significance  for 
liberty,  exclaimed,  "  How  much  is  this  the  greatest  event  that 
ever  happened  in  the  world,  and  how  much  the  best !  " 

Louis  XVI  regarded  the  matter  with  different  feelings.  When 
news  of  the  affair  was  carried  to  him  at  Versailles  he  exclaimed, 
"  What,  Rebellio7i !  "  **  No,  sire,"  was  the  response  ;  "  it  is  Revo- 
lution''   The  great  French  Revolution  had  indeed  begun. 

568.  The  Abolition  of  Privileges  (August  4,  1789).  —  As  the 
news  of  the  storming  of  the  Bastille  spread  through  France  the 
peasantry  in  many  districts,  following  the  example  set  them  by 

10  The  rusty  relic  may  be  seen  t(Hlay  in  a  case  at  Mount  Vernon. 


5l6  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

the  capital,  destroyed  the  local  bastilles  and  sacked  and  burned 
the  castles  of  the  nobles.  The  main  object  of  the  peasants  was  to 
destroy  the  title  deeds  in  the  archives  of  the  manor  houses,  since 
it  was  by  virtue  of  these  charters  that  the  lords  exercised  so  many 
rights  over  the  lands  of  the  peasants  and  exacted  so  many  teasing 
and  iniquitous  tolls  and  dues.  This  terrorism  caused  the  begin- 
ning of  what  is  known  as  the  emigration  of  the  nobles,  that  is, 
their  flight  beyond  the  frontiers  of  France. 

The  storm  without  hastened  matters  within  the  National  Assem- 
bly at  Versailles.  The  privileged  orders  now  realized  that,  to  save 
themselves  from  the  fury  of  the  masses,  they  must  give  up  those 
vexatious  feudal  privileges  which  were  a  main  cause  of  the  suf- 
ferings and  the  anger  of  the  people.  Rising  in  the  tribune,  two 
young  and  liberal-minded  members  of  the  nobility  represented 
that  they  were  willing  to  renounce  all  their  feudal  rights  and  ex- 
emptions. A  contagious  enthusiasm  was  awakened  by  this  act 
of  patriotic  generosity.  The  impulsiveness  of  the  Gallic  heart  was 
never  better  illustrated.  Everybody  wanted  to  make  sacrifices 
for  the  common  good.  The  nobles  and  the  clergy,  crowding  to  the 
tribune,  strove  with  one  another  in  generous  rivalry  to  see  who 
should  make  the  greatest  sacrifices  in  the  surrender  of  rents, 
tolls,  fees,  feudal  dues,  and  gaming  privileges.  Thus  in  a  single 
night  much  of  the  rubbish  of  the  broken-down  feudal  system  was 
cleared  away. 

569.  The  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  (August  26,  1789). 
—  After  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system  the  next  work  of  the 
National  Assembly  was  the  drawing  up  of  a  Declaration  of  the 
Rights  of  Man.  This  was  in  imitation  of  what  had  been  done  by 
the  American  patriots. 

The  dominant  notes  of  the  Declaration  were  (i)  the  equality 
of  men,  — "  Men  are  born  and  remain  free  and  equal "  ;  (2)  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people, —  "All  sovereignty  resides  essentially  in 
the  nation  "  ;  (3)  the  impartial  nature  of  law,  —  "  Law  is  the  ex- 
pression of  the  general  will  .  .  .  and  should  be  the  same  for  all " ; 
and  (4)  the  inviolability  of  personal  liberty,  —  "  No  person  shall 
be  arrested  or  imprisoned  save  according  to  the  forms  of  law." 


"TO  VERSAILLES"  517 

570.  "  To  Versailles  "  ;  the  Royal  Family  taken  to  Paris  (Oct. 
6,  1789). — An  imprudent  act  on  the  part  of  the  king  and  his 
friends  at  Versailles  brought  about  the  next  episode  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the  Revohition.  The  arrival  there  of  a  body  of  troops  was 
made  the  occasion  of  a  banquet  to  the  officers  of  the  regiment. 
While  heated  with  wine  the  young  nobles  had  trampled  under- 
foot the  national  tricolored  cockades,  and  substituted  for  them 
white  cockades,  the  emblem  of  the  Bourbons.  The  report  of  these 
proceedings  caused  in  Paris  the  wildest  excitement.  Rumors  of 
the  intended  flight  of  the  king  to  Metz,  and  of  plots  against  the 
national  cause,  added  fuel  to  the  flames.  Besides,  bread  had  failed, 
and  the  poorer  classes  were  savage  from  hunger. 

On  the  5  th  of  October  a  mob  of  desperate  women  collected 
in  the  streets  of  Paris,  determined  upon  going  to  Versailles  and 
demanding  relief  from  the  king  himself.  A  horrible  multitude, 
savage  as  the  hordes  that  followed  Attila,  streamed  out  of  the 
city  towards  Versailles.  The  National  Guards,  infected  with  the 
delirium  of  the  moment,  forced  their  commander,  Lafayette,  to 
lead  them  in  the  same  direction.  Thus  all  day  Paris  emptied  itself 
into  the  royal  suburb. 

The  mob  encamped  in  the  streets  of  Versailles  for  the  night. 
Early  the  following  morning  they  broke  into  the  palace,  killed 
two  of  the  guards,  and  forced  their  way  to  the  chamber  of  the 
queen,  who  barely  escaped  with  her  life  to  the  king's  apartments. 
The  timely  arrival  of  Lafayette  alone  saved  the  entire  royal 
family  froin  being  massacred. 

The  mob  now  demanded  that  the  king  should  go  with  them  to 
Paris.  Louis  was  constrained  to  yield.  The  procession  arrived 
at  Paris  in  the  evening.  The  royal  family  were  placed  in  the 
palace  of  the  Tuileries,  and  Lafayette  was  charged  with  the  duty  of 
guarding  the  king,  who  was  to  be  held  as  a  sort  of  hostage  for  the 
good  conduct  of  the  nobles  and  the  foreign  sovereigns  while  the 
new  constitution  was  being  prepared  by  the  Assembly,  which  had 
followed  the  king  to  the  capital. 

Such  was  what  was  called  the  Joyous  Entry  of  October  6.  The 
palace  at  Versailles,  thus  stripped  of  royalty  and  left  bespattered 


5l8  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

with  blood,  was  destined  never  again  to  be  occupied  as  the  resi- 
dence of  a  king  of  France. 

571.  Nationalization  of  Church  Property  (Nov.  2,  1789);  the 
Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  (July  12,  1790).  —  For  two  years 
following  the  Joyous  Entry  there  was  a  comparative  lull  in  the 
storm  of  the  Revolution.  The  king  was  kept  a  close  prisoner  in 
the  Tuileries.  The  National  Assembly  was  making  sweeping 
reforms  both  in  State  and  Church,  and  busying  itself  in  framing 
a  new  constitution.  One  of  the  most  important  of  its  measures 
and  one  far-reaching  in  its  effects  was  the  confiscation  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Church.  Altogether,  property  consisting  largely  of 
lands,  and  worth  it  is  estimated  over  a  billion  francs,  was  by 
decree  made  the  property  of  the  nation.^^ 

The  nationalization  of  the  property  of  the  Church  rendered  it 
necessary  that  the  nation  should  make  some  provision  for  the 
support  of  the  clergy.  This  was  done  a  little  later  by  a  decree 
known  as  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy.  The  decree  pro- 
vided for  a  new  division  of  France  into  archbishoprics,  bishoprics, 
and  parishes,  and  for  the  support  of  all  ministers  of  religion  by 
reasonable  salaries  paid  by  the  nation.  All  the  clergy,  bishops, 
and  parish  priests  alike  were  to  be  chosen  by  election,  and  all 
were  to  be  required  to  take  oath  to  support  the  new  constitution. 

Naturally  this  conversion  of  the  Church  in  France  into  an  estab- 
lished national  Church  created  a  schism  in  the  nation.  Out  of  a 
hundred  and  thirty- four  bishops  only  four  would  take  the  prescribed 
oath.  From  this  time  on  a  large  section  of  the  French  clergy 
became  the  bitter  enemies  of  the  Revolution. 

572.  Flight  and  Arrest  of  the  King  (June  20,  1791).  —  The 
attempt  of  the  king  to  make  his  way  out  of  France  and  join  the 
emigrant  nobles  now  gave  an  entirely  new  turn  to  the  course  of 
the  Revolution.    Under  cover  of  night  the  royal  family  in  disguise 

11  It  being  found  impossible  to  sell  at  once  and  at  fair  prices  so  large  an  amount 
of  real  estate,  the  Assembly,  using  the  nationalized  lands  as  security,  issued  against 
them  currency  notes,  called  assignats.  As  almost  always  happens  in  such  cases, 
inflation  of  the  currency  resulted.  Fresh  issues  of  notes  were  made  until  they  became 
quite  worthless,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Continental  notes  issued  by  the  Continental 
Congress  in  the  American  War  of  Independence. 


THE  CLUBS:  JACOBINS   AND   CORDELIERS      519 

escaped  from  the  Tuileries,  and  by  post  conveyance  fled  towards 
the  frontier.  When  just  a  few  hours  more  would  have  placed  the 
fugitives  in  safety  among  friends,  the  Bourbon  features  of  the  king 
betrayed  him,  and  the  entire  party  was  arrested  and  carried  back 
to  Paris. 

The  attempted  flight  of  the  royal  family  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the 
monarchy.  It  deepened  the  growing  distrust  of  the  king.  Many 
affected  to  regard  it  as  equivalent  on  his  part  to  an  act  of  abdica- 
tion. The  people  began  to  talk  of  a  republic.  The  word  was  only 
whispered  as  yet ;  but  it  was  not  long  before  those  who  did  not  shout 
vociferously,  *'  Vive  la  Republiqiie  !  "  were  hurried  to  the  guillotine. 

573.  The  Clubs :  Jacobins  and  Cordeliers.  —  In  order  to  render 
intelligible  the  further  course  of  the  Revolution  we  must  now  speak 
of  two  clubs,  or  organizations,  which  came  into  prominence  about 
this  time,  and  which  were  destined  to  become  more  powerful  than 
the  Assembly  itself,  and  to  be  the  chief  instruments  in  inaugu- 
rating the  Reign  of  Terror.  These  were  the  societies  of  the  Jacobins 
and  the  Cordeliers. ^^  The  objects  of  these  clubs  were  to  watch 
for  conspiracies  of  the  Royalists  and  by  constant  agitation  to  keep 
alive  the  flame  of  the  Revolution. 

574.  The  New  Constitution.  —  The  work  of  the  National 
Assembly  was  now  drawing  to  a  close.  On  the  14th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1 79 1,  the  new  constitution  framed  by  the  body,  which 
instrument  made  the  government  of  France  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy, was  solemnly  ratified  by  the  king.  The  National  Assembly, 
having  sat  over  two  years,  then  adjourned.  The  first  scene  in  the 
drama  of  the  French  Revolution  was  ended. 

III.  The  Legislative  Assembly  (Oct.  i,  1791-Sept.  19, 

1792) 

575.  The  Membership  of  the  Assembly;  the  Constitutionalists 
and  the  Girondins.  —  The  new  constitution  provided  for  a  na- 
tional legislature  to  be  called  the  Legislative  Assembly.    This  body 

12  The  Jacobins  were  so  called  from  an  old  convent  in  which  their  first  meetings  \vere 
held ;  the  Cordeliers  were  named  after  a  Franciscan  convent  where  they  assembled. 


520  -  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

was  made  up  of  several  groups  or  parties,  of  which  we  need  here 
notice  only  the  Feuillants  or  Constitutionalists  and  the  Girondins. 
The  Constitutionalists,  as  their  name  implies,  supported  the  new 
constitution,  being  in  favor  of  a  limited  monarchy.  The  Girondins, 
so  called  from  the  department  (the  Gironde)  whence  their  most 
noted  leaders  came,  wanted  to  establish  in  France  a  federal 
repubhc  like  that  just  set  up  in  the  New  World. 

576.  The  Temper  of  the  Assembly. — Some  seemingly  trivial 
matters  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  spirit  of  the  new  Assembly. 
At  the  very  outset  the  members  were  much  perplexed  in  regard 
to  how  they  should  address  the  king  and  "  wound  neither  the 
national  dignity  nor  the  royal  dignity."  Some  were  for  using  the 
titles  Sire  and  Majesty,  against  which  others  indignantly  protested, 
declaring  that  "  the  law  and  the  people  are  the  only  Majesty.'' 
It  was  finally  decided  that  Louis  XVI  should  be  called  simply 
King  of  the  French. 

Another  thing  which  troubled  the  republican  members  was  the 
gilded  throne  in  which  the  king  was  wont  to  sit  when  he  visited 
the  Assembly.  It  was  resolved  that  this  article  should  be  removed 
and  an  ordinary  chair  substituted  for  it,  this  to  be  placed  in  exact 
line  with  that  occupied  by  the  president  of  the  Assembly. 

Again  there  were  objections  raised  to  the  ceremony  of  the 
members  rising  and  standing  uncovered  in  the  king's  presence. 
So  it  was  decreed  that  the  members  might  sit  before  royalty 
with  their  hats  on. 

577.  Beginning  of  War  with  the  Old  Monarchies  (April  20, 
1792).  —  The  kings  of  Europe  were  watching  with  the  utmost 
concern  the  course  of  events  in  France.  They  regarded  the 
cause  of  Louis  XVI  as  their  own.  If  the  French  people  should 
be  allowed  to  overturn  the  throne  of  their  hereditary  sovereign, 
who  any  longer  would  have  respect  for  the  divine  right  of  kings? 

The  warlike  preparations  of  Austria,  which  had  entered  into 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Prussia,  awakened  the 
apprehensions  of  the  Revolutionists,  and  led  the  Legislative 
Assembly  to  declare  war  against  that  power  (April  20,  1792). 
A  little  later  the  allied  armies   of  the  Austrians  and  Prussians 


MASSACRE   OF   THE   SWISS   GUARDS 


521 


crossed  the  frontiers  of  France.  Thus  was  taken  the  first  step  in 
a  series  of  wars  which  were  destined  to  last  nearly  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  and  in  which  France  almost  single-handed  was  to  struggle 
against  the  leagued  powers  of  Europe  and  to  illustrate  the  miracles 
possible  to  enthusiasm  and  genius. 

578.  The  Massacre  of  the  Swiss  Guards  (August  10,  1792). — 
The  alHes  at  first  gained  easy  victories  over  the  ill-disciplined 


iSs^ 


Fig.  90.  —  The  Lion  ui  i>i  v  ...v.m..     ^i  ..,,.,  a  lMlwl,.^,.^lMl) 

This  celebrated  sculpture  commemorates  the  loyalty  and  faithfulness  of  the 
Swiss  guards  who  gave  their  lives  in  defense  of  the  royal  palace  at  Paris, 
August  10,  1792.    See  p.  522,  n.  14 

forces  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
commander  of  the  Prussian  army,  advanced  rapidly  upon  Paris. 
An  insolent  proclamation  which  this  general  now  issued  (July  25, 
1792),  wherein  he  ordered  the  French  nation  to  submit  to  their 
king,  and  threatened  the  Parisians  with  the  destniction  of  their 
city  should  any  harm  be  done  the  royal  family,  drove  the  French 
people  frantic  with  indignation  and  rage. 

The  first  outbreak  of  the  popular  fury  occurred  in  Paris.    The 
mob  of  the  capital  was  swollen  by  the  arrival  of  bands  of  picked 


522  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

men  from  other  parts  of  France.  From  the  south  came  the  "  six 
hundred  Marseillais  who  knew  how  to  die."  They  brought  with 
them  "a  better  contingent  than  ten  thousand  pikemen,"  —  the 
Marseillaise  Hymn,  the  martial  song  of  the  Revolution.^^ 

On  the  morning  of  the  loth  of  August  the  hordes  of  the  city 
were  mustered.  The  Palace  of  the  Tuileries,  defended  by  several 
hundred  Swiss  soldiers,  the  remnant  of  the  royal  guard,  was 
assaulted.  The  royal  family  fled  for  safety  to  the  hall  of  the 
Assembly  near  by.  A  terrible  struggle  followed  in  the  corridors 
and  upon  the  grand  stairways  of  the  palace.  The  Swiss  stood 
"  steadfast  as  the  granite  of  their  Alps."  But  they  were  over- 
whelmed at  last,  and  all  were  killed,  either  in  the  building  itself 
or  in  the  surrounding  courts  and  streets.^* 

579.  The  Massacre  of  September  ("  Jail  Delivery  "). — The  army 
of  the  allies  hurried  on  towards  the  capital  to  avenge  the  slaughter 
of  the  royal  guards  and  to  rescue  the  king.  Paris  was  all  excite- 
ment. "We  must  stop  the  enemy,"  cried  Danton,  ''by  striking 
terror  into  the  RoyaHsts."  To  this  end  the  most  atrocious  meas- 
ures were  now  adopted.  It  was  resolved  that  the  Royalists  con- 
fined in  the  jails  of  the  capital  should  be  killed.  A  hundred 
or  more  men  acted  as  executioners,  and  to  them  the  prisoners 
were  handed  over  after  a  hasty  examination  before  self-appointed 
judges.  When  the  assassins  grew  weary  refreshments  were  brought 
them, —  "  bread  and  wine  for  the  laborers  who  were  delivering  the 
nation  from  its  enemies."  Refreshed  by  the  bread  and  the  wine, 
they  resumed  their  work  of  emancipating  France. 

The  number  of  victims  of  this  terrible  "  September  Massacre," 
as  it  is  called,  is  estimated^^  at  from  eight  hundred  to  fourteen 

13  This  famous  war  song  was  composed  in  1792  by  Rouget  de  Lisle,  a  young 
French  engineer. 

14  The  number  of  Swiss  guards  slain  was  over  seven  hundred.  Their  fidelity 
and  devotion  are  commemorated  by  one  of  the  most  impressive  monuments  in  Europe, 
the  so-called  "  Lion  of  Lucerne,"  at  Lucerne  in  Switzerland.  In  a  large  recess  in  a 
cliff  a  dying  lion,  pierced  by  a  lance,  protects  with  its  paw  the  Bourbon  lilies.  The 
wonderfully  lifelike  figure  is  cut  out  of  the  natural  rock.  The  designer  of  the 
memorial  was  the  celebrated  Danish  sculptor  Thorvaldsen. 

15  Former  estimates  are  now  known  to  have  been  exaggerated.  See  Stephens, 
History  of  the  French  Revolution^  vol.  ii,  p.  146. 


THE    NATIOiNAL  CONVENTION  523 

hundred.    Europe  had  never  before  known  such  a  "jail  delivery." 
It  was  the  greatest  crime  of  the  French  Revolution. 

580.  Defeat  of  the  Allies.  —  Meanwhile,  in  the  open  field,  the 
fortunes  of  war  inclined  to  the  side  of  the  Revolutionists.  The 
French  army  in  the  north  was  successful  in  checking  the  advance 
of  the  allies,  and  finally  at  Valmy  (Sept.  20,  1792)  succeeded  in 
inflicting  upon  them  a  decisive  defeat,  which  caused  their  hasty 
retreat  beyond  the  frontiers  of  France.  The  day  after  this  victory 
the  Legislative  Assembly  came  to  an  end,  and  the  following  day 
the  National  Convention  assembled. 

IV.    The  National  Convention  (Sept.  20,  1792- 
Oct.  26,  1795) 

58 1 .  Parties  in  the  Convention.  —  The  Convention,  consisting  of 
seven  hundred  and  forty-nine  deputies,  among  whom  was  the  cele- 
brated freethinker,  Thomas  Paine,  embraced  two  active  groups, 
the  Girondins  and  the  Mountainists,^^  the  latter  being  so  named 
from  the  circumstance  that  they  sat  on  the  upper  benches  in  the 
Assembly  hall.  There  were  no  monarchists;  all  were  republicans. 
No  one  dared  to  speak  of  a  monarchy. 

•  It  was  the  Mountainists  who  were  to  shape  the  measures  of  the 
Convention.  Their  leaders  were  Danton  and  Robespierre,  deputies 
of  Paris.  The  party  was  inferior  in  numbers  to  that  of  the  Giron- 
dins, but  was  superior  in  energy  and  daring,  and  was  moreover 
backed  by  the  Parisian  mob.  Its  leaders  wanted  a  strong  govern- 
ment, which  they  believed  should  be  maintained,  if  necessary,  by 
a  system  of  terror. 

582.  The  Establishment  of  the  Republic  (Sept.  21,  1792); 
Beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  Propaganda.  —  Almost  the  first  act 
of  the  Convention  was  to  abolish  the  monarchy.  The  motion  for 
the  abolition  of  royalty  was  not  even  discussed.  "What  need  is 
there  for  discussion,"  exclaimed  a  delegate,  "  where  all  are  agreed? 

16  There  was  a  third  group,  comprising  the  great  majority  of  the  deputies,  and 
known  as  the  "  Plain  "  or  "  Marsh,"  who  had  no  well-formulated  policy,  and  who  acted 
sometimes  with  the  Girondins  and  sometimes  with  the  Mountainists. 


524  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

Courts  are  the  hotbed  of  crime,  the  focus  of  corruption ;  the 
history  of  kings  is  the  martyrology  of  nations." 

All  titles  of  nobility  were  also  abolished.  Every  one  was  to  be 
addressed  simply  as  citizen.  In  the  debates  of  the  Convention  the 
king  was  alluded  to  as  Citizen  Capet,  and  on  the  street  the  shoe- 
black was  called  Citizen  Shoeblack. 

The  day  following  the  estabHshment  of  the  Republic  (Sept.  22, 
1792)  was  made  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  the  first  day  of  the 
Year  E  That  was  to  be  regarded  as  the  natal  day  of  Liberty. 
A  little  later,  incited  by  the  success  of  the  French  armies,  the 
Convention  called  upon  all  nations  to  rise  against  despotism,  and 
pledged  the  aid  of  France  to  any  people  wishing  to  secure  freedom. 

This  call  to  the  peoples  of  Europe  to  rise  against  their  kings 
and  to  set  up  republican  governments  converted  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  France  into  a  propaganda,  and  naturally  made  more 
implacable  than  ever  the  hatred  toward  the  Revolution  felt  by  all 
lovers  and  beneficiaries  of  the  old  order  of  things.  The  declara- 
tion was  a  main  cause  of  the  fresh  coahtion  formed  against  the 
new  Republic  and  of  the  war  of  1793. 

583.  Trial  and  Execution  of  the  King  (Jan.  21,  1793). — ^The 
next  work  of  the  Convention  was  the  trial  and  execution  of  the 
king.  He  was  brought  before  the  bar  of  that  body,  charged  witTi 
having  conspired  with  the  enemies  of  France,  of  having  opposed 
the  will  of  the  people,  and  of  having  caused  the  massacre  of  the 
loth  of  August. 

The  sentence  of  the  Convention  was  immediate  death.  On 
Jan.  21,  1793,  the  unfortunate  monarch,  after  a  last  sad  interview 
with  his  wife  and  children,  was  conducted  to  the  scaffold.  As  his 
head  fell  beneath  the  knife  of  the  guillotine,  a  great  shout,  '■'■  Vive 
la  Republique  I ''  burst  from  the  surrounding  multitudes,  and 
echoed  through  the  empty  halls  of  the  neighboring  palace  of  the 
Tuileries. 

584.  Coalition  against  France;  the  Counter-Revolution  in  La 
Vendee.  —  The  regicide,  together  with  the  propaganda  decree  of 
the  preceding  year,  awakened  among  all  the  old  monarchies  of 
Europe  the  most  bitter  hostility  against  the  French  Revolutionists. 


THE   REVOLUTIONARY   TRIBUNAL  525 

The  act  was  interpreted  as  a  threat  against  all  kings.  A  grand 
coalition,  embracing  England,  Austria,  Prussia,  the  Protestant 
Netherlands,  Spain,  Portugal,  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  Naples,  and  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  was  formed  to  crush  the  republican  move- 
ment. Armies  aggregating  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  of 
men  threatened  France  at  once  on  every  frontier. 

While  thus  beset  with  foes  without,  the  RepubHc  was  threat- 
ened with  even  more  dangerous  enemies  within.  The  people  of 
La  Vend(§e,  in  Western  France,  where  the  peasants  were  angered 
at  the  conscription  decrees  of  the  Convention,  and  where  there 
was  still  a  strong  sentiment  of  loyalty  to  the  Church  and  the 
monarchy,  rose  in  revolt  against  the  Revolutionists. 

585.  Creation  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  (March  10,  1793) 
and  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  (April  6,  1793). — The 
defeat  of  the  French  armies  in  the  north  and  the  advance  of  the 
allies  caused  the  greatest  excitement  among  the  Parisian  popu- 
lace, who  now  demanded  that  the  Convention  should  overawe 
the  domestic  enemies  of  the  Revolution  by  the  establishment 
of  a  judicial  dictatorship,  a  sort  of  tribunal  which  should  take 
cognizance  of  all  crimes  against  the  Republic. 

Danton,  while  acknowledging  the  injustice  that  the  summary 
processes  of  such  a  court  might  do  to  many  unjustly  suspected, 
justified  its  establishment  by  arguing  that  in  time  of  peace  society 
lets  the  guilty  escape  rather  than  harm  the  innocent ;  but  in 
times  of  public  danger  it  should  rather  strike  down  the  innocent 
than  allow  the  guilty  to  escape.  It  was  on  this  principle  that 
France  was  to  be  governed  for  one  terrible  year. 

A  little  later  was  organized  what  was  called  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  consisting  of  nine  persons,  members  of  the  Con- 
vention. It  was  invested  with  dictatorial  power.  Danton,  who 
became  the  leading  member  of  the  Committee,  urged  the  forma- 
tion of  this  arbitrary  executive  body  as  the  only  expedient  which 
would  enable  the  nation  to  act  with  that  dispatch  and  energy 
needful  to  save  the  Republic.  "  VV^e  must  establish  a  despotism 
of  liberty,"  cried  Marat,  a  prominent  chief  of  the  Cordeliers, 
"  to  crush  the  despotism  of  kings."    The  vast  powers  wielded 


526  THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

by  the  Committee  were  delegated  to  it  for  a  single  month  only, 
but  were  renewed  from  month  to  month. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  the  character  of  these  two  bodies  in 
order  to  follow  intelligently  the  subsequent  events  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  to  understand  how  the  atrocious  tyranny  of  the  Reign 
of  Terror  was  exercised  and  maintained. 

586.  The  Fall  of  the  Girondins  (June  2,  1793).  —  Still  gloomier 
tidings  came  from  every  quarter,  —  news  of  reverses  to  the 
armies  of  the  Republic  in  front  of  the  allies,  and  of  successes 
of  the  counter-revolutionists  in  La  Vendee.  The  Mountainists 
in  the  Convention,  supported  by  the  rabble  of  Paris,  urged  the 
most  extreme  measures.  They  proposed  that  the  carriages  of 
the  wealthy  should  be  seized  and  used  for  carrying  soldiers  to 
the  seat  of  war,  and  that  the  expenses  of  the  government  should 
be  met  by  forced  contributions  from  the  rich. 

The  Girondins  opposed  these  communistic  measures.  The 
Parisian  mob  filled  the  city  with  cries  of  "  Down  with  the  Giron- 
dins !  "  "  If  the  person  of  the  people's  representative  be  vio- 
lated," warningly  exclaimed  one  of  the  Girondin  orators,  "  Paris 
will  be  destroyed,  and  soon  the  stranger  will  be  compelled  to 
inquire  on  which  bank  of  the  Seine  the  city  stood." 

The  Girondins  were  finally  overborne.  An  immense  mob  sur- 
rounded the  hall  of  the  Convention  and  demanded  that  their 
chiefs  be  given  up  as  enemies  of  the  Republic.  Thirty-one  of 
their  leaders  were  surrendered  and  placed  under  arrest,  a  pre- 
liminary step  to  the  speedy  execution  of  many  of  them  during 
the  opening  days  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  Thus  did  the  Parisian 
mob  purge  the  National  Convention  of  France,  as  the  army  purged 
Parliament  in  the  English  Revolution  (sec.  474). 

587.  Charlotte  Corday;  Assassination  of  Marat  (July  13,  1793). 
—  The  arrest  of  the  Girondin  chiefs  marks  a  turning  point  in 
the  Revolution.  Several  escaped  and  attempted  to  stir  up  revolt 
in  the  provinces  against  the  revolutionary  leaders  in  Paris.  Civil 
war  was  impending. 

At  this  juncture  a  maiden  of  Caen,  in  Normandy,  Charlotte 
Corday  by  name,  conceived  the  idea  of  delivering  France  from 


THE    KKIGN    OF    TERROR  527 

the  terrors  of  proscription  and  civil  war  by  going  to  Paris  and 
killing  Marat,  whom  she  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  Moun- 
tainists.  On  pretense  of  wishing  to  reveal  to  him  something  of 
importance,  she  gained  admission  to  his  rooms  and  stabbed  him 
fatally.    She  atoned  for  the  act  under  th€  knife  of  the  guillotine. 

The  Reign  of  Terror  {September^'^  ^TQJ-Ji^^y^  ^794) 

588.  The  Great  Committee  of  Public  Safety;  its  Principle  of 
Government.  —  Ihe  perilous  situation  created  by  domestic  insur- 
rection and  foreign  invasion  demanded  a  strong  executive.  It 
was  created.  The  Convention  reorganized  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  which  now  became  what  is  known  as  the  Great 
Committee  of  Public  Safety,  suspended  the  constitution,  and 
invested  the  new  board  with  supreme  .executive  authority.  For 
almost  a  full  year  the  twelve  men  —  bi  whom  Robespierre  was 
the  most  conspicuous  —  cc^stituting  this  body  exercised  absolute 
power  over  the  life  and  property  of  every  person  in  France.  The 
Committee's  principle  of  government  was  simple.  It  governed  by 
terror.^^    Its  rule  is  known  as  the  '*  Reign  of  Terror." 

In  order  to  understand  in  any  measure  this  passage  of  French 
history,  we  must  put  ourselves  at  the  viewpoint  of  the  Terrorists, 
as  those  responsible  for  the  Terror  are  called.  The  most,  if  not 
all,  of  the  men  constituting  the  Great  Committee  were  men  of 
character,  —  some  of  their  agents  were  unworthy  creatures,  who, 
misusing  their  authority,  committed  incredible  crimes,  —  men 
governed  by  certain  principles  and  ideals  which  seemed  to  them 
right  and  worthy.  They  were  men  who  had  persuaded  themselves 
that  opposition  to  the  Revolution  was  a  crime  deserving  death, 
and  that  France  could  be  saved  from  anarchy  and  foreign  sub- 
jection only  by  the  quick  and  thorough  suppression  of  all  oppo- 
sition at  home  by  the  terrifying  executions  of  the  guillotine.    For 

IJ"  The  beginning  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  cannot  be  dated  with  precision. 

18  It  is  illuminative  to  set  the  principle  of  government  of  the  Terrorists  in  con- 
trast with  that  of  one  of  the  most  lovable  of  the  Girondins.  "  They  have  sought  to 
effect  the  Revolution  by  terror,"  said  the  great  orator  Vergniaud ;  "  I  have  wished 
to  effect  it  by  love." 


528 


THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION 


£VW-\ 


the  same  reasons  the  majority  of  the  people  of  France  acquiesced 
in  this  government  by  terror  which  the  Committee  estabUshed. 

589.  The  Execution  of  Marie  Antoinette  (Oct.  16,  1793). — 
One  of  the  earhest  victims  of  the  guillotine  under  the  organized 
Terror  was  the  queen.  The  attention  of  the  Revolutionists  had 
been  turned  anew  to  the  remaining  members  of  the  royal  family 
by  reason  of  the  recognition  by  the  allies  of  the  Dauphin  as  king 
of  France/®  and  by  the  recent  alarming  successes  of  their  armies. 

The  queen,  who  had  now  borne 
nine  months'  imprisonment,  was 
brought  before  the  terrible  Revo- 
lutionary Tribunal  and  condemned 
to  the  guillotine.  She  was  con- 
veyed in  a  common  cart  to  the 
same  spot  where,  less  than  a  year 
before,  her  husband  had  suffered. 
When  she  first  appeared  in  the 
chamber  of  the  dread  tribunal, 
with  her  robes  disordered,  her  hair 
blanched  from  anguish,  and  her 
face  furrowed  with  sorrow,  —  so 
changed  from  that  fair  vision  of 
beauty  once  the  center  of  the  bril- 
liant court  of  Versailles,^'^  —  a  wave 
of  pity  had  rushed  over  the  hearts  of  all  beholders  ;  but  the  rising 
tide  of  sentiment  had  been  checked,  and  now  a  hideous  mob 
of  men  and  women  howled  with  savage  delight  around  the  cart 
which  bore  the  unhappy  queen  to  the  scaffold. 


P'iG.  91. 


The  Guillotine 


19  The  Dauphin,  a  mere  child  of  eight  years,  was  recognized  as  king  of  France  by- 
several  of  the  great  powers  in  January,  1793.  He  was  at  this  time  a  prisoner  in  the 
Temple.  He  died  in  1795,  his  death  having  been  caused  or  at  least  hastened  by  the 
brutal  ill  usage  he  received  at  the  hands  of  his  jailers. 

20  "  It  is  now  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  since  I  saw  the  queen  of  France,  then 
the  Dauphiness,  at  Versailles  ;  and  surely  never  lighted  on  this  orb,  which  she  hardly 
seemed  to  touch,  a  more  delightful  vision,  I  saw  her  just  above  the  horizon,  deco- 
rating and  cheering  the  elevated  sphere  she  just  had  begun  to  move  in,  —  glittering  like 
the  morning  star,  full  of  life  and  splendor  and  joy." — Burke,  Reflections  on  the 
French  Revolution. 


EXECUTION    OF   THE   GIRONDINS  529 

We  need  not  speak  of  the  faults  of  Marie  Antoinette,  though 
they  were  many;  her  patience,  her  heroism,  and  her  sufferings 
were  ample  atonement  for  them  all. 

590.  Execution  of  the  Girondins  (Oct.  31,  1793)  and  of  Madame 
Roland  (Nov.  8,  1793).  —  The  guillotine  was  now  fed  daily  with 
the  best  blood  of  France.  Two  weeks  after  the  execution  of  the 
queen  twenty  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Girondins,  who  had  been  kept 
in  confinement  since  their  arrest  in  the  Convention,  were  pushed 
beneath  the  knife.    Hundreds  of  others  followed. 

Most  illustrious  of  all  the  victims  after  the  queen  was  Madame 
Roland,  who  was  accused  of  being  the  friend  of  the  Girondins. 
An  incident  at  the  scaffold  is  related  as  a  memorial  of  her. 
As  she  was  about  to  lay  her  head  beneath  the  knife,  her  eye,  it 
is  said,  chanced  to  fall  upon  the  statue  of  Liberty  which  stood 
near  the  scaffold.  "O  Liberty  !"  she  exclaimed;  "what  crimes 
are  committed  in  thy  name  !  " 

It  has  ever  been  so.  The  worst  crimes  that  stain  the  pages 
of  history  have  been  committed  in  the  name  of  that  which  is 
holiest,  —  in  the  name  of  Liberty,  or  of  Justice,  or  of  Religion. 

591.  The  New  Calendar.  — While  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal 
was  clearing  out  of  the  way  the  enemies  of  the  Republic  by  the 
quick  processes  of  the  guillotine,  the  Convention  was  busy  reforming 
the  ancient  institutions  and  customs  of  the  land.  They  hated  these 
as  having  been  established  by  kings  and  aristocrats  to  enhance 
their  own  importance  and  to  enslave  the  masses.  They  proposed 
to  sweep  these  things  all  aside  and  give  the  world  a  fresh  start. 

A  new  uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures,  known  as  the 
metric,^^  had  already  been  planned  by  the  National  Assembly; 
a  new  mode  of  reckoning  time  was  now  introduced.  The  months 
were  given  new  names,  names  expressive  of  the  character  of  each. 
Each  month  was  divided  into  three  periods  of  ten  days  each, 
called  decades^  and  each  day  into  ten  parts.  The  tenth  day  of 
each  decade  took  the  place  of  the  old  Sabbath.  The  five  odd 
days  not  provided  for  in  the  arrangement  were  made  festival  days. 

21  This  reform  was  a  most  admirable  one  and  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  good 
outcomes  of  the  Revolution. 


530  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

592.  Attempt  to  abolish  Christianity  (Nov.  7,  1793). — The 
old  calendar  having  been  abolished,  the  Revolutionists  next  pro- 
ceeded to  abolish  Christianity.  Some  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Com- 
mune of  Paris  declared  that  the  Revolution  should  not  rest  until 
it  had  "  dethroned  the  King  of  Heaven  as  well  as  the  kings  of 
earth."  An  attempt  was  made  by  the  extremists  to  have  Chris- 
tianity aboUshed  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Convention ;  but 
that  body  prudently  resolved  that  all  matters  of  creeds  should  be 
left  to  the  decision  of  the  people  themselves.  The  atheistic  lead- 
ers then  determined  to  effect  their  purpose  through  the  Church 
itself.  They  persuaded  the  Bishop  of  Paris,  Gobel  by  name,  to 
abdicate  his  office  ;  and  his  example  was  followed  by  many  of  the 
clergy  throughout  the  country. 

The  churches  of  Paris  and  of  other  cities  were  now  closed,  and 
the  treasures  of  their  altars  and  shrines  confiscated  to  the  state. 
Even  the  bells  were  melted  down  into  cannon.  The  images  of 
the  Virgin  and  of  the  Christ  were  torn  down,  and  the  busts  of 
Marat  and  other  patriots  set  up  in  their  stead.  And  as  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  world  was  now  to  be  wrought  not  by  the  Cross 
but  by  the  guillotine,  that  instrument  took  the  place  of  the  cru- 
cifix, and  was  called  the  "  Holy  Guillotine."  In  many  places 
all  visible  symbols  of  the  ancient  religion  were  destroyed ;  all 
emblems  of  hope  in  some  cemeteries  were  obhterated,  and  over 
their  gates  were  inscribed  the  words,  ''  Death  is  eternal  sleep." 

593.  Inauguration  of  the  Worship  of  Reason  (Nov.  10,  1793). 
—  The  madness  of  the  people  culminated  in  the  worship  of 
Reason.  A  celebrated  beauty,  personating  the  Goddess  of  Reason, 
was  set  upon  the  altar  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris  as  an  object  of 
homage  and  worship. 

The  example  of  Paris  was  followed  generally  throughout  France. 
Churches  were  converted  into  temples  of  the  new  worship.  The 
Sabbath  having  been  abolished,  the  services  of  the  temple  were 
held  only  upon  every  tenth  day.  On  that  day  the  mayor  or  some 
popular  leader  mounted  the  altar  and  harangued  the  people,  dwell- 
ing upon  the  news  of  the  moment,  the  triumphs  of  the  armies  of 
the  Republic,  the  glorious  achievements  of  the  Revolution,  and 


FALL  OF   HEBERT   AND    DANTON  531 

the  privilege  of  living  in  an  era  when  one  was  oppressed  neither 
by  kings  on  earth  nor  by  a  King  in  Heaven. 

594.  Fall  of  Hebert  and  Danton  (March  and  April,  1794). — 
Not  many  months  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  had  passed  before 
the  Revolutionists,  having  destroyed  or  driven  into  obscurity  their 
common  enemy,  the  Girondins  and  their  sympathizers,  turned 
upon  one  another  with  the  ferocity  of  beasts  whose  appetite  has 
been  whetted  by  the  taste  of  blood. 

During  the  progress  of  events  the  Jacobins  had  become  divided 
into  three  factions,  headed  respectively  by  Danton,  Robespierre, 
and  Hubert.  Danton  had  been  a  bold  and  audacious  leader,^^  but 
was  now  adopting  a  more  conservative  tone,  and  was  condemning 
as  no  longer  necessary  the  government  by  terror  which  was  being 
maintained  by  the  Great  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 

Hubert  was  one  of  the  worst  demagogues  of  the  Commune  of 
Paris,  the  chief  and  instigator  of  the  Parisian  rabble.  He  was  the 
editor  of  a  vile  and  blasphemous  sheet  called  Pere  Duchesne^  the 
most  audacious  and  inflammatory  of  the  innumerable  newspapers 
and  pamphlets  which  appeared  during  the  Reign  of  Terror.  He 
and  his  followers  would  overturn  everything  and  refound  society 
upon  communism  and  atheism. 

Robespierre  occupied  a  position  midway  between  these  two, 
condemning  alike  the  moderatism  of  Danton  and  the  atheistic 
communism  of  Hubert.  To  make  his  own  power  supreme  he 
resolved  to  crush  both. 

Hubert  and  his  party  were  the  first  to  fall,  Danton  and  his 
adherents  working  with  Robespierre  to  bring  about  their  ruin. 
Danton  and  his  party  were  the  next  to  follow.  Little  more  than 
a  week  had  passed  since  the  execution  of  Hubert  before  Robes- 
pierre had  effected  their  destruction  on  the  charge  of  conspiring 
with  the  counter-revolutionists.  The  last  words  of  Danton  to  the 
executioner  were,  "  Show  my  head  to  the  people  ;  they  do  not  see 
the  like  every  day."    The  grim  request  was  granted. 

With  the  anarchists  and  moderates  both  destroyed,  Robes- 
pierre was  supreme.  His  ambition  was  attained.  "  He  stood 
22  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  but  not  of  the  second. 


532 


THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 


alone  on  the  awful  eminence  of  the  Holy  Mountam."    But  his 
turn  was  soon  to  come. 

595.  Worship  of  the  Supreme  Being.  —  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
Robespierre  after  he  had  freed  himself  from  his  most  virulent 
enemies  was  to  give  France  a  new  religion  in  place  of  the  worship 
of  Reason.  Robespierre  wished  to  sweep  away  Christianity  as  a 
superstition,  but  he  would  stop  at  deism.  He  did  not  believe 
that  a  state  could  be  founded  on  atheism.     "  If  God  did  not 

exist,"  he  declared,  "it  would  behoove 
man  to  invent  Him." 

In  a  remarkable  address  dehvered  be- 
fore the  Convention  on  the  7  th  of  May, 
1794,  Robespierre  eloquently  defended 
the  doctrines  of  God  and  immortality, 
and  then  closed  his  speech  by  offering 
for  adoption  this  decree  :  "(i)  The  French 
people  recognize  the  existence  of  the  Su- 
preme Being  and  the  immortality  of  the 
soul ;  (2)  they  recognize  that  the  worship 
most  worthy  of  the  Supreme  Being  is 
the  practice  of  the  duties  of  man ;  and 
(3)  they  put  in  the  first  rank  of  these 
duties  to  detest  bad  faith  and  tyranny,  to 
punish  tyrants  and  traitors,  to  rescue  the 
unfortunate,  to  defend  the  oppressed,  to  do  to  others  all  the  good 
one  can,  and  to  be  unjust  towards  none."  ^^ 

The  Convention  adopted  the  resolution  with  the  "utmost 
enthusiasm."  The  Jacobins  appeared  by  a  committee  before  the 
Assembly  and  thanked  them  for  the  grand  decree.  Similar  con- 
gratulations came  from  all  parts  of  France.  The  churches  which 
had  been  converted  into  temples  of  the  Goddess  of  Reason  were 
now  consecrated  to  the  new  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being. 

596.  The  Culmination  of  the  Terror  at  Paris  (June  and  July, 
1794).  —  At  the  same  time  that  Robespierre  was  instituting  the 

28  Stephens,  The  Principal  Speeches  of  the  Statesmett  and  Orators  of  the  French 
Revolution^  vol.  ii,  p.  416. 


Fig.  92.  —  Robespierre 
(From  a  French  print) 


THE   TERROR   AT   PARIS  533 

new  worship,  the  Great  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  of  which 
he  was  generally  regarded  as  the  controlling  spirit,  was  ruling 
France  by  a  terrorism  unparalleled  since  the  most  frightful  days 
at  Rome.  The  Revolutionary  Tribunal  had  been  entirely  unham- 
pered in  its  modes  of  procedure,  and  "  moral  conviction  "  on  the 
part  of  the  judges  of  the  guilt  of  a  person  was  all  that  was  neces- 
sary upon  which  to  ground  a  verdict  of  death.  The  Convention, 
affrighted  by  the  monster  it  had  itself  brought  forth,  was  cowering 
before  it. 

With  all  power  thus  gathered  in  its  hands,  the  Committee  pro- 
ceeded to  overawe  all  opposition  and  dissent  by  the  wholesale 
slaughters  of  the  guillotine.  The  prisons  of  Paris  and  of  the 
departments  were  filled  with  suspected  persons,  until  two  hundred 
thousand  prisoners  were  crowded  into  these  republican  bastilles. 
At  Paris  the  dungeons  were  emptied  of  their  victims  and  room 
made  for  fresh  ones  by  the  swift  processes  of  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal,  which  in  mockery  of  justice  caused  the  prisoners  to  be 
brought  before  its  bar  in  companies  of  ten  or  fifty  or  more.  Rank 
or  talent  was  an  inexpiable  crime.  "Were  you  not  a  noble?" 
asked  the  president  of  the  tribunal  of  one  of  the  accused.  "  Yes," 
was  the  reply.  "  Enough  ;  another,"  was  the  judge's  verdict.  And 
so  on  through  the  long  list  each  day  brought  before  the  court. 

The  scenes  about  the  guillotine  seem  mirrored  from  the  Inferno 
of  Dante.  Benches  were  arranged  around  the  scaffold  and  rented 
to  spectators,  like  seats  in  a  theater.  The  market  women  of  Paris, 
the  same  women  who  had  made  the  march  to  Versailles  in  the 
opening  days  of  the  Revolution,  and  who  were  now  known  as  "  the 
Furies  of  the  Guillotine,"  busied  themselves  with  their  knitting 
while  watching  the  changing  scenes  of  the  bloody  spectacle.  In 
the  space  of  seven  weeks  (June  i  o-July  27)  the  number  of  persons 
guillotined  at  Paris  was  thirteen  hundred  and  seventy-six,  —  an 
average  of  over  twenty-eight  a  day. 

597.  The  Terror  in  the  Provinces.  —  While  such  was  the  frightful 
state  of  things  at  the  capital,  matters  were  even  worse  in  several 
of  the  provinces.  Some  of  the  cities,  including  Lyons,  Bordeaux, 
Marseilles,  and  Toulon,  which  had  been  prominent   centers  of 


534  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

the  counter-revolution  incited  by  the  arrest  of  the  Girondins 
(sec.  586),  were  made  a  terrible  example  of  the  vengeance  of  the 
Revolutionists.  Lyons  was  to  them  an  object  of  special  hatred. 
Respecting  this  place  the  Convention  passed  the  following  decree  : 
"  The  city  of  Lyons  shall  be  destroyed  ;  every  house  occupied  by 
a  rich  man  shall  be  demolished."  The  decree  was  in  part  actually 
carried  into  execution,  one  of  the  most  aristocratic  quarters  of  the 
city  being  pulled  down. 

At  Nantes,  in  the  Vendean  district,  the  terror  culminated.  The 
agent  here  of  the  Great  Committee  was  one  Carrier.  At  first 
he  caused  his  victims  to  be  shot  singly  or  to  be  guillotined ;  but 
findhig  these  methods  too  slow,  he  devised  more  expeditious 
modes  of  execution,  which  were  known  as  fusillades  (battues) 
and  noyades  (drownings).  I'^q  fusillades  consisted  in  gathering 
the  victims  in  large  companies  and  then  mowing  them  down  with 
cannon  and  musket.  In  the  noyades  a  hundred  or  more  persons 
were  crowded  into  an  old  hulk,  which  was  then  towed  out  into 
the  Loire  and  scuttled. 

By  these  various  methods  Carrier  succeeded  in  destroying  up- 
wards of  five  thousand  persons  in  about  four  months.  What  renders 
these  murders  the  more  atrocious  is  the  fact  that  a  considerable 
number  of  the  victims  were  women  and  little  children. 

598.  The  Fall  of  Robespierre  (July  28,  1794);  Punishment  of 
the  Terrorists.  —  The  Reign  of  Terror  had  lasted  about  nine 
months  when  a  reaction  came.  The  successes  of  the  armies  of 
the  Republic  and  the  establishment  of  the  authority  of  the  Con- 
vention throughout  the  departments  caused  the  people  to  look 
upon  the  wholesale  executions  that  were  daily  taking  place  as 
unnecessary  and  cruel.  They  began  to  turn  with  horror  and  pity 
from  the  scenes  of  the  guillotine. 

Robespierre  was  the  first  to  be  swept  away  by  the  reaction. 
The  Convention  denounced  him  and  his  adherents  as  enemies  of 
the  Repubhc.  He  was  arrested,  rescued  by  the  rabble  of  Paris, 
rearrested  and  straightway  sent  to  the  guillotine,  and  along  with 
him  several  of  his  friends  and  the  greater  part  of  the  members  of 
the  Commune  of  Paris. 


EFFECTS   OF  THE   REIGN   OF   TERROR  535 

The  reaction  which  had  swept  away  Robespierre  and  his  asso- 
ciates continued  after  their  fall.  There  was  a  general  demand 
for  the  punishment  of  the  Terrorists.  The  clubs  of  the  Jacobins 
were  closed,  and  that  infamous  society  which  had  rallied  and 
directed  the  hideous  rabbles  of  the  great  cities  was  broken  up. 
The  Christian  worship  was  reestablished.  The  busts  of  Marat  were 
thrown  down,  broken  in  pieces,  and  flung  into  the  gutter. 

599.  Effects  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  — The  effect  of  the  Terror 
upon  France  was  just  what  the  Terrorists  had  aimed  to  produce. 
It  effectually  cowed  all  opposition  at  home  to  the  Revolution, 
thereby  preserving  the  unity  of  France  and  enabling  her  to  push 
the  foreign  foe  from  her  soil. 

Outside  of  France  the  effects  of  the  rule  by  terror  were  most 
unfavorable  to  the  true  cause  of  the  Revolutionists.  It  destroyed 
the  illusions  of  generous  souls,  like  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and 
Southey  in  England,  and  caused  among  the  earlier  sympathizers 
with  the  Revolutionists  a  great  revulsion  of  feeling.  From  being 
Liberals  men  became  Conservatives  and  determined  foes  of  all 
innovation  and  reform.  The  Revolution  was  discredited  in  the 
eyes  of  its  best  friends.  It  became  identified  in  men's  minds  with 
atheism  and  terrorism,  and  to  the  present  hour  in  the  minds  of 
many  the  French  Revolution  suggests  nothing  save  foul  blas- 
phemies and  guillotine  horrors. 

600.  Bonaparte  defends  the  Convention  (Oct.  5,  1795).  —  Expe- 
rience had  shown  the  defects  of  the  revolutionary  government, 
particularly  in  that  it  united  both  legislative  and  executive  power 
in  the  same  hands.  The  Convention  now  set  about  framing  a 
new  constitution,  which  vested  the  executive  power  in  a  body 
called  the  Directory,  consisting  of  five  persons.  It  also  provided 
for  two  legislative  bodies,'^*  known  as  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred and  the  Council  of  Ancients. 

The  Convention,  fearing  to  surrender  its  authority  into  the 
hands  of  an  entirely  new  assembly,  had  provided  that  two  thirds 

24  The  hasty  and  often  ill-considered  decrees  of  the  Convention  had  shown  the 
necessity  of  putting  a  check  upon  legislation  by  the  creation  of  an  Upper  and  a 
Lxjwer  House. 


536  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

of  the  representatives  in  the  new  legislature  should  be  chosen 
from  the  deputies  of  the  old  body.  This  displeased  the  Parisian 
mob.  The  sections  of  the  turbulent  capital  again  gathered  their 
hordes,  and  on  the  5th  of  October,  1795,  a  mob  of  forty  thousand 
men  advanced  to  the  attack  of  the  Tuileries,  where  the  Conven- 
tion was  sitting.  As  the  mob  came  on  they  were  met  by  a  "  whiff 
of  grapeshot,"  which  sent  them  flying  back  in  wild  disorder.  The 
man  who  trained  the  guns  was  a  young  artillery  officer,  a  native 
of  the  island  of  Corsica,  —  Napoleon  Bonaparte. ^^  The  Revolu- 
tion had  at  last  brought  forth  a  man  of  genius  capable  of  con- 
trolling and  directing  its  tremendous  energies. 

V.    The  Directory  (Oct.  27,  1795-Nov.  9,  1799) 

601.  The  Republic  becomes  Aggressive.  — Under  the  Directory 
the  Republic,  which  up  to  this  time  had  been  acting  mainly  on 
the  defensive,  very  soon  entered  upon  an  aggressive  policy.  The 
Revolution  having  accomplished  its  work  in  France,  having  there 
destroyed  royal  despotism  and  abolished  class  privilege,  now  set 
itself  about  fulfilling  its  early  promise  of  giving  liberty  to  all 
peoples  (sec.  582).  In  a  word,  the  Revolution  became  what  has 
been  called  "  an  armed  propaganda."  France  now  exhibits  what 
her  historians  call  her  social,  her  communicative  genius.  "  Easily 
seduced  herself,"  as  Lamartine  says,  "  she  easily  seduces  others." 
She  would  make  all  Europe  like  unto  herself.  Herself  a  republic, 
she  would  make  all  nations  republics. 

Had  not  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  people  in  all  the  neigh- 
boring countries  been  prepared  to  welcome  the  new  order  of 
things,  the  Revolution  could  never  have  spread  itself  as  widely  as 
it  did.  But  everywhere  irrepressible  longings  for  social  and  polit- 
ical equality  and  freedom,  born  of  long  oppression,  were  stirring 
the  souls  of  men.  The  French  armies  were  everywhere  welcomed 
by  the  people  as  dehverers.    Thus  was  France  enabled  to  surround 

25  The  Convention  had  intrusted  its  defense  to  the  deputy  Barras,  who  had 
selected  Bonaparte  as  his  lieutenant  on  account  of  the  reputation  he  had  made  for 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1793. 


THE   PLANS   OF   THE   DIRECTORY  537 

herself  with  a  girdle  of  commonwealths.  She  conquered  Europe 
not  by  her  armies  but  by  her  ideas.  "An  invasion  of  armies," 
says  Victor  Hugo,  "  can  be  resisted  :  an  invasion  of  ideas  cannot 
be  resisted." 

The  republics  established  were  indeed  short-lived;  for  the  times 
were  not  yet  ripe  for  the  complete  triumph  of  democratic  ideas. 
But  a  great  gain  for  freedom  was  made.  The  reestablished  mon- 
archies, as  we  shall  see  later,  never  dared  to  make  themselves  as 
despotic  as  those  which  the  Revolution  had  overturned. 

602.  The  Plans  of  the  Directory.  — Austria  and  England  were 
the  only  formidable  powers  that  still  persisted  in  their  hostility 
to  the  Republic.^®  The  Directors  resolved  to  strike  a  decisive 
blow  at  the  first  of  these  implacable  foes.  To  carry  out  their 
design,  two  large  armies,  numbering  about  seventy  thousand 
each,  were  mustered  upon  the  Middle  Rhine  and  intnisted  to 
the  command  of  the  two  young  and  energetic  generals,  Moreau 
and  Jourdan,  who  were  to  make  a  direct  invasion  of  Germany. 
A  third  army,  numbering  about  forty-two  thousand  men,  was 
assembled  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nice,  in  Southeastern  France, 
and  placed  in  the  hands  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom  was  assigned  the 
work  of  driving  the  Austrians  out  of  Italy. 

603.  Bonaparte's  Italian  Campaign  (i 796-1 797).  —  Straight- 
way upon  receiving  his  command,  Bonaparte,  now  in  his  twenty- 
seventh  year,  animated  by  visions  of  military  glory  to  be  gathered 
on  the  fields  of  Italy,  hastened  to  join  his  army  at  Nice.  He 
found  the  discontented  soldiers  almost  without  food  or  clothes. 
He  at  once  aroused  all  their  latent  enthusiasm  by  one  of  those 
short,  stirring  addresses  for  which  he  afterwards  became  so 
famous.  '*  Soldiers,"  said  he,  "  you  are  badly  fed  and  almost 
naked.  ...  I  have  come  to  lead  you  into  the  most  fertile  fields 
of  the  world  ;  there  you  will  find  large  cities,  rich  provinces,  honor, 
glory,  and  wealth.    Soldiers  of  Italy,  will  you  fail  in  courage?" 

If  this  address  be  placed  alongside  the  decree  of  the  Conven- 
tion offering  the  aid  of  France  to  all  peoples  desiring  freedom 

28  Prussia,  Spain,  and  other  states  had  made  the  Treaties  of  Basel  with  the  Con- 
vention, in  which  they  recognized  the  French  Republic  (1795). 


538  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

(sec.  582),  it  will  be  realized  with  how  alien  a  spirit  Bonaparte 
here  inspires  the  armies  of  republican  France.  He  represents 
Italy  to  the  imagination  of  the  soldiers  of  the  French  Republic 
merely  as  a  country  of  rich  cities  to  be  despoiled,  as  a  land 
whence  France  may  draw  unUmited  tribute.  The  address  marks 
the  beginning  of  that  transformation  which  in  a  few  years  changed 
the  liberating  armies  of  France  into  the  scourge  of  Europe. 

Before  the  mountain  roads  were  yet  free  from  snow  Bonaparte 
set  in  motion  his  army,  which  he  had  assembled  on  the  coast 
near  Genoa,  and  suddenly  forced  the  passage  of  the  mountains 
at  the  juncture  of  the  Apennines  and  the  Maritime  Alps.  The 
Carthaginian  had  been  surpassed.  ''  Hannibal,"  exclaimed  Bona- 
parte, "  crossed  the  Alps ;  as  for  us,  we  have  turned  them." 

This  blow  separated  the  Sardinian  and  Austrian  armies.  Within 
two  weeks  the  Sardinians  were  completely  defeated  and  forced  to 
sue  for  peace.  Now  followed  a  most  astonishing  series  of  French 
victories  over  the  Austrians.^^  As  a  result  of  the  campaign  a 
considerable  part  of  Northern  Italy  was  formed  into  a  common- 
wealth under  the  name  of  the  Cisalpine  Repubhc.  Genoa  was  also 
transformed  into  the  Ligurian  Republic. 

604.  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (Oct.  17,  1797).  —  While  Bona- 
parte had  been  gaining  his  surprising  victories  in  Italy,  Moreau 
and  Jourdan  had  been  meeting  with  severe  reverses  in  Germany. 
Bonaparte,  having  effected  the  work  assigned  to  the  army  of  Italy, 
now  climbed  the  Eastern  Alps  and  marched  toward  Vienna.  The 
near  approach  of  the  French  to  his  capital  induced  the  Emperor 
Francis  II  to  listen  to  proposals  of  peace.  An  armistice  was 
agreed  upon,  and  later  the  important  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio 
was  arranged. 

By  the  terms  of  this  treaty  Austria  ceded  her  Belgian  provinces 
to  the  French  Republic,  recognized  the  Rhine  as  the  eastern 
frontier  of  France,  and  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
Cisalpine  Repubhc.    As  an  offset  to  her  losses  Austria  received 

27Among  the  noted  engagements  of  the  campaign  were  the  battles  of  Lodi  (May 
10,  1796),  Castiglione  (August  5,  1796),  Areola  (Nov.  15-17,  1796),  Rivoli  (Jan.  14, 
15,  1797),  and  the  siege  of  Mantua  (July,  1796-February,  1797). 


BONAPARTE'S   CAMPAIGN    IN    EGYPT 


539 


the  Venetian  dominions,  save  the  Ionian  Islands,  which  were 
annexed  to  the  French  RepubHc.  Bonaparte  was  already  dazzled 
by  the  vision  of  a  French  empire  in  the  Orient.  The  Grecian 
isles  were  to  constitute  a  link  in  the  chain  which  should  bind 
France  to  her  prospective  Eastern  dependencies. 

With  the  treaty  arranged,  Bonaparte  soon  set  out  for  Paris, 
where  a  triumph  and  ovation  such  as  Europe  had  not  seen  since 
the  days  of  the  old  Roman  conquerors  was  accorded  him. 

605.  Bonaparte's  Campaign  in  Egypt  (1798-1799). — The 
Directors  had  received  Bonaparte  with  apparent  enthusiasm ; 
but  at  this  very  moment  they  were  disquieted  by  fears  lest 
their  general's  ambition  might  lead  him  to  play  the  part  of  a 
second  Caesar.  They  resolved  to  engage  him  in  an  enterprise 
which  would  take  him  out  of  France.  This  undertaking  was  an 
attack  upon  England,  which  they  were  then  meditating.  Bona- 
parte opposed  the  plan  of  a  direct  descent  upon  the  island  as 
impracticable,  declaring  that  England  should  be  attacked  through 
her  Eastern  possessions.  He  presented  a  scheme  very  character- 
istic of  his  bold,  imaginative  genius.  This  was  nothing  less  than 
the  conquest  and  colonization  of  Egypt,  by  which  means  France 
would  be  able  to  control  the  trade  of  the  East  and  cut  England 
off  from  her  East  India  possessions.  The  Directors  assented  to 
the  plan,  and  with  feelings  of  relief  saw  Bonaparte  embark  from 
the  port  of  Toulon  to  carry  out  the  enterprise. 

Evading  the  vigilance  of  the  British  fleet  that  was  patrolling  the 
Mediterranean,  Bonaparte  landed  in  Egypt  (July  i,  1798).  Within 
sight  of  the  Pyramids  the  French  army  was  checked  in  its  march 
by  a  determined  stand  of  the  renowned  Mameluke  cavalry.  Bona- 
parte animated  the  spirits  of  his  men  for  the  inevitable  fight  by 
one  of  his  happiest  speeches.  One  of  the  sentences  is  memorable. 
"  Soldiers,"  he  exclaimed,  pointing  to  the  Pyramids,  **  forty  cen- 
turies are  looking  down  upon  you."  The  terrific  struggle  that 
followed  is  known  in  history  as  the  "  battle  of  the  Pyramids." 
Bonaparte  gained  a  victory  that  opened  the  way  for  his  advance. 
Cairo  was  now  entered  in  triumph,  and  all  Lower  Egypt  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French. 


540  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

Bonaparte  had  barely  made  his  entrance  into  Cairo  before  the 
startling  intelligence  was  borne  to  him  that  his  fleet  had  been 
destroyed  in  the  bay  of  Abukir,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  by 
the  English  admiral  Nelson  (August   i,  1798). 

In  the  spring  of  1799,  the  Ottoman  Porte  having  sent  a  force 
to  retake  Egypt,  Bonaparte  led  his  army  into  Syria  to  fight  the 
Turks  there.  He  captured  Gaza  and  Jaffa,  and  finally  invested 
Acre.  The  Turks  were  assisted  in  the  defense  of  this  place 
by  the  distinguished  English  commodore,  Sir  Sidney  Smith.  All 
Bonaparte's  efforts  to  carry  the  place  by  storm  were  in  vain.  "  I 
missed. my  destiny  at  Acre,"  said  Bonaparte  afterwards.  With 
the  ports  of  Syria  secured  he  might  have  imitated  Alexander  and 
led  his  soldiers  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas. 

Bitterly  disappointed,  Bonaparte  abandoned  the  siege  of  Acre 
and  led  his  army  back  into  Egypt.  There  his  worn  and  thinned 
ranks  were  attacked  near  Abukir  by  a  fresh  Turkish  army,  but 
the  genius  of  Bonaparte  turned  threatened  defeat  into  a  brilliant 
victory.  Kl^ber,  one  of  Bonaparte's  lieutenants,  clasping  him  in 
his  arms,  exclaimed,  "  General,  how  great  you  are  !  " 

606.  Establishment  of  the  Tiberine,  the  Helvetic,  and  the  Par- 
thenopean  Republics  (i  798-1799).  —  We  must  turn  now  to  view 
affairs  in  Europe.  The  year  1798  was  a  favorable  one  for  the 
republican  cause  represented  by  the  Revolution.  During  that 
year  and  the  opening  month  of  the  following  one,  the  French 
set  up  three  new  republics. 

First,  they  incited  an  insurrection  at  Rome,  made  a  prisoner 
of  the  Pope,  and  proclaimed  the  Roman  or  Tiberine  Republic. 
Then,  intervening  in  a  revolution  in  Switzerland,  they  invaded 
the  Swiss  cantons  and  united  them  into  a  commonwealth  under 
the  name  of  the  Helvetic  Republic.  A  little  later  the  French 
troops  drove  the  king  of  Naples  out  of  Italy  to  Sicily,  and  trans- 
formed his  peninsular  domains  into  the  Parthenopean  Repubhc. 
Thus  were  three  new  republics  added  to  the  commonwealths  which 
the  Revolution  had  previously  created." 

607.  The  Reaction;  Bonaparte  overthrows  the  Directory  (i8th 
and    19th  Brumaire,   1799).  —  Much   of   this  work  was  quickly 


THE   REACTION  541 

undone.  Encouraged  by  the  victory  of  Nelson  over  the  French 
fleet  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  and  alarmed  at  the  aggressions  of 
the  government  of  the  Directory,  the  leading  powers  of  Europe, 
now  including  the  Tsar  of  Russia,  who  was  incensed  against  the 
French  especially  for  their  intrusion  into  the  Orient,  which  the 
Russian  rulers  had  ever  regarded  as  their  own  particular  sphere 
of  influence,  had  formed  a  new  coalition  against  France. 

The  war  began  early  in  1799  and  was  waged  at  one  and  the 
same  time  in  Italy,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  Holland.  In  the  south 
the  campaign  was  extremely  disastrous  to  the  French.  They  were 
driven  out  of  Italy,  and  were  barely  able  to  keep  the  allies  off  the 
soil  of  France.  The  Cisalpine,  Tiberine,  and  Parthenopean  repub- 
lics were  abolished. 

These  reverses  suffered  by  the  French  armies  in  Italy,  though 
in  other  quarters  they  had  been  successful,  caused  the  Direc- 
tory to  fall  into  great  disfavor.  They  were  charged  with  having 
through  jealousy  exiled  Bonaparte,  the  only  man  who  could  save 
the  Republic.  Confusion  and  division  prevailed  everywhere.  The 
Royalists  had  become  so  strong  and  bold  that  there  was  danger 
lest  they  should  gain  control  of  the  government.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  threats  of  the  mob  of  Paris  began  to  create  apprehen- 
sions of  another  Reign  of  Terror. 

News  of  the  desperate  state  of  affairs  at  home  reached  Bona- 
parte in  Egypt,  just  after  his  return  from  Syria.  He  instantly 
formed  a  bold  resolve.  Confiding  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Egypt  to  Kl^ber,  he  set  sail  for  France,  disclosing  his  designs  in 
the  significant  words,  "  The  reign  of  the  lawyers  is  over." 

Bonaparte  was  welcomed  in  France  with  the  wildest  enthusi- 
asm. A  great  majority  of  the  people  felt  instinctively  that  the 
emergency  demanded  a  dictator.  Some  of  the  Directors  joined 
with  Napoleon  in  a  plot  to  overthrow  the  government.  Meeting 
with  opposition  in  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  Napoleon  with 
a  body  of  grenadiers  drove  the  deputies  from  their  chamber. 

The  French  Revolution  had  at  last  brought  forth  its  Cromwell 
(sec.  481).  Napoleon  was  master  of  France.  The  first  French 
Republic  was  at  an  end,  and  what  is  distinctively  calleil  the  French 


542  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

Revolution  was  over.  Now  commences  the  history  of  the  Consulate 
and  the  First  Empire,  —  the  story  of  that  surprising  career  the  sun 
of  which  rose  so  brightly  at  AusterHtz  and  set  forever  at  Waterloo. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Young  (Arthur),  Travels  in  France, 
is  the  most  valuable  contemporary  account  we  have  of  the  condition  of 
France,  particularly  of  the  peasantry,  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution.  Burke, 
Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France.  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i. 
No.  5,  "The  French  Revolution,  1 789-1 791"  (ed.  by  James  Harvey  Robin- 
son), contains  (r)  "  Decree  of  the  National  Assembly  abolishing  the  Feudal 
System,"  (2)  "  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  and  the  Citizen,"  and 
(3)  "  The  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  "  ;  vol.  iv.  No.  5,  "  Typical  Cahiers 
of  1789  "  (ed.  by  Merrick  Whitcomb) ;  and  vol.  vi,  No.  i,  "  French  Philoso- 
phers of  the  Eighteenth  Century  "  (same  editor).  For  additional  material 
the  special  student  should  turn  to  Anderson,  The  Coitstitutions  and  Other 
Select  Documents  Illustrative  of  the  History  of  France,  lySg-igoi. 

Secondary  Works.  —  For  the  antecedents  and  causes  of  the  Revolution; 
Taine,  The  Ancient  Regime,  and  Tocqueville,  The  Old  Regime  and  the 
Revolution.  Buckle,  History  of  Civilization  in  England,  vol.  i,  chaps,  xii-xiv, 
gives  an  unsurpassed  presentation  of  the  philosophical  and  literary  move- 
ment of  the  eighteenth  century.  Lowell,  The  Eve  of  the  Revolution  ;  a  series 
of  scholarly  and  suggestive  studies  of  the  various  phases  of  French  life  and 
thought  during  the  century  preceding  the  calling  of  the  States-General. 

Short  histories  :  Stephens,  Revolutionary  Europe,  iy8g-i8i^,  first  part. 
The  most  authoritative  short  history  of  the  Revolution.  Other  excellent 
short  accounts  are  Morris',  Mallet's,  Mathews',  and  Mignet's. 

Extended  histories:  Stephens,  .<4  History  of  the  French  Revolution; 
Sybel,  History  of  the  French  Revolution ;  Theirs,  The  History  of  the 
French  Revolution ;  Taine,  The  French  Revolution ;  The  Cambridge  Mod- 
ern History,  vol.  viii ;  and  Carlyle,  The  French  Revolution.  The  last 
is  another  of  Carlyle's  masterpieces;  "a  prose  epic"  and  "pictures  in  the 
French  Revolution  "  are  good  characterizations  of  it.  The  student  should 
take  it  up  last  in  his  readings. 

Biographies:  Morley,  Rousseau  and  Voltaire;  WiLLERT,  Mirabeau ; 
Lamartine,  History  of  the  Girondists ;  Tarbell,  Madame  Roland; 
Southey,  The  Life  of  Nelson;  and  Rocheterie,  The  Life  of  Marie 
Antoinette.  For  works  on  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  see  bibliography  at  end 
of  following  chapter. 

Work  on  special  phase  of  the  Revolution  :  Mahan,  The  Influence  of 
Sea  Power  upon  the  French  Revolutioti  and  Empire,  vol.  i. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  salt  tax  (the  ^a<5^//,?).  2.  Rousseau. 
3.  The  economist  Turgot.  4.  Mirabeau.  5.  The  Marseillaise  hymn. 
6.  Thorvaldsen's  "  Lion  of  Lucerne."  7.  Life  in  Paris  during  the  Reign 
of  Terror.     See  Stephens.     8.  Marie  Antoinette.     9.  Madame  Roland. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 


THE  CONSULATE  AND  THE  NAPOLEONIC  EMPIRE 

(1799-1815) 

I.    The  Consulate  (i  799-1 804) 

608.  The  Veiled  Military  Dictatorship.  —  After  the  overthrow 
of  the  government  of  the  Directory,  a  new  constitution  —  the 
fourth  since  the  year  1789  —  was  prepared  and,  having  been  sub- 
mitted to  the  approval  of  the  people,  was  accepted  by  a  vote  of 
over  three  millions  to  less 
than  two  thousand.  This 
new  instrument  vested  the 
executive  power  in  three 
Consuls,  nominated  for  a 
term  of  ten  years,  the  first 
of  whom  really  exercised 
all  the  authority  of  the 
board,  the  remaining  two 
members  being  simply  his 
counselors.  Bonaparte,  of 
course,  became  the  First 
Consul. 

The  other  functions  of 
the  government  were  car- 
ried on  by  a  Council  of 
State,  a  Tribunate,  a  Legis- 
lature, and  a  Senate.  But 
the  members  of  all  these  bodies  were  appointed  either  directly 
or  indirectly  by  the  Consuls,  so  that  the  entire  government  was 
actually  in  their  hands,  or  rather  in  the  hands  of  the  First  Con- 
sul.   France  was  still  called  a  republic,  but  it  was  such  a  republic 

543 


Fig.  93.  —  Napoleon  Bonaparte.   (After 
the  medallion  by  Jsabey) 


544  THE    NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

as  Rome  was  under  Julius  Csesar  or  Augustus.  The  republican 
names  and  forms  merely  veiled  a  government  as  absolute  and 
personal  as  that  of  Louis  XIV,  —  in  a  word,  a  mihtary  dicta- 
torship. 

Local  self-government  which  had  been  created  by  the  Revolution 
was  suppressed.  In  all  the  various  subdivisions  of  France  the  First 
Consul  was  represented  by  officials  appointed  by  himself.  The 
government  became  more  centralized  than  it  had  ever  been  before, 
and  this  character  it  has  retained  up  to  the  present  time. 

609.  Causes  of  England's  Hostility  to  Bonaparte.  —  Bonaparte 
inherited  from  the  Directory  war  with  Austria  and  England.  To 
both  he  offered  peace.  Austria,  which  was  asked  to  give  up 
Lombardy,  recently  reconquered  from  the  Republic,  courteously 
declined  his  proposals.  England,  with  rasping  words,  rejected  the 
proffered  hand  of  reconciliation. 

There  were  several  reasons  for  England's  refusal  to  recognize 
the  government  of  the  First  Consul.  In  the  first  place,  the  Eng- 
lish minister  Pitt  declined  to  make  peace  with  Bonaparte  because 
he  believed  he  represented  the  Jacobin  element  of  the  Revolution, 
and  that  his  government  would  be  violent  and  hence  unstable. 
Again,  judging  from  Bonaparte's  acts  as  a  general  of  the  Directory, 
Pitt  did  not  think  that  he  could  be  trusted. 

But  the  deeper  motive  of  England's  inextinguishable  hostility 
to  Bonaparte,  not  only  as  First  Consul  but  also  as  Emperor,  can 
be  understood  only  as  we  view  the  Anglo-French  phase  of  the 
wars  of  the  Napoleonic  era  as  a  continuation  of  that  second 
Hundred  Years'  War  between  France  and  England  of  which  we 
gave  some  account  in  an  earlier  chapter  (Chapter  XXXI). 

The  seizure  by  France  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  —  which 
gave  her  possession  of  Antwerp,  the  possible  rival  of  London  — 
and  her  intrusion  into  the  Mediterranean  alarmed  England.  A 
French  empire  dominating  the  European  Continent  and  controlling 
the  Mediterranean  —  Napoleon  openly  declared  that  "  the  Medi- 
terranean was  destined  by  nature  to  be  a  French  lake"  —  was 
incompatible  with  England's  commercial  and  trade  supremacy 
in  the  world  at  large.    In  the  Napoleonic  wars  England  fought 


WARS   OF    THE   FIRST   CONSUL  545 

to  maintain  that  ascendancy  which   the  wars  of  the  eighteenth 
century  with  her  great  rival  had  secured  for  her. 

610.  War  of  the  First  Consul  against  Austria ;  Marengo  and 
Hohenlinden  ;  Peace  of  Luneville  (1801).  —  Offers  of  peace  to 
Austria  and  England  having  been  rejected,  Bonaparte  mustered 
his  armies.  His  plan  was  to  deal  Austria,  his  only  formidable 
Continental  enemy,  a  double  blow.  A  large  army  was  collected 
on  the  Rhine  for  an  invasion  of  Germany.  This  was  intnisted  to 
Moreau.  Another,  intended  to  operate  against  the  Austrians  in 
Italy,  was  gathered  with  great  secrecy  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps. 
Bonaparte  himself  assumed  command  of  this  latter  force. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  1800  Bonaparte  made  his  memo- 
rable passage  of  the  Alps  by  the  Great  St.  Bernard  Pass,  and 
astonished  the  Austrian  generals  by  suddenly  appearing  in  Pied- 
mont at  the  head  of  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men.  Upon  the 
renowned  field  of  Mareng©  the  Austrian  army,  which  greatly 
outnumbered  that  of  the  French,  was  completely  overwhelmed, 
and  North  Italy  lay  for  a  second  time  at  the  feet  of  Bonaparte. 
The  Cisalpine  Republic  was  now  reestablished. 

But  at  the  moment  Italy  was  regained  Egypt  was  lost.  On 
the  very  day  of  the  battle  of  Marengo,  Kl^ber,  whom  Bonaparte 
had  left  in  charge  of  the  army  in  Egypt  (sec.  607),  was  assas- 
sinated by  a  Mohammedan  fanatic,  and  shortly  afterwards  the 
entire  French  force  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  English. 

The  French  reverses  in  Egypt,  however,  were  soon  made  up  by 
fresh  victories  in  Europe.  A  few  months  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  Moreau  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Austrians 
at  Hohenlinden,  which  opened  the  way  to*  Vienna.  The  Emperor 
Francis  II  was  now  constrained  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace  at 
Luneville  (Feb.  9,  1801).  The  most  important  part  of  the  treaty 
was  that  which  provided  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Germanic 
body.  But  as  this  reorganization  of  Central  Europe  was  not  com- 
pleted until  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  we  shall  defer  further 
explanation  of  it  until  we  reach  that  important  event  (sec.  620). 

611.  The  Peace  of  Amiens  with  England  (March  27,  1802). 
—  The  year  following  the  peace  between  France  and  Austria, 


546  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

England  also  signed  the  Peace  of  Amiens.  In  this  treaty  England 
acquiesced  in  the  situation  which  France  had  created  on  the 
Continent,  restored  all  the  colonies  (save  the  islands  of  Trinidad 
and  Ceylon)  which  she  had  taken  from  France  and  her  allies,  —  the 
Protestant  Netherlands  and  Spain,  —  and  agreed  conditionally  to 
withdraw  from  the  island  of  Malta,  which  was  one  of  the  most 
important  naval  stations  in  the  Mediterranean.  France  on  her 
part  agreed  to  withdraw  her  forces  from  Naples  and  the  Papal 
States,  and  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  Ionian  Islands.  ^ 

All  these  provisions  of  the  treaty  show  how  largely  commercial 
and  colonial  were  the  interests  which  had  set  the  two  rival  nations 
in  such  mutual  antagonism. 

612.  Bonaparte  attempts  to  reestablish  the  French  Colonial  Em- 
pire in  the  West.  —  Peace  with  England  gave  France  the  freedom 
of  the  sea  and  enabled  the  First  Consul  to  pursue  his  favorite  pro- 
ject at  this  time  of  the  restoration  of  the  French  colonial  empire 
in  the  West. 

Bonaparte  had  already  taken  one  important  step  towards  this 
end.  After  his  successful  campaign  against  Austria  in  Italy  he 
had  taken  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany  from  its  Austrian  prince, 
renamed  it  the  Kingdom  of  Etruria,  and  given  it  to  a  Spanish 
Infante,  in  return  for  which  Spain  had  ceded  to  France  Louisiana 
in  the  New  World  (1800).  Thus  France  was  once  more  in  pos- 
session of  a  large  portion  of  the  North  American  mainland. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Amiens  she  had  regained  her  island  colonies 
in  the  West  Indies.  The  western  part  of  the  important  island  of 
Haiti,  however,  which  once  belonged  to  France,  had  been  lost 
during  the  Revolution  by  a  successful  revolt  of  the  negroes  and 
mulattoes  against  the  whites.^  In  imitation  of  the  motherland 
the  self-emancipated  blacks  had  set  up  a  republic.  Napoleon  now 
sent  an  army  of  twenty  thousand  men  to  reconquer  the  island. 
The  French  troops  were  successful  at  first,  but  in  the  end  the 


1  These  islands  had  been  taken  from  France  by  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1798  and 
erected  into  an  independent  state  under  their  joint  guardianship. 

2  The  leader  of  the  revolt  was  the  celebrated  Toussaint  Louverture,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  ever  produced  by  the  black  race. 


BONAPARTE   AS  AN   ENLIGHTENED    DESPOT     547 

entire  force  was  virtually  destroyed  by  fever  and  the  weapons  of 
the  blacks. 

613.  Bonaparte  as  an  Enlightened  Despot ;  the  Regeneration  of 
France  ;  the  Civil  Code.  —  At  this  time  were  also  begun  by  Bona- 
parte many  of  those  domestic  reforms  and  undertakings  which 
were  continued  throughout  the  period  of  his  domination,  and 
which  concerned  almost  every  phase  of  the  material,  social,  intel- 
lectual, religious,  and  civil  life  of  France.  It  was  his  work  here 
which  constitutes  his  tru^  title  to  fame.  He  was,  in  the  words 
of  his  biographer  Professor  Sloane,  "  one  of  the  greatest  social 
reformers  of  the  world." 

We  shall  best  understand  Bonaparte  in  his  role  as  a  reformer^ 
and  best  determine  his  place  in  history,  if  we  regard  him  as  the 
successor  of  the  benevolent  despots  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
His  mission  was  to  carry  on  and  perfect  their  work  and  to  con- 
summate the  reforms  and  to  organize  and  make  secure  the  social 
results  of  the  Revolution. 

To  close  the  wounds  inflicted  upon  France  by  the  Revolution 
was  one  of  the  first  aims  of  Bonaparte.  Already  the  Royalist  exiles 
had  been  invited  to  return.  Forty  thousand  families  came  back, 
and  many  of  the  old  supporters  of  the  Bourbons  now  entered  the 
service  of  the  First  Consul.  The  prison  doors  were  thrown  open. 
The  past  was  forgotten  and  forgiven.  There  were  no  longer  to 
be  parties ;  all  were  to  be  simply  Frenchmen.  These  wise  meas- 
ures of  amnesty  did  much  towards  restoring  confidence  and 
bringing  back  internal  peace  and  prosperity  to  France. 

But  the  deepest  wound  given  France  by  the  Revolution  was  the 
schism  created  by  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  (sec.  571). 
This  had  divided  the  nation  into  two  bitterly  opposed  parties. 
Moreover,  since  1794  the  government  had  ceased  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  the  priests,  with  the  result  that  many  communes  were 
wholly  without  regular  religious  services.  To  remedy  this  state 
of  things  Bonaparte  entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  holy  see 
known  as  the  Concordat  (July  15,  1801).  The  First  Consul  was 
to  appoint  archbishops  and  bishops  impartially  from  both  parties, 
that  is,   the  party  which  had  acquiesced  in  the  revolutionary 


548  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

programme  and  the  party  which  had  opposed  it,  and  the  state  was 
again  to  assume  as  a  public  charge  the  salaries  of  the  clergy.^ 
The  Pope  was  to  be  recognized  as  the  head  of  the  French  Church, 
and  was  to  confirm  in  their  ecclesiastical  offices  the  persons 
appointed  by  the  government.  The  Concordat  closed  the  great 
breach  which  the  Revolution  had  opened  in  the  French  Church, 
and  attached  the  Catholics  to  the  government  of  the  First  Consul. 

Not  less  successful  was  Bonaparte  in  his  efforts  to  restore  those 
material  interests  of  the  country  which^had  suffered  greatly  dur- 
ing the  Revolution.  He  repaired  and  constructed  roads  and 
bridges,  dug  canals,  opened  the  rivers  to  navigation,  and  improved 
the  seaports  of  the  country.  The  great  military  roads  which  he 
caused  to  be  constructed  over  the  Alps  are  marvels  of  engineering 
skill,  and  served  as  a  chief  means  of  communication  between 
Italy  and  the  north  of  Europe  until  the  mountains  were  pierced 
with  tunnels. 

The  public  buildings  and  monuments  of  France  had  fallen 
into  decay.  Bonaparte  restored  the  old  and  built  new  ones. 
He  embellished  Paris  and  the  other  chief  cities  of  France  with 
public  edifices  and  memorial  monuments  of  every  description. 
Many  of  these  works  are  the  pride  of  France  at  the  present  day. 

Education  was  not  neglected.  By  the  establishment  of  schools 
and  the  endowment  of  libraries,  museums,  and  art  galleries,  and 
by  the  creation  finally  of  the  University  of  France,  Bonaparte 
gave  an  impulse  to  the  educational  system  which  is  felt  at  the 
present  time,  and  which  has  done  much  to  secure  for  the  French 
people  the  preeminent  place  they  hold  to-day  in  the  world  of  art, 
science,  and  letters.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
in  this  field  the  First  Consul  built  upon  foundations  which  had 
been  laid  by  the  Convention. 

But  the  most  noteworthy,  the  most  enduring,  and  the  most 
far-reaching  in  its  influence  upon  civilization   of  all   the  works 

3  This  arrangement  has  held  good  down  to  the  present  time.  The  salaries  of  all 
the  French  clergy,  including  Protestant  ministers  and  Jewish  rabbis,  are  paid  out  of 
the  public  treasury.  At  the  present  time  (January,  1905)  however,  the  relations  of  the 
Vatican  to  the  French  government  are  strained,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  old 
agreement  will  soon  be  annulled. 


BONAPARTE   BECOMES  CONSUL  FOR  LIFE       549 

of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  either  as  First  Consul  or  as  Emperor, 
was  the  compilation  of  what  is  known  as  the  Civil  Code,  or  Code 
Napolt^on,  which  has  caused  his  name  to  be  joined  with  that  of 
Justinian  as  one  of  the  great  lawgivers  of  history. 

The  compiling  of  this  Code  was  one  of  the  earliest  under- 
takings of  the  First  Consul.  Almost  immediately  after  coming 
to  power  he  appointed  a  commission  of  five  eminent  jurists  to 
take  up  the  work,  which  had  already  been  begun  by  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  and  the  Convention."*  These  experts  were 
busied  with  the  labor  for  about  four  years  (i 800-1 804).  Bona- 
parte himself  often  met  with  them  and  assisted  in  the  work  by 
sagacious  criticism  and  suggestion. 

The  Code  was  made  up  of  the  ancient  customs  of  France,  of 
Roman  law  maxims,  and  particularly  of  the  principles  and  the 
legislation  of  the  Revolution.  This  great  mass  of  material  was 
condensed,  harmonized,  and  revised  in  some  such  way  as  the 
jurists  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  handled  the  accumulated  mass 
of  law  material  —  old  and  new,  pagan  and  Christian  —  of  their 
time,  in  the  creation  of  the  celebrated  Corpus  Juris  Civilis. 

The  influence  of  the  Civil  Code  upon  the  development  of 
Liberalism  in  Western  Europe  was  most  salutary.  It  secured 
the  work  of  the  Revolution.  It  swept  away  the  old  unequal, 
iniquitous,  oppressive  customs,  regulations,  decrees,  and  laws 
that  were  an  inheritance  from  the  feudal  ages.  It  recognized 
the  equality  of  noble  and  peasant  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  Either 
its  principles  or  its  direct  provisions  were  soon  introduced  into 
half  of  the  countries  of  Europe. 

614.  Bonaparte  becomes  Consul  for  Life  (August,  1802);  Crea- 
tion of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  —  Through  the  Senate  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  State,  in  which  bodies  the  majority  of  the  members  were 
wholly  subservient  to  Bonaparte,  it  was  now  proposed  to  the 
French  people  that  he  should  be  made  Consul  for  life,  in  order 

*  It  is  now  recognized  that  the  Code  was  not  so  novel  a  tiling  as  some  writers  have 
represented  it  as  being.  Code  making  was  a  favorite  work  of  the  enlightened  despots 
(e.g.  Catherine  the  Great  of  Russia,  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  ^f  Austria,  Frederick 
the  Great  of  Prussia,  etc.).  The  Civil  Code  is  almost  an  e.xact  transcript  of  the 
Projet  dn  code  civil  prepared  by  Cambac6rfes  for  the  Convention. 


550 


THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 


that  his  magnificent  projects  of  restoration  and  reform  might  be 
pursued  without  interruption.  With  almost  a  single  voice  the 
people  approved  the  proposal.^  Thus  did  the  First  Consul  move 
a  step  nearer  the  imperial  throne.  From  this  time  on  Bonaparte, 
imitating  a  royal  custom,  used  only  his  first  name,  Napoleon, 
and  it  is  by  this  name,  which  was  destined  to  fill  such  a  great 
place  in  history,  that  we  shall  hereafter  know  him. 

It  was  at  just  this  time  that  Napoleon  established  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  an  order  designed  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  feudal 
orders  which  had  been  aboHshed  by  the  Revolution.  Preeminent 
public  service,  either  in  military  or  in  civil  life,  was  to  be  the 
passport  to  membership  in  the  new  society.  The  creation  of  this 
order  gave  offense  to  many  of  the  more  thoroughgoing  repub- 
licans, who  looked  upon  it  as  an  ominous  departure  from  the 
principle  of  social  equality  established  by  the  Revolution. 

615.  Plot  against  Napoleon's  Life;  Execution  of  the  Duke  of 
Enghien  (March  21,  1804). — The  year  following  the  conferring 
of  these  new  powers  and  dignities  upon  Napoleon,  a  Royalist 
plot  was  laid  for  his  assassination.  The  conspiracy  was  abetted 
by  certain  English  officials,^  war  having  been  renewed  between 
France  and  Great  Britain.  The  plot  was  thwarted  by  timely  dis- 
covery. The  Duke  of  Enghien,  a  Bourbon  prince  in  whose  inter- 
est it  was  suspected  the  conspiracy  had  been  formed,  was,  in 
gross  violation  of  international  law,  seized  by  Napoleon's  soldiers 
at  Ettenheim,  in  Baden,  carried  to  Vincennes,  hastily  condemned 
to  death  by  a  midnight  military  commission,  and  in  the  gray  of 
the  morning  shot  by  the  side  of  an  open  grave,  —  which  had  been 
dug  before  sentence  was  passed. 

No  act  of  Napoleon's  has  been  more  severely  censured  than 
this,  for  the  young  prince  was  very  generally  regarded  as  inno- 
cent of  any  participation  in  the  plot.  To  say  nothing  of  the 
lawlessness   and  criminality   of   the  act,   Napoleon  could  have 


5  There  is  a  most  extraordinary  unanimity  in  the  plebiscites,  or  popular  votes, 
of  this  period.  The  present  measure  was  carried  by  a  vote,  in  round  numbers,  of 
3,500,000  to  8000, 

6  See  Rose,  Life  of  Napoleon,  vol.  i,  pp.  416-418. 


ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE  EMPIRE  551 

done  nothing  more  impolitic.  It  foreshadowed  Waterloo.  '*  Two 
actions,"  writes  Chateaubriand  in  his  Memoirs,  "  both  bad,  began 
and  caused  Napoleon's  fall,  —  the  death  of  the  Due  d'Enghien 
and  the  war  with  Spain  "  (sec.  630). 

The  high-handed  proceeding  contributed  to  the  calling  into 
existence  of  a  formidable  coalition  of  the  powers  of  Europe 
against  Napoleon,  of  which  we  shall  soon  have  occasion  to  speak. 

II.    The  Napoleonic  Empire  (1804-1815);  the  War 
OF  Liberation 

616.  The  Restoration  of  the  Empire  of  Charlemagne  (May  18, 
1804).  —  The  above  conspiracy  and  the  increased  activity  of  the 
enemies  of  the  First  Consul  resulted  in  a  movement  to  increase 
his  power  and  to  insure  his  safety  and  the  stability  of  his  govern- 
ment by  placing  him  upon  a  throne.  Napoleon,  while  seeming 
to  resign  himself  to  the  popular  movement,  really  incited  and 
directed  it.  A  decree  of  the  Senate  conferring  upon  him  the 
title  of  Emperor  of  the  P'rench  having  been  submitted  to  the 
people  for  approval,  was  ratified  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote. 

The  coronation  took  place  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  in 
Paris,  Dec.  2,  1804,  Pope  Pius  VII  having  been  induced  to  come 
from  Rome  to  take  part  in  the  ceremonies.  The  presence  of  the 
Pope  was  desired  by  Napoleon  because  it  was  his  design  to  have 
himself  regarded  not  as  the  successor  of  the  Bourbons  but  as 
the  successor  of  Charlemagne  and  the  Caesars,  and  it  had  always 
been  thought  necessary,  by  many  at  least,  that  the  candidate  for 
the  imperial  dignity  should  be  consecrated  to  his  office  by  the 
Roman  pontiff.  The  Pope  poured  the  holy  oil  upon  the  head  of 
the  kneeling  Emperor  and  girded  him  with  the  imperial  scepter ; 
but  when  he  would  have  placed  the  crown  upon  his  head,  Napo- 
leon checked  him,  and,  taking  the  diadem  from  the  Pope,  crowned 
himself  with  his  own  hands. 

What  portion  of  the  spirit  of  the  old  divine-right  monarchies 
entered  into  the  new  French  Empire  may  be  inferred  from  the 
doctrines  which  in  less  than  a  year  after  Napoleon's  coronation 


552  THE    NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

the  subservient  French  clergy  were  teaching  the  youth  of  France. 
"The  Emperor  is  the  minister  and  the  power  of  God,  and  his 
image  on  earth,"  ran  the  new  catechism;  "to  honor  and  serve 
him  is  to  honor  and  serve  God." 

617.  The  Republics  created  by  the  Revolution  are  changed  into 
Kingdoms.  —  The  French  Republic  was  now  completely  metamor- 
phosed into  an  unveiled  Empire.  Napoleon  had  taken  up  his 
residence  in  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries  and  was  creating  a  court 
as  much  as  possible  like  the  court  of  the  Bourbons. 

The  original  Republic  having  been  thus  transformed,  we  may 
be  sure  that  the  cluster  of  repubUcs  which  during  the  Revolution 
had  been  raised  up  around  it  will  speedily  undergo  a  like  trans- 
formation ;  for  Napoleon  was  right  when  he  said  that  a  revolu- 
tion in  France  is  sure  to  be  followed  by  a  revolution  throughout 
Europe.  As  France  a  republic  would  make  all  states  republics, 
so  France  a  monarchy  would  make  all  nations  monarchies.  Within 
two  years  from  the  time  that  the  French  government  assumed 
an  imperial  form,  three  of  the  surrounding  republics  raised  up 
by  the  revolutionary  ideas  and  armies  of  France  had  been  trans- 
formed into  states  with  monarchical  governments  dependent  upon 
the  French  Empire  or  had  been  incorporated  with  France.  In 
a  word,  all  these  states  now  became  practically  the  fiefs  of  Napo- 
leon's empire,  the  provinces  and  dependencies  of  a  new  Rome. 

Thus  the  Cisalpine  or  Italian  Republic  was  changed  into  a 
kingdom,  and  Napoleon,  crowning  himself  at  Milan  with  the 
"  Iron  Crown  "  of  the  Lombards,'  assumed  the  government  of  the 
state,  with  the  title  of  King  of  Italy  (May,  1805).  A  Httle  later  in 
the  same  year  the  Emperor  incorporated  the  Ligurian  Republic 
with  the  French  Empire  (June,  1805).  Then  he  remodeled  the 
Batavian  Republic  into  the  kingdom  of  Holland  and  conferred 
the  crown  upon  his  favorite  brother  Louis  (May,  1806). 

Thus  was  the  political  work  of  the  Revolution  undone.  Political 
liberty  was  taken  away.  "  I  set  it  aside,"  said  Napoleon,  "when 
it  obstructed  my  road."    Civil  equality  was  left. 

7  Here  again  Napoleon  imitated  Charlemagne.  He  said,  "  I  am  Charlemagne,  for 
like  Charlemagne  I  imite  the  crowns  of  France  and  Lombardy."    Compare  sec.  74. 


THE   EMPIRE   AND   THE  MONARCHIES  553 

618.  The  Empire  and  the  Old  Monarchies.  —  It  will  not  be 
supposed  that  the  powers  of  luirope  were  looking  quietly  on 
while  France  was  thus  transforming  herself  and  all  the  neigh- 
boring countries.  The  colossal  power  which  the  soldier  of  for- 
tune was  building  up  was  a  menace  to  all  Europe.  The  Empire 
was  more  dreaded  than  the  Republic,  because  it  was  a  military 
despotism,  and  as  such  was  an  instrument  of  irresistible  power 
in  the  hands  of  a  man  of  such  genius  and  resources  as  Napoleon. 
Coalition  after  coalition,  of  which  England  was  "  the  paymaster," 
was  formed  by  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  against  the  "  usurper," 
with  the  object  at  first  of  pushing  France  back  within  her  original 
boundaries,  and  then  later  of  deposing  Napoleon  as  the  disturber 
of  the  peace  of  Europe  and  the  oppressor  of  the  nations. 

From  the  coronation  of  Napoleon  in  1804  until  his  final  down- 
fall in  1815  the  tremendous  struggle  went  on  almost  without 
intermission.  It  was  the  war  of  the  giants.  Europe  was  shaken 
from  end  to  end  with  such  armies  as  the  world  had  not  seen 
since  the  days  of  Xerxes.  Napoleon,  whose  hands  were  upheld 
by  a  score  of  distinguished  marshals,  performed  the  miracles  of 
genius.  His  brilliant  achievements  still  dazzle,  while  they  amaze, 
the  world. 

To  relate  in  detail  the  campaigns  of  Napoleon  from  Austerlitz 
to  Waterloo  would  require  the  space  of  volumes.  We  shall  simply 
indicate  in  a  few  brief  paragraphs  the  successive  steps  by  which 
he  mounted  to  the  highest  pitch  of  power  and  fame,  and  then 
trace  hurriedly  the  decline  and  fall  of  his  astonishing  fortunes. 

619.  Napoleon's  Preparations  for  invading  England;  the  sale 
of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States ;  the  Camp  at  Boulogne  ( 1 803- 
1805).  —  Even  while  the  transactions  which  we  have  recorded 
were  taking  place,  the  air  was  filled  with  notes  of  preparation 
for  war.  The  Peace  of  Amiens  between  France  and  England 
(sec.  611)  proved  merely  a  short  truce  ;  even  before  Naix)leon's 
coronation  war  had  been  renewed  between  the  two  countries. 

One  of  Napoleon's  first  acts  of  preparation  for  the  coming 
struggle  was  the  sale  (in  1803)  to  the  United  States,  for  fifteen 
million  dollars,  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana,  which  he  had  so 


554 


THE    NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 


recently  acquired  from  Spain  (sec.  612).  He  was  impelled  to 
do  this  because  his  inferiority  at  sea  made  it  impossible  for  him 
to  defend  such  remote  possessions. 

The  sale  and  purchase  of  this  immense  region  of  boundless 
resources,  looked  at  in  relation  to  its  consequences,  was  one  of 
the  most  important  transactions  in  history.  Napoleon's  intuition 
seems  to  have  revealed  to  him  its  significance  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  great  American  Republic.  "  I  have  given  England  a 
rival,"  he  said,  "  which  sooner  or  later  will  humble  her  pride." 

As  early  as  1803  Napoleon  had  begun  to  mass  a  great  army  at 
Boulogne,  on  the  English  Channel,  and  to  build  an  immense 
number  of  flat-bottomed  boats  preparatory  to  an  invasion  of 
England.  "  Carthage  must  be  destroyed,"  was  the  menacing  and 
persistent  cry  of  the  French  press.  "  Masters  of  the  Channel  for 
six  hours,"  said  Napoleon,  "  and  we  are  masters  of  the  world."  ^ 

It  is  worth  while  in  this  connection  to  call  to  mind  the  fact  that 
the  American  inventor,  Robert  Fulton,  laid  before  Napoleon  his 
invention  of  propelling  vessels  by  steam  at  just  the  time  when  the 
Emperor  was  making  his  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Eng- 
land. Napoleon  seems  to  have  seen  nothing  in  the  invention. 
"  Never,"  writes  the  contemporary  Pasquier,  "was  he  more  badly 
served  by  his  instincts.  What  might  he  not  have  been  able  to 
accomplish  had  he  been  the  first  to  avail  himself  of  this  new  means 
of  reaching  his  most  mortal  enemy." 

620.  Campaign  against  Austria  :  Austerlitz  (Dec.  2,  1805). — 
Napoleon's  menacing  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England 
produced  throughout  the  island  an  alarm  unequaled  by  anything 
the  English  people  had  experienced  since  the  days  of  the  Span- 
ish Armada.  The  navy  and  the  army  were  both  put  in  a  state 
of  readiness  to  ward  off  the  impending  blow.    The  younger  Pitt, 

8  It  is  one  of  the  open  questions  of  history  whether  Napoleon  ever  had  any  serious 
intention  of  making  a  descent  upon  England,  In  the  opinion  of  many,  all  these 
elaborate  preparations  were  simply  designed  by  Napoleon  as  a  cover  under  which  he 
might,  without  exciting  suspicion,  raise  and  equip  an  army  intended  from  the  first  to 
be  used  against  a  wholly  different  foe.  It  is  Captain  Mahan's  opinion,  however,  that 
Napoleon  really  intended  to  strike  a  blow  at  London.  See  his  Life  of  Nelson  (Boston, 
1897),  vol.  ii,  chap.  xx. 


THE   REORGANIZATION   OF   GERMANY 


555 


at  this  time  head  of  the  English  government,  was  untiring  in 
fostering  a  new  coalition  of  the  powers  against  France.  Early  in 
the  year  1805  England  and  Russia  formed  an  alliance  which  was 
intended  to  constitute  the  nucleus  of  a  general  European  league. 
Austria  and  other  states  soon  joined 
the  coalition. 

Intelligence  reaching  Napoleon  that 
both  the  Austrian  and  the  Russian 
armies  were  on  the  move,  he  suddenly 
broke  up  the  camp  at  Boulogne,  flung 
his  Grand  Army,  as  it  was  called,  across 
the  Rhine,  outmaneuvered  and  cap- 
tured a  great  Austrian  army  at  Ulm, 
and  then  Tiiarched  in  triumph  through 
Vienna  to  the  field  of  Austerlitz  beyond, 
where  he  gained  one  of  his  most  mem- 
orable victories  over  the  combined 
armies  of  Austria  and  Russia,  number- 
ing more  than  eighty  thousand  men. 
Austria  was  now  shorn  of  large  tracts 
of  her  dominions,^  including  Venetia, 
which  Napoleon  added  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy. 

621.  The  Reorganization  of  Germany;  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine;  End  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  (1806). — That  recon- 
struction of  the  Germanic  body  which  Napoleon  had  begun  after 
the  battles  of  Marengo  and  Hohenlinden  (sec.  610)  was  now 
substantially  completed,  save  as  regards  Prussia  and  Hanover. 
Napoleon's  guiding  principle  here  was  to  create  in  Western 
Germany  a  small  number  of  states  which  should  be  bound  to  him- 
self by  selfish  interests  and  strong  enough  to  be  useful  as  allies, 
and  which  should  constitute  barrier  states  between  France  on  the 
one  side  and  Austria  and  Prussia  on  the  other.  Both  of  these 
latter  states  were  to  be  kept  weak  and  dependent  upon  France. 

9  The  Treaty  of  Pressburg  (Dec.  26,  1805)  arranged  affairs  between  Austria  and 
France. 


Fig.  94.  —  William  Pitt, 
Son  of  William  Pitt, 
Earl  of  Chatham 
(After  a  painting  by 
Thomas  Gainsborough) 


556  THE   NAPOLEONIC  EMPIRE 

In  pursuance  of  this  plan  Napoleon  ultimately  reduced  the 
three  hundred  and  more  states  comprising  the  Germanic  system 
to  about  forty.  It  was  the  ecclesiastical  states,  the  free  imperial 
cities,  and  the  petty  states  of  the  minor  princes  which  suffered 
extinction,  their  lands  being  bestowed  upon  the  princes  of  the 
states  selected  for  survival.  Among  the  rulers  especially  favored 
at  this  time  were  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  Duke  of  Wlir- 
temberg,  both  of  whom  were  made  kings  and  given  enough  terri- 
tory to  enable  them  to  maintain  becomingly  this  new  dignity. 
The  Margrave  of  Baden  was  also  made  a  grand  duke,  and  his 
dominions  were  enlarged.  All  these  princes  formed  marriage 
alliances  with  the  family  of  Napoleon. 

These  favored  states,  together  with  others,  —  sixteen  in  all, — 
now  declared  themselves  independent  of  the  old  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  and  were  formed  into  a  league  called  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  with  Napoleon  as  Protector  ^'^  (July  12,  1806). 

Napoleon  now  absolved  the  feudatories  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  from  their  allegiance  to  the  imperial  crown.  This  action, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  withdrawal  of  the  Rhenish  states, 
effected  the  complete  break-up  of  the  ancient  Empire.  Emperor 
Francis  II,  recognizing  that  his  office  was  virtually  abolished,  now 
laid  down  the  imperial  crown  (August  6,  1806),  and  henceforth 
used  as  his  highest  title  Francis  /,  Emperor  of  Austria}^ 

Thus  did  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  come  to  an  end,  after 
having  maintained  an  existence,  since  its  revival  under  Charle- 
magne, of  almost  exactly  one  thousand  years.  Reckoning  from 
its  estabUshment  by  Caesar  Augustus,  it  had  lasted  over  eighteen 
hundred  years,  thus  being  one  of  the  longest-lived  of  human 
institutions,  —  if  mere  existence  may  be  reckoned  as  life. 

622.  Good  Results  of  Napoleon's  Reorganization  of  Germany. — 
Napoleon's  reorganization  of  the  Germanic  body,  arbitrary  and 
personal  though  his  action  was,  brought  ultimately  great  blessings 


10  The  Confederation  came  ultimately  to  embrace  thirty-seven  states,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  fifteen  millions. 

11  He  had  already  assumed  this  title  in  August,  1804,  just  after  Napoleon's  coro- 
nation as  Emperor. 


TRAFALGAR  557 

to  the  German  folk.  It  marked  the  beginning  of  the  regenera- 
tion of  the  German  fatherland.  Out  of  the  new  German  system 
which  Napoleon  created  was  to  rise  the  German  Empire  of  to- 
day. Hence  we  may  regard  Napoleon's  reconstruction  of  Central 
Europe  as  one  of  the  most  important,  in  its  far-reaching  conse- 
quences, of  all  his  acts. 

An  immediate  benefit  conferred  upon  the  states  of  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  was  the  introduction  into  them  of  all  the 
reforms  which  had  regenerated  France  and  'made  her  strong. 
Serfdom  was  abolished  where  it  still  lingered ;  equality  of  the 
noble  and  the  non-noble  classes  before  the  law  was  established ; 
and  the  new  French  Civil  Code  was  partly  put  in  force.  This 
meant  the  broadening  and  the  carrying  out  of  the  work  begun, 
and  in  part  accomplished,  in  some  of  these  German  states  by  the 
benevolent  despots  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

623.  Trafalgar  (Oct.  21,  1805).  —  Napoleon's  brilliant  victo- 
ries in  Germany  were  clouded  by  an  irretrievable  disaster  to  his 
fleet,  which  occurred  on  the  day  following  the  surrender  of  the 
Austrians  at  Ulm.  Lord  Nelson  having  met,  near  Cape  Trafalgar 
on  the  coast  of  Spain,  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets, 

—  Spain  was  at  this  time  Napoleon's  ally,  —  almost  completely 
destroyed  the  combined  armaments.  The  gallant  English  admiral 
fell  at  the  moment  of  victory. 

This  decisive  battle  gave  England  the  control  of  the  sea  and 
relieved  her  from  all  danger  of  a  French  invasion.  Even  the 
"wet  ditch,"  as  Napoleon  was  wont  contemptuously  to  call  the 
English  Channel,  was  henceforth  an  impassable  gulf  to  his  ambi- 
tion. He  might  rule  the  Continent,  but  the  sovereignty  of  the 
ocean  and  its  islands  was  denied  him. 

624.  Campaign  against  Prussia:  Jena  and  Auerstadt  (1806). 

—  Prussia  was  the  next  state  after  Austria  to  feel  the  weight  of 
Napoleon's  hand.  King  Frederick  William  HI,  following  the  dic- 
tates of  selfish  prudence,  had  thus  far  held  aloof  from  the  coali- 
tions against  Napoleon,  and  had  profited  greatly  by  such  a  policy. 
He  had  remained  inactive  while  Austria  was  being  beaten  to  the 
ground ;  but  realizing  at  last  the  perfidious  character  of  the  man 


558  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

with  whom  he  was  dealing,  and  goaded  by  insufferable  insult,  he 
recklessly  threw  down  the  gauntlet  to  the  victor  of  Austerlitz. 

Moving  with  his  usual  swiftness,  Napoleon  overwhelmed  the 
Prussian  armies  in  the  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt,  which  were 
both  fought  on  the  same  day  (Oct.  14,  1806).  The  greater  part 
of  Prussia  was  now  quickly  overrun  by  the  French  armies.  The 
Prussian  generals,  at  least  most  of  them,  exhibited  the  most 
incredible  incapacity  and  cowardice.  Strong  fortresses  were  sur- 
rendered without  a  blow  being  struck  in  their  defense.  The 
capital,  Berlin,  was  entered  by  the  French  in  triumph. 

The  sword  of  the  great  Frederick,  the  famous  car  of  victory 
over  the  Brandenburg  Gate  at  Berlin,  together  with  many  treasures 
stolen  from  the  museums  and  art  galleries  of  the  city,  were  carried 
as  trophies  to  Paris. 

625.  Campaigns  against  the  Russians:  Eylau  and  Friedland 
(1807). — The  Russian  army,  which  the  Tsar  Alexander  had 
sent  to  the  aid  of  Frederick  William,  was  still  in  the  field  against 
Napoleon  in  the  Prussian  territories  east  of  the  Vistula. 

Early  in  the  year  1807  Napoleon  attacked,  on  a  stormy  winter 
day,  the  Russian  forces  at  Eylau.  The  battle  was  sanguinary  and 
indecisive,  each  army,  it  is  estimated,  leaving  over  thirty  thousand 
dead  and  wounded  on  the  snow.  During  the  summer  campaign 
of  the  same  year  Napoleon  again  engaged  the  Russians  in  the 
terrible  battle  of  Friedland  and  completely  overwhelmed  them. 
The  Tsar  was  constrained  to  sue  for  peace. 

626.  The  Treaty  of  Tilsit  (July  7,  1807)  ;  the  Partition  of  the 
World.  —  Napoleon  arranged  a  series  of  interviews  with  the  Tsar 
Alexander  at  Tilsit.  The  first  of  the  meetings  took  place  on  a 
raft  moored  midway  in  the  Niemen,  the  frontier  river  of  Russia. 

These  interviews  between  Napoleon  and  Alexander  mark  one 
of  the  most  dramatic  situations  in  European  history.  The  old 
order  of  things  had  been  destroyed  and  a  new  order  of  things  was 
being  projected.  The  subject  of  converse  of  the  two  emperors 
was  nothing  less  than  the  partition  of  the  world  between  them. 
'*  Napoleon  spread  before  the  eyes  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia  his 
favorite  conception  of  the  reestablishment  of  the  old  empires  of 


THE   TREATY   OF   TILSIT  559 

the  East  and  the  West.  They  were  to  be  faithful  allies.  France 
was  to  be  the  supreme  power  over  the  Latin  races  and  in  the 
center  of  Europe ;  Russia  was  to  represent  the  Greek  Empire 
and  to  expand  into  Asia.  These  grandiose  views  charmed  the 
Emperor  Alexander,  who  believed  that  in  adopting  them  he  was 
following  out  the  policy  of  Peter  the  Great  and  of  the  Empress 
Catherine.  The  one  enemy  to  be  feared  and  crushed,  according 
to  Napoleon,  was  England."  ^^ 

Thus  the  modern  world  was  to  be  made  over  on  the  old  Romano- 
Byzantine  model.  All  the  special  understandings  arrived  at  by 
the  two  emperors  looked  to  the  realization  of  this  magnificent 
conception.  Several  states  were  marked  out  for  dismemberment 
or  extinction.  Russia  had  already  absorbed  the  greater  part  of 
Poland.  The  Tsar  Alexander  was  now  encouraged  by  Napoleon 
to  take  Finland  from  Sweden  and  the  Danubian  provinces  from 
Turkey.  Napoleon  promised  to  aid  him  in  carrying  out  this  part 
of  the  programme.  In  return  the  Tsar  agreed  to  close  the  ports 
of  Russia  against  English  goods  and  to  cede  to  France  the 
Ionian  Isles. ^^ 

As  regards  Poland  and  Prussia  the  interests  of  the  two  emperors 
clashed.  It  would  have  been  to  the  advantage  of  Napoleon  to 
restore  the  dismembered  Polish  nation,  but  he  could  not  do  this 
without  alienating  the  Tsar  Alexander;  so  he  merely  organized 
the  greater  part  of  Prussian  Poland  —  he  gave  a  portion  of  it  to 
the  Tsar  —  into  what  he  named  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  and 
bestowed  it  upon  the  vassal  king  of  Saxony.** 

Thus  were  the  hopes  of  the  Polish  patriots  sacrificed  upon  the 
altar  of  Napoleon's  imperial  ambitions.  Here  was  a  nation  of 
fifteen  million  souls  which  had  been  partitioned  by  brigand  kings 
Hke  a  herd  of  cattle.  The  patriot  Poles,  who  with  pathetic  devo- 
tion had  followed  Napoleon  to  every  battlefield  of  the  Consulate 
and  the  Empire,  looked  to  him  to  unite  and  restore  their  nation. 
He  had  allowed  them  to  hope  that  he  would  do  so.    Never  were 

12  Stephens,  Revolutionary  Europe,  /jSq-iS/j,  p-  249. 

W  See  sec.  6ii,  n.  i. 

14  Napoleon  had  made  the  Elector  of  Saxony  a  king  just  after  the  battle  of  Jena. 


56o  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

hopes  more  cruelly  disappointed.  Had  Napoleon  here  acted  the 
part  of  a  real  Hberator,  he  would  have  undone  one  of  the  greatest 
wrongs  of  which  history  knows,  and  in  the  gratitude  of  a  redeemed 
and  valiant  nation  would  have  raised  for  himself  an  enduring 
monument  as  one  of  the  greatest  benefactors  of  humanity. 

As  to  Prussia,  Napoleon  was  minded  to  erase  it  from  the  map 
of  Europe.  The  intercession  of  the  Tsar  Alexander,  however, 
saved  the  state  from  total  extinction. ^^  But  neither  the  Tsar's 
mediation  in  behalf  of  his  ally,  Frederick  William  III,  nor  the 
personal  entreaties  of  the  beautiful  and  patriotic  Queen  Louisa, 
who  humiliated  herself  by  appearing  as  a  suppliant  before  Napo- 
leon at  Tilsit,  availed  to  save  the  monarchy  from  dismemberment 
and  the  deepest  abasement. 

Besides  stripping  Prussia  of  her  Polish  provinces  Napoleon 
took  away  from  her  all  her  territories  west  of  the  Elbe,  out  of 
which,  in  connection  with  some  other  lands,  he  made  the  new 
kingdom  of  Westphaha,  and  gave  it  to  his  brother  Jerome.  This 
kingdom,  into  the  making  of  which  went  twenty-four  principalities 
and  free  cities,  Napoleon  now  added  to  the  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine. 

Prussia  thus  lost  fully  one  half  of  her  territory.  What  was  left 
became  virtually  a  province  of  Napoleon's  empire.  The  mutilated 
and  exhausted  state  was  forced  to  pay  an  enormous  war  indem- 
nity, which  finally  mounted  up  to  a  thousand  milUon  francs,  to 
meet  the  cost  of  a  great  French  army  of  occupation  and  to  fur- 
nish a  contingent  for  the  P>ench  army  whenever  called  upon  by 
Napoleon  to  do  so. 

627.  The  Continental  Blockade;  the  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees 
(1806-1807).  —  After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  England  was  Napo- 
leon's sole  remaining  enemy.  The  means  which  he  employed  to 
compass  the  ruin  of  this  formidable  and  obstinate  foe,  the  pay- 
master of  the  coalitions  which  he  was  having  constantly  to  face, 
affords  the  key  to  the  history  of  the  great  years  from  1807  to  the 

15  Alexander  wished  to  maintain  Prussia  as  a  barrier  state  between  Russia  and 
Napoleon's  empire.  He  viewed  with  apprehension  the  advance  of  Napoleon's  frontier 
towards  the  western  boundary  of  his  own  domains. 


THE   CONTINENTAL  BLOCKADE  561 

final  downfall  of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo  in  18 15.  These  means 
were  what  is  known  as  the  Continental  Blockade  or  System.  A 
very  brief  retrospect  will  make  the  situation  clear. 

We  have  seen  how  the  English  Admiral  Nelson  destroyed  the 
allied  French  and  Spanish  fleets  at  Trafalgar  (sec.  623).  The 
effect  of  this  victory  upon  European  history  can  hardly  be  exag- 
gerated. ''Trafalgar  was  not  only  the  greatest  naval  victory,  it 
was  the  greatest  and  most  momentous  victory  won  either  by  land 
or  by  sea  during  the  whole  of  the  revolutionary  war.  No  victory, 
and  no  series  of  victories,  of  Napoleon  produced  the  same  effect 
upon  Europe.  .  .  .  The  prospect  of  crushing  the  British  navy,  so 
long  as  England  had  the  means  to  equip  a  navy,  vanished.  Napo- 
leon henceforth  set  his  hopes  on  exhausting  England's  resources, 
by  compelling  every  state  on  the  Continent  to  exclude  her  com- 
merce. Trafalgar  forced  him  to  impose  his  yoke  upon  all  Europe, 
or  to  abandon  the  hope  of  conquering  Great  Britain.  .  .  .  Nel- 
son's last  triumph  left  England  in  such  a  position  that  no  means 
remained  to  injure  her  but  those  which  must  result  in  the  ultimate 
deliverance  of  the  Continent ''^^ 

As  we  have  just  intimated,  the  history  of  the  remaining  years 
of  Napoleon's  domination  is  hardly  more  than  a  commentary 
upon  these  words. 

Alleging  violations  by  England  of  the  law  of  nations  respecting 
the  trade  of  neutrals  and  the  right  of  blockade,  Napoleon  by  two 
celebrated  edicts,  called  from  the  cities  whence  they  were  issued 
the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  closed  all  the  ports  of  the  Con- 
tinent against  English  ships,  and  forbade  any  of  the  European 
nations  from  holding  any  intercourse  with  Great  Britain,  all  of 
whose  ports  he  declared  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade.  All  ships 
engaging  in  trade  with  her  were  made  subject  to  capture.  All 
English  subjects  wherever  found  were  to  be  made  prisoners  of 
war  and  their  property  confiscated." 

w  Fyffe,  History  of  Modern  Europe^  vol.  i,  p.  28 ;  quoted  by  Mahan,  Th*  iMfitf 
ence  of  Sea  Power  ufon  the  French  Revolution  and  Empire,  vol  ii,  p.  196. 

17  England  replied  to  these  decrees  by  so<alled  Orders  in  Council  (Jan.  7,  1807, 
and  Nov.  11,  1807),  whereby  vessels  trading  between  ports  from  which  Napoleon  had 
excluded  English  ships  were  made  subject  to  capture  as  lawful  war  prizes. 


562  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

The  policy  thus  adopted  by  Napoleon  to  ruin  England  was  a 
suicidal  one,  and  resulted  finally  in  the  ruin  of  his  own  empire. 
Enghsh  traders  indeed  suffered  some  severe  losses,  while  the 
retaliatory  measures  adopted  by  the  English  government  contrib- 
uted to  involve  it  in  an  unfortunate  war  with  the  United  States ;  ^^ 
yet  on  the  whole  England  was  rather  benefited  than  injured  by 
the  Continental  System,  for  since  Napoleon  was  practically  with- 
out a  navy,  the  blockade  could  not  be  made  effective,  and  immense 
quantities  of  English  goods  were  smuggled  into  the  continental 
ports  and  sold  at  high  prices.  Even  Napoleon's  own  soldiers 
were  sometimes  clad  in  English-made  clothes  and  shod  with 
English-made  shoes. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  effect  upon  the  trade  and  commerce  of 
the  continental  states  was  simply  ruinous.  Every  trading  center 
seethed  with  suppressed  anger.  "  The  hurling  of  twenty  kings 
from  their  thrones,"  writes  Napoleon's  secretary,  Bourrienne, 
"  would  have  produced  less  hatred." 

628.  The  English  seize  the  Danish  Fleet  (September,  1807). 
—  Events  of  great  moment,  all  connected  directly  with  Napo- 
leon's Continental  Blockade,  now  tread  closely  one  upon  the 
heels  of  another. 

A  part  of  the  understanding  between  Napoleon  and  Alexander 
at  Tilsit  was  that  Napoleon  should  seize  upon  Denmark  and  Por- 
tugal and  appropriate  their  fleets,  in  order  that  he  might  be  able  to 
carry  on  more  effectively  his  commercial  war  with  Great  Britain. 
In  this  contemplated  action  no  regard  was  paid  to  the  fact  that 
both  these  countries  were  neutral  states. 

The  English  ministers  got  information  respecting  this  secret 
article  of  the  Tilsit  treaty.  The  situation  in  the  North  was  already 
serious  for  the  English.  The  Directory  in  taking  possession  of  the 
Dutch  Netherlands  had  got  control  of  the  Dutch  trade.  Napo- 
leon's campaign  against  Prussia  had  resulted  in  his  getting  actual 
or  virtual  possession  of  all  the  ports  of  North  Germany.  Should 
he  now  be  allowed  to  seize  Denmark  he  would  be  able  to  control 
absolutely  the  commerce  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 

18  The  War  of  1812-1814. 


NAPOLEON   SEIZES    PORTUGAL  563 

The  English  government  resolved  to  forestall  Napoleon  by 
seizing  the  Danish  fleet.  An  English  squadron  descended  upon 
the  Danish  capital,  Copenhagen,  and  demanded  of  the  astonished 
Danes  the  surrender  of  all  their  ships  and  naval  stores.  It  was 
explained  by  the  I^nglish  officials  that  the  fleet  and  stores  would 
be  held  by  England  merely  as  a  "  deposit,"  and  would  be  given 
back  at  the  end  of  the  war  with  France. 

The  Danes  indignantly  refused  to  give  up  their  ships.  There- 
upon the  English  bombarded  Copenhagen,  destroying  over  eigh- 
teen hundred  of  the  houses  of  the  city,  and  quickly  compelled 
compliance  with  their  demand.  The  entire  Danish  fleet,  and  all 
the  naval  stores  which  could  be  found,  were  carried  off  by  the 
English  as  war  booty.  The  proceeding  was  admittedly  a  high- 
handed one,  and  probably  England  lost  more  by  it  than  she 
gained ;  for  it  aroused  against  her  a  feeling  of  bitter  indignation 
on  the  Continent,  and  caused  Denmark,  hitherto  neutral,  to  enter 
into  a  close  alliance  with  Napoleon. 

629.  Napoleon  takes  possession  of  Portugal  (November,  1807). 
—  The  English  had  foiled  Napoleon  in  his  designs  upon  the  Danish 
fleet.  They  also  marred  his  plans  concerning  Portugal.  Shortly 
after  the  Danish  affiiir,  he  sent  an  army  under  the  command  of 
Junot  into  the  peninsula.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  French 
army  to  Lisbon  the  royal  family,  acting  upon  the  advice  of  the 
English  government,  embarked  on  board  the  Portuguese  fleet 
and,  escorted  by  several  English  war  ships,  sailed  for  Brazil. 

Thus  the  fleet  was  got  out  of  Napoleon's  reach,  but  the  country 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  A  proclamation  by  Junot 
declared  that  "  the  House  of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  rule,"  and 
Portugal  now  became  virtually  a  province  of  Napoleon's  empire. 

630.  Napoleon  places  his  Brother  Joseph  upon  the  Spanish 
Throne  (June  6,  1 808)  ;  the  Spanish  Uprising.  —  The  seizure  of 
Portugal  was  only  the  first  step  in  the  carrying  out  by  Napoleon 
of  his  scheme  for  making  himself  master  of  the  whole  of  the 
Iberian  peninsula.    Spain  was  next  appropriated. 

Arrogantly  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  that  country,  —  the 
government  it  must  be  said  was  desperately  incompetent  and 


564  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

corrupt,  and  the  condition  of  things  in  the  royal  family  most 
disgraceful,  —  Napoleon  induced  the  weak-minded  Bourbon  king, 
Charles  IV,  to  resign  to  him  as  "  his  dearly  beloved  friend  and 
ally"  his  crown,  which  he  at  once  bestowed  upon  his  brother 
Joseph  (June  6,  1808).  The  throne  of  Naples,  which  Joseph 
had  been  occupying,^^  was  transferred  to  Murat,  Napoleon's 
brother-in-law.  Thus  did  this  audacious  man  make  and  unmake 
kings,  and  give  away  thrones  and  kingdoms. 

But  the  high-spirited  Spaniards  were  not  the  people  to  submit 
tamely  to  such  an  indignity  as  Napoleon  had  inflicted  upon  them. 
The  entire  nation  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
flew  to  arms.  The  uprising  had  world-wide  significance.  "  The 
effect  produced  by  Spanish  enthusiasm  in  all  its  reckless  wildness 
was  incalculable,  and  makes  this  rebellion  stand  out  as  the  greatest 
European  event  which  had  happened  since  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  the  beginning  of  a  new  and  grand  chapter  in  European 
history."  ^o 

Portugal  also  rose,  and  England  sent  to  her  aid  a  force  under 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  the  hero 
of  Waterloo.  In  Spain  as  in  Portugal  humiliating  disasters,  like 
an  avenging  Nemesis,  overtook  the  French.  In  Southern  Spain 
an  army  of  over  twenty  thousand  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
Spaniards.^^  This  made  necessary  the  abandonment  of  Madrid 
by  the  French.  Joseph  fled  in  dismay  from  his  throne  before  he 
had  been  seated  upon  it  more  than  eight  days.  The  French 
retreated  beyond  the  Ebro,  almost  to  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 
In  Portugal  fate  was  equally  adverse  to  them.  After  a  serious 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  English,  Junot  signed  an  agreement 
according  to  the  terms  of  which  the  French  were  to  evacuate 
Portugal,  the  English  agreeing  to  carry  them  home  by  sea. 

Napoleon,  aside  from  his  unfortunate  expedition  to  Egypt,  had 
never  before  met  with  such  a  check.  The  warning  words  of  his 
brother  Joseph,  who  had    written  him,   "  Your  glory  will  suffer 

19  Napoleon  had  dethroned  the  Bourbons  in  Naples  in  1806. 

^  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein,  vol.  i,  p.  346. 

21  This  was  the  memorable  capitulation  of  Baylen  (July  20,  1808), 


THE   CONGRESS  AT   ERFURT  565 

shipwreck  in  Spain,"  seemed  to  have  found  quick  fulfillment. 
Napoleon  realized  that  he  must  take  the  field  himself  if  the 
prestige  of  the  French  arms  was  to  be  restored. 

631.  The  Congress  at  Erfurt  (September-October,  1808). — 
Before  setting  out  on  this  enterprise,  however,  Napoleon  deemed 
it  politic  to  have  an  interview  with  the  Tsar  Alexander,  in  order 
to  renew  the  friendship  and  cement  afresh  the  alliance  entered 
into  between  them  at  Tilsit,  —  for  he  was  well  aware  that  the  Tsar 
was  chafing  under  the  workings  of  the  Continental  Blockade. 

The  meeting  took  place  at  Erfurt.  This  celebrated  Congress 
marks  the  culminating  point  of  Napoleon's  extraordinary  career. 
Europe  probably  had  never  seen  anything  in  imperial  magnifi- 
cence, in  civil  and  military  display,  to  equal  this  gathering. 
Napoleon  on  this  occasion  played  host  to  four  vassal  kings,  to 
scores  of  princes  and  ambassadors,  and  to  the  greatest  poets  and 
men  of  letters  of  the  time.  French  actors,  brought  from  Paris, 
presented  night  after  night  to  "a  parterre  of  kings"  the  master- 
pieces of  the  French  stage. 

The  obsequiousness  of  all,  in  particular  of  the  petty  German 
princes,  to  Napoleon  is  what  most  amazes  us.  The  meeting 
between  Napoleon  and  Goethe  and  Wieland  possesses  a  painful 
interest.  Both  of  the  great  poets  seemed  dazzled  by  the  genius 
of  the  conqueror  of  Europe,  and  bowed  in  homage  at  his  feet. 
Goethe  was  flattered  when  Napoleon  greeted  him  with  the  words, 
"  You  are  a  man  "  ;  and  both  accepted  at  his  hands  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.^'-^ 

Amidst  festivals,  parades,  balls,  and  operas  the  main  purpose 
of  the  meeting  was  not  forgotten  by  Napoleon.  The  Tilsit  alli- 
ance between  him  and  the  Russian  Emperor  was  renewed.  In 
return  for  being  allowed  to  absorb  Finland  —  Alexander  had  at 
this  time  nearly  completed  the  conquest  of  that  province  —  and 
to  appropriate  the  Danubian  ])rovinces  of  the  Sultan,  the  Tsar 


^  Of  course,  in  judging  the  conduct  of  the  German  princes  and  German  men  of 
letters  at  this  Erfurt  meeting,  we  should  bear  in  mind  how  weak  at  this  time  the 
sentiment  of  nationality  among  the  Germans  really  was.  For  the  attitude  of  Goethe 
and  other  German  thinkers  towards  nationalism,  see  sec.  640,  n.  26. 


566  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

was  to  keep  Austria  quiet  while  Napoleon  was  busy  in  Spain,  and 
was  to  rigorously  enforce  the  blockade  against  England. 

632.  Napoleon  in  Spain  (November,  1 808-January,  1809). — 
From  the  Congress  at  Erfurt  Napoleon  hastened  into  Spain.  At 
the  head  of  an  army  of  over  a  hundred  thousand  men  he  marched 
southward,  entered  Madrid  in  triumph,  reseated  his  brother  upon 
the  Spanish  throne,  and  then  told  the  Spaniards  that  if  they  did 
not  respect  Joseph  he  would  put  the  crown  on  his  own  head  and 
teach  them  what  was  becoming  conduct  in  subjects. 

Napoleon  now  began  the  pursuit  of  a  British  army  which  under 
Sir  John  Moore  had  marched  from  Portugal  into  Spain.  Threat- 
ening tidings  from  another  quarter  of  Europe  caused  him  to  give 
over  the  pursuit  into  the  hands  of  one  of  his  marshals, ^^  while  he 
himself  hastened  back  to  Paris. 

633.  Napoleon's  Third  Campaign  against  Austria  (1809). — 
Taking  advantage  of  Napoleon's  troubles  in  the  Iberian  penin- 
sula, Emperor  Francis  I  of  Austria  had  put  his  army  on  a  war 
footing,  and  was  making  ready  to  throw  down  the  gage  of  battle. 

Napoleon,  since  his  best  troops  were  occupied  in  Spain,  sin- 
cerely desired  peace  with  Austria.  But  the  Emperor  Francis  was 
bent  on  war,  his  hopes  of  regaining  what  had  been  lost  appar- 
ently rendering  him  forgetful  of  Austerlitz.  "  The  waters  of  Lethe 
and  not  the  waters  of  the  Danube,"  said  Napoleon  to  a  group  of 
foreign  ambassadors,  "  seem  to  wash  the  walls  of  Vienna." 

The  war  opened  in  the  spring  of  1809.  At  the  end  of  a  short 
campaign,  the  most  noted  engagements  of  which  were  the  hard- 
fought  battles  of  Aspern  (Essling)  and  Wagram,  Austria  was  again 
at  Napoleon's  feet. 

The  Emperor  Francis  was  now  forced  to  cede  large  tracts  of 
his  dominions  to  Bavaria  and  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw, 
and  to  surrender  to  Napoleon  Carniola,  Istria,  and  other  lands. 
These   last,   together  with  certain  cessions  made  by  Austria  in 

23  The  retreat  of  Sir  John  Moore  from  the  heart  of  Spain  before  a  greatly  superior 
French  force  is  given  a  place  along  with  that  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks  among  the 
memorable  retreats  in  history.  Moore  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Corunna  (Jan,  i6, 
1809),  on  the  northern  coast  of  Spain,  and  the  remnant  of  his  army,  which  his  skill 
and  gallantry  had  saved,  were  taken  on  board  the  English  fleet. 


NAPOLEON  AND  THE  PAPAL  STATES     567 

1805,  Napoleon  added   to  his  empire  under  the  name  of    the 
lUyrian  Provinces. 

The  cession  by  Austria  of  her  Illyrian  lands  deprived  her  of 
her  water  front  on  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  shut  her  out  from  the 
Mediterranean.  At  the  same  time  these  lands  were  a  valuable 
acquisition  for  Napoleon.  He  now  had  actual  or  virtual  control 
of  the  whole  of  the  European  coast  line  from  the  frontier  of 
Turkey  on  the  Adriatic  to  the  frontier  of  Russia  on  the  Baltic. 

634.  Union  of  the  Papal  States  with  Napoleon's  Empire  (May, 
1809).  —  Napoleon's  Continental  System  had  led  him  into  deep 
trouble  in  the  Iberian  peninsula.  It  now  contributed  to  bring 
him  into  trouble  with  the  Papacy.  Pope  Pius  VII  refused  to 
enforce  the  blockade  against  England  and  further  presumed  to 
disregard  other  commands  of  Napoleon.  Thereupon  Napoleon 
declared  that  the  Pope  "was  no  longer  a  secular  prince,"  and 
took  possession  of  his  domains.  Pope  Pius  straightway  excom- 
municated the  Emperor,  who  thereupon  arrested  him,  and  for 
three  years  held  him  a  state  prisoner.  He  further  removed  the 
College  of  Cardinals  to  Paris.  Thither  he  also  transferred  all  the 
chief  officers  of  the  papal  government,  together  with  the  papal 
archives.  Hundreds  of  wagonloads  of  books  and  documents  were 
dragged  to  the  French  capital. 

Napoleon's  idea  in  all  this  was  to  get  the  entire  machinery  of 
the  papal  government  under  his  hand.  He  had  in  mind  to  pre- 
side over  the  councils  of  the  Church  as  Constantine  and  Charle- 
magne had  done.  After  his  fall  he  commented  as  follows  upon 
this  part  of  his  plan  for  setting  up  a  universal  autocracy  :  "  Paris 
would  have  become  the  capital  of  Christendom,  and  I  should- 
have  governed  the  religious  as  well  as  the  political  world." 

635.  Napoleon's   Second  Marriage    (1810). — Soon    after    his 

triumph  over  the  Emperor  Francis,  Napoleon  divorced  his  wife 

Josephine  in  order  to  form  a  new  alliance  with  the  Archduchess 

Marie  Louise  of  Austria.^^    Josephine  bowed  meekly  to  the  will  of 

**  Josephine  was  divorced  Dec.  15,  1809;  the  nurriage  to  Marie  Louise  took  place 
April  2,  i8to.  Josephine  retained  her  title  of  Empress,  and  was  assigned  the  palace 
of  Malmaison  as  a  residence  with  a  pension  of  two  million  francs  a  year.  To  the  very 
last  she  and  Napoleon  were  good  friends.    Her  death  occurred  May  29,  1814. 


568  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

her  lord  and  went  into  sorrowful  exile  from  his  palace.  Napoleon's 
object  in  this  matter  was  to  cover  the  reproach  of  his  plebeian 
birth  by  an  alliance  with  one  of  the  ancient  royal  families  of 
Europe,  and  to  secure  the  perpetuity  of  his  government  by  leaving 
an  heir  to  be  the  inheritor  of  his  throne  and  fortunes. 

The  desire  and  ambition  of  Napoleon  to  found  a  dynasty 
seemed  realized  when,  the  year  following  his  marriage  with  the 
archduchess,  a  son  was  born  to  them,  who  was  given  the  title  of 
King  of  Rome.  His  enemies  could  now  no  longer,  as  he  reproached 
them  with  doing,  make  appointments  at  his  grave.  He  had  now 
something  more  than  ''  a  life  interest  "  in  France.  The  succession 
was  assured. 

In  forming  this  family  alliance  with  Napoleon,  the  conqueror 
and  oppressor  of  Germany,  the  Emperor  Francis  undermined  his 
position  as  German  leader  in  the  coming  War  of  Liberation  and 
left  the  way  clear  for  Prussia  to  assume  that  place  of  venture  and 
of  honor. 

636.  Holland  and  North  German  Coast  Lands  annexed  to  Napo- 
leon's Empire  (18 10).  — During  this  year  of  his  second  marriage 
Napoleon  made  two  fresh  territorial  additions  to  his  empire. 

Louis  Bonaparte,  — king  of  Holland,  it  will  be  recalled,  — dis- 
approving of  his  brother's  Continental  System,  which  was  ruining 
the  trade  of  the  Dutch,  abdicated  the  crown.  Thereupon  Napo- 
leon incorporated  Holland  with  the  French  Empire  (July  9, 1810). 

A  few  months  later  Napoleon  also  annexed  to  his  empire  all 
the  German  coast  land  from  Holland  to  Liibeck  in  order  to  be 
able  to  close  the  important  ports  here,  including  the  old  Hanseatic 
cities  of  Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Liibeck,  against  English  trade. 

637.  Napoleon's  Empire  at  its  Greatest  Extent  (181 1).  —  In 
these  additions  the  Napoleonic  empire  received  its  last  enlarge- 
ment. Napoleon  was  now,  in  outward  seeming,^^  at  the  height  of 
his  marvelous  fortunes.  Marengo,  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Friedland,  and 
Wagram  were  the  successive  steps  by  which  he  had  mounted  to 
the  most  dizzy  heights  of  mihtary  power  and  glory. 

25  It  is  probably  true  that  the  height  of  Napoleon's  real  power  is  marked  by  the 
Treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807). 


WEAKNESS   OF   THE  EMPIRE  569 

The  empire  which  this  soldier  of  fortune  had  built  up  stretched 
from  Liibeck  to  beyond  Rome,  embracing  France  proper,  the 
Netherlands,  part  of  Western  and  Northwestern  Germany,  all 
Western  Italy  as  far  south  as  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  together  with 
the  lUyrian  Provinces  and  the  Ionian  Islands. 

On  all  sides  were  allied,  vassal,  or  dependent  states.  Several 
of  the  ancient  thrones  of  Europe  were  occupied  by  Napoleon's 
relatives  or  his  favorite  marshals.  He  himself  was  king  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  Protector  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
and  Mediator  of  Switzerland.  Austria  and  Prussia  were  com- 
pletely subject  to  his  will.    Russia  and  Denmark  were  his  allies. 

Such  were  the  relations  of  the  once  great  powers  and  independ- 
ent states  of  Europe  to  "  the  Corsican  adventurer."  Not  since 
the  time  of  the  Caesars  had  one  man's  will  swayed  so  much  of 
the  civilized  world. 

638.  Elements  of  Weakness  in  the  Empire.  —  But,  splendid  and 
imposing  as  at  this  moment  appeared  the  external  affairs  of 
Napoleon,  the  sun  of  his  fortunes,  which  had  risen  so  brightly  at 
Austerlitz,  had  already  passed  its  meridian.  There  were  many 
things  just  now  contributing  to  the  weakness  of  Napoleon's  empire 
and  foreboding  its  speedy  dissolution.  Founded  and  upheld  by 
the  genius  of  this  single  man,  it  depended  solely  upon  his  life  and 
fortunes.  The  diverse  elements  it  embraced  were  as  yet  so  loosely 
joined  that  there  could  be  no  good  hope  that  it  would  survive 
either  the  misfortune  or  the  death  of  its  founder. 

Again,  Napoleon's  Continental  System,  through  the  suffering 
and  loss  it  inflicted  particularly  upon  the  maritime  countries  of 
Europe,  had  caused  murmurs  of  discontent  all  around  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  Continent. 

Still  again,  the  conscriptions  of  the  Emperor  had  drained 
France  of  men,  and  her  armies  were  now  recruited  by  mere  boys, 
who  were  utterly  unfit  to  bear  the  burden  and  fatigue  of  Napo- 
leon's rapid  campaigns.  The  heavy  taxes,  also,  which  were  nec- 
essary to  meet  the  expenses  of  Napoleon's  wars,  and  to  carry  on 
the  splendid  public  works  upon  which  he  was  constantly  engaged, 
produced  great  suffering  and  discontent  throughout  the  empire. 


570  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

Furthermore,  Napoleon's  harsh  and  unjust  treatment  of  Pope 
Pius  VII  had  alienated  the  Catholic  clergy  and  created  a  resentful 
feeling  among  pious  CathoHcs  everywhere. 

At  the  same  time  the  crowd  of  deposed  princes  and  dispossessed 
aristocrats  in  those  states  which  Napoleon  had  reconstructed,  and 
in  which  he  had  set  up  the  new^  code  of  equal  rights,  were  natu- 
rally resentful,  and  were  ever  watching  an  opportunity  to  regain 
their  lost  power  and  privileges. 

Even  the  large  class  who  at  first  welcomed  Napoleon  as  the 
representative  of  the  French  ideas  of  equality  and  liberty,  and 
applauded  while  he  overturned  ancient  thrones  and  stripped  of 
their  privileges  ancient  aristocracies,  —  even  many  of  these  early 
adherents  had  been  turned  into  bitter  enemies  by  his  adoption  of 
imperial  manners  and  the  formation  of  a  court,  by  his  violation 
of  the  principle  of  equality  through  the  creation  of  an  hereditary 
aristocracy,  and  especially  by  his  setting  aside  his  first  wife, 
Josephine,  and  forming  a  marriage  alliance  with  one  of  the  old 
hated  royal  houses  of  Europe. 

639.  The  New  Force  destined  to  destroy  Napoleon's  Empire :  the 
Nations.  —  But  the  active  force  which  was  to  overwhelrn  Napoleon's 
empire  and  to  free  Europe  from  his  tyranny  was  the  sentiment 
of  national  patriotism  which  was  being  aroused  in  the  dismem- 
bered and  vassal  states,  and  in  those  threatened  with  the  loss  of 
independence.  Up  to  the  time  of  his  invasion  of  Spain,  Napoleon 
had  warred  against  the  governments  of  Europe.  Those  govern- 
ments he  had  been  able  to  overturn  easily  because  they  were  not 
based  on  the  love  and  loyalty  of  their  subjects. 

But  now  Napoleon,  in  his  ambition  to  make  himself  master  of 
all  Europe,  was  contemptuously  disregarding  the  claims  of  race 
and  nationaHty.  The  Empire  threatened  to  become  the  tomb  of 
the  Nations.  In  the  face  of  this  danger  national  patriotism  was 
being  everywhere  awakened. 

After  the  surrender  of  Ulm,  when  Austria  was  for  the  second 
time  beaten  to  the'  ground  by  Napoleon,  the  English  minister 
Pitt  said  to  some  desponding  friends,  who  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  French  Emperor  could  never  be  resisted  on  land,  that 


THE   REGENERATION   OF   PRUSSIA  571 

**  Napoleon  would  meet  with  a  check  when  he  encountered  a 
national  resistance ;  and  that  Spain  was  the  place  for  it ;  and 
that  then  England  would  intervene."  Commenting  upon  this 
prophecy,  Lord  Acton  pronounces  it  "  the  most  astounding  and 
profound  prediction  in  all  political  history,  where  such  things 
have  not  been  rare." 

We  have  witnessed  the  popular  uprising  in  Spain  ;  we  shall  now 
witness  a  similar  movement  in  North  Germany  and  in  Russia. 

640.  The  Regeneration  of  Prussia ;  Stein,  Hardenberg,  and  Scham- 
horst.  —  It  was  in  Prussia  that  this  patriotic  movement  found  most 
passionate  expression.  After  the  crushing  defeat  at  Jena,  Prussia, 
as  we  have  seen,  had  been  subjected  by  Napoleon  to  every  indig- 
nity and  forced  to  drain  to  the  dregs  the  cup  of  humiliation. 
This  had  for  a  result  the  calling  into  life  in  the  nobler  souls 
among  the  Germans  of  the  long  dormant  sentiment  of  national 
patriotism.  The  growth  of  the  new  feeling  was  stimulated  and 
directed  by  various  agencies. 

Foremost  among  these  agencies  were  the  stirring  patriotic  songs 
of  the  poets  Arndt,  Komer,  and  others,  which  kindled  in  thou- 
sands of  German  hearts  an  hitherto  unwonted  fervor  of  enthusiasm 
for  the  German  fatherland.  Never  did  the  power  of  song  to  move 
the  deepest  and  noblest  feelings  of  the  human  soul  have  a  more 
remarkable  illustration. 

Education  became  another  of  the  means  of  national  quickening 
and  regeneration.  In  the  year  1808,  while  Napoleon's  garrisons 
held  all  the  chief  fortresses  of  Prussia  and  his  spies  and  informers 
made  dangerous  any  utterance  adverse  to  his  nile,  the  philosopher 
Fichte  delivered  before  Berlin  audiences  a  remarkable  course  of 
lectures  entitled  "Addresses  to  the  German  Nation."  No  such 
appeal  had  been  made  to  the  German  mind  and  heart  since 
Luther  published  his  *'  Address  to  the  German  Nobility"  (sec.  324). 

Fichte's  idea  was  that  public  education  was  the  only  hopeful 
agency  for  the  moral  and  political  regeneration  of  the  German 
nation.  The  German  youth  must  be  taught  the  duty  of  unselfish 
devotion  to  the  public  welfare,  and  must  be  made  to  realize  the 
joy  of  making  sacrifices  for  the  Fatherland.    Thus  was  a  wholly 


572 


THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 


new  spirit  breathed  into  German  education  and  German  phi- 
losophy.^*^ Thousands  of  German  youths  were  stirred  by  a  senti- 
ment they  had  never  felt  before,  —  ardent  love  for  the  German 
name  and  the  German  land. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  poets,  philosophers,  and  teachers 
were  creating  by  their  appeals  and  methods  a  new  spirit  in 
Prussian  society,  the  masses  of  the  people  were  being  reached 
and  awakened  by  the  social  and  economic  reforms  carried   out 

by  the   eminent   patriot    statesmen, 
Stein  and  Hardenberg.^'^ 

Two  thirds  of  the  population  of 
Prussia  were  at  this  time  serfs.  Now, 
Stein's  controlling  idea  was  that  the 
strength  of  a  state  depends  upon  the 
patriotism  of  the  people ;  but  his  in- 
sight revealed  to  him  the  truth  that 
''  patriots  cannot  be  made  out  of 
serfs."  Hence  his  policy  of  enfran- 
chisement. 

By  a  celebrated  Edict  of  Emanci- 
pation serfdom  was  abolished.  This 
decree,  by  reason  of  its  far-reaching 
consequences,  deserves  a  place  along 
with  the  Emanciimtion  Proclamation 
of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  the  Edict  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  II 
which  liberated  the  Russian  serfs.    The  Prussian  king,  in  the  words 

26  Hitherto  the  greatest  thinkers  and  writers  of  Germany  had  insisted  that  the 
individual  seek  culture  simply  for  his  own  sake.  The  state  was  the  thing  of  last  con- 
cern with  the  great  poet  Goethe.  National  patriotism  he  regarded  as  a  narrow  senti- 
ment unworthy  of  a  great  mind.  The  poet  Lessing  declared  patriotism  to  be  "  a 
heroic  weakness,"  and  love  of  fatherland  a  sentiment  which  he  had  never  felt.  Equally 
free  from  this  "  heroic  weakness,"  as  related  to  a  German  fatherland,  was  the  philoso- 
pher Hegel.  The  idea  with  all  these  great  poets  and  philosophers  was  that  Cosmo- 
politanism is  a  nobler  thing  than  Nationalism,  —  that  men  should  regard  themselves 
not  as  citizens  of  a  paltry  state  but  as  citizens  of  the  world. 

2"  Baron  vom  Stein  was  made  chief  minister  by  King  Frederick  William,  Oct.  4, 
1807,  and  given  a  free  hand  in  carrying  out  proposed  reforms.  At  the  end  of  thirteen 
months  Napoleon,  who  recognized  the  tendency  and  aim  of  Stein's  measures,  forced 
the  king  to  dismiss  him  from  office.  Prince  von  Hardenberg  succeeded  him  and 
carried  on  more  cautiously  the  work  he  had  begun. 


Fig.  95.  —  Baron  vom  Stein 
(From  an  engraving  by  W. 
Roffe) 


THE    REGENERATION   OF    PRUSSIA  573 

of  Stein,  was  no  longer  "  the  king  of  slaves,  but  of  free  men." 
Prussia's  future  was  now  secure.  Henceforth  she  was  not  merely 
a  state  but  a  nation. 

Along  with  serfdom,  class  privileges  and  distinctions,  which 
had  divided  the  population  of  Prussia  into  classes  separated  by 
almost  impassable  lines,  were  now  swept  away.  The  towns  were 
given  a  measure  of  local  self-government,  which  was  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  representatives  of  the  people  to  participate  in  the 
national  government. 

While  Stein  and  Hardenberg  were  effecting  these  reforms  in 
the  civil  realm,  Scharnhorst,  the  Minister  of  War,  was  reorganizing 
the  army  on  the  model  of  that  of  France.  The  old  army,  which 
had  gone  to  pieces  so  disgracefully  on  the  field  of  Jena,  was  made 
up  of  conscripted  peasants,  officered  by  incompetent  and  insolent 
nobles.  Flogging  was  the  punishment  for  even  the  most  trivial 
offenses.  The  new  army  was  an  army  of  self-respecting  citizens, 
a  truly  national  army,  based  on  the  principle  of  universal  military 
service. 

Thus  equality  in  all  relations,  civil  and  military,  replaced  gall- 
ing and  degrading  inequality.  The  effect  of  these  reforms  upon 
the  spirit  of  the  people  was  magical.  They  effected  the  political 
and  moral  regeneration  of  Prussia.  In  a  word.  Stein  and  Harden- 
berg and  Scharnhorst  did  for  Prussia,  in  the  name  of  the  king, 
what  the  Constituent  Assembly  and  the  Convention,  in  the  name 
of  the  people,  had  done  for  France.  Prussia  now  became  strong 
like  France,  because  Prussia  was  no  longer  simply  the  king  and 
the  aristocracy,  but  the  Prussian  people. 

Prussia  regenerated  became  the  leader  of  the  German  nation  in 
the  memorable  War  of  Liberation,  which  we  are  now  approaching. 
This  uprising  of  the  Prussian  nation  against  Napoleon  forms  one 
of  the  most  dramatic  and  inspiring  passages  in  the  history  of  the 
German  people. 

641.  Napoleon's  Invasion  of  Russia  (18 12-18 13). — The  signal 
for  the  general  uprising  of  Germany  and  the  rest  of  Europe  was 
the  terrible  misfortune  which  befell  Napoleon  in  his  invasion 
of  Russia.     Various  circumstances  had  concurred  to  weaken  the 


574  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

friendship  and  break  the  alliance  between  the  Russian  Emperor 
and  Napoleon ;  but  the  main  cause  of  mutual  distrust  and  aliena- 
tion was  the  Continental  Blockade.  This  had  inflicted  great  loss 
upon  Russian  trade,  and  the  Tsar  had  finally  refused  to  carry  out 
Napoleon's  decrees,  and  entered  a  coalition  against  France. 

Napoleon  resolved  to  force  Russia,  as  he  had  the  rest  of  con- 
tinental Europe,  to  bow  to  his  will.  Gathering  contingents  from 
all  his  vassal  states,  he  crossed  the.  Russian  frontier  at  the  head 
of  what  was  proudly  called  the  Grand  Army,  numbering  upwards 
of  four  hundred  thousand  men.  After  making  a  single  stand  at 
Smolensk,  the  Russian  army  avoided  battle,  and  as  it  retreated 
into  the  interior  devastated  the  country  in  front  of  the  advancing 
enemy.    Finally,  at  Borodino,  seventy  miles  from   Moscow,  the 


Fig.  96.  —  The  Kremlin  of  Moscow.     (From  a  photograph) 

Russians  halted  and  offered  battle  to  cover  the  city,  but  in  a  ter- 
ribly bloody  struggle,  in  which  the  aggregate  loss  in  killed  and 
wounded  of  the  two  armies  was  upwards  of  seventy  thousand 
men,  their  resistance  was  broken  and  the  invaders  entered  the 
ancient  capital  in  triumph. 

To  his  astonishment  Napoleon  found  the  city  practically  de- 
serted by  its  inhabitants;  and  two  days  after  he  had  estab- 
lished himself  in  the  empty  palace  of  the  Tsar  (in  the  Kremlin), 
fires,  started  in  some  unknown  way,  broke  out  simultaneously  in 
different  quarters  of  the  city.  The  conflagration  raged  for  five 
days,  until  the  greater  part  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes. 

Napoleon's  situation  was  now  critical.  He  had  confidently 
expected,  from  his  knowledge  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  that 


NAPOLEON'S   INVASION   OF  RUSSIA  575 

as  soon  as  the  French  army  was  in  Moscow  he  would  sue  for 
peace.  But  to  Napoleon's  messages  Alexander  returned  for  reply 
that  he  would  not  enter  into  negotiations  with  him  so  long  as  a 
single  French  soldier  stood  upon  Russian  soil. 

In  the  hope  that  the  Tsar  would  abandon  his  heroic  resolve, 
Napoleon  lingered  about  the  ruined  city  until  the  middle  of 
October,  and  then  finally  gave  orders  for  the  return  march.  This 
delay  was  a  fatal  mistake,  and  resulted  in  one  of  the  greatest 
tragedies  in  history.  Before  the  retreating  French  columns  had 
covered  half  the  distance  to  the  frontier,  the  terrible  Russian 
winter  was  upon  them.  The  sufferings  of  the  ill-clad  soldiers  were 
intense.  Thousands  were  frozen  to  death.  The  spot  of  each 
bivouac  was  marked  by  the  circle  of  dead  around  the  watch  fires. 
Sometimes  in  a  single  night  as  many  as  two  or  three  hundred 
perished.  Thousands  more  were  slain  by  the  peasants  and  the 
wild  Cossacks,  who  hovered  about  the  retreating  columns  and 
harassed  them  day  and  night.  The  passage  of  the  river  Beresina 
was  attended  with  appalling  losses. 

Soon  after  the  passage  of  this  stream  Napoleon,  conscious  that 
the  fate  of  his  empire  depended  upon  his  presence  in  Paris,  left 
the  remnant  of  the  army  in  charge  of  his  marshals  and  hurried 
by  post  to  his  capital. 

The  loss  by  death  of  the  French  and  their  allies  in  this  disas- 
trous campaign  is  reckoned  at  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  men,  while  that  of  the  Russians  is  estimated  to  have 
been  almost  as  large. 

642.  The  War  of  Liberation  ;  the  Battle  of  Leipzig,  the  ♦'  Battle 
of  the  Nations"  (Oct.  16-19,  1813). —  Napoleon's  fortunes  were 
buried  with  his  Grand  Army  in  the  snows  of  Russia.  His  woeful 
losses  here,  taken  in  connection  with  his  great  losses  in  Spain, 
encouraged  the  European  powers  to  think  that  now  they  could 
crush  him.  A  sixth  coalition  was  formed,  embracing  Russia, 
Prussia,  England,  Sweden,  and  later  Austria. 

Napoleon  made  gigantic  efforts  to  prepare  for  the  final 
struggle.  By  the  spring  of  1813  he  was  at  the  head  of  a  new 
army,  numbering  eventually  over  three  hundred  thousand  men, 


576  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

—  boys  we  should  say,  so  extremely  young  were  a  large  number 
of  the  fresh  recruits.  Falling  upon  the  allied  armies  of  the  Russians 
and  Prussians,  first  at  Liitzen  and  then  at  Bautzen,  Napoleon 
gained  a  decisive  victory  upon  both  fields.  Austria  now  appeared 
in  the  hsts,  and  at  Leipzig,  in  Saxony,  Napoleon  was  attacked  by 
the  leagued  armies  of  Europe.  So  many  were  the  powers  repre- 
sented upon  this  renowned  field  that  it  is  known  in  history  as  the 
"  Battle  of  the  Nations."  The  combat  lasted  three  days.  Napo- 
leon was  defeated  and  forced  to  retreat  into  France. 

Some  attempts  at  negotiations  which  were  now  made  proved 
futile,  since  Napoleon,  desperate  as  was  his  situation,  would  not 
accept  the  reasonable  terms  offered  him  by  the  allies,  which 
were  in  substance  that  France  should  be  content  with  her  natural 
boundaries,  —  the  Rhine,  the  Alps,  and  the  Pyrenees. 

The  armies  of  the  allies  now  poured  over  all  the  French  fron- 
tiers. Napoleon's  tremendous  efforts  to  roll  back  the  tide  of  inva- 
sion were  all  in  vain.  Paris  surrendered  to  the  aUies  (March  31, 
1 8 14).  As  the  struggle  became  manifestly  hopeless,  his  most 
trusted  officers  deserted  and  betrayed  him.  The  French  Senate, 
acting  under  the  inspiration  of  the  celebrated  Talleyrand,  who 
had  earlier  served  Napoleon  as  his  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
issued  a  decree  deposing  the  Emperor  and  restoring  the  throne 
to  the  Bourbons.  Napoleon  was  forced  to  abdicate  and  was  ban- 
ished to  the  little  island  of  Elba  in  the  Mediterranean,  being 
permitted  to  retain  his  title  of  Emperor  and  to  keep  about  him 
a  few  of  his  old  guards.  But  Elba  was  a  very  diminutive  empire 
for  one  to  whom  the  half  of  Europe  had  seemed  too  small,  and  I 
we  shall  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that  Napoleon  was  not  content 
with'  it. 

643.  "The  Hundred  Days"  (March  20-June  29,  181 5).  —  Upon 
invitation  of  the  French  Senate  the  brother  of  Louis  XVI  now 
assumed  the  crown  with  the  title  of  Louis  XVIIL  With  this  new 
Bourbon  king  the  allies  arranged  a  treaty,^^  the  shifty  Talleyrand 
acting  as  Louis'  representative.  This  treaty  gave  France  the  fron- 
tiers she  had  in  1792. 

28  First  Treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814. 


"THE  HUNDRED   DAYS"  577 

In  accordance  with  a  promise  he  had  made,  Louis  gave  France 
a  constitution.  Notwithstanding,  he  acted  very  much  as  though 
his  power  were  unHmited.  He  styled  himself  "  King  of  France 
and  Navarre  by  the  grace  of  God''  He  always  alluded  to  the  year 
in  which  he  began  to  rule  as  the  nineteenth  year  of  his  reign,  thus 
affecting  to  ignore  wholly  the  government  of  the  Republic  and  the 
Empire.  This  excited  alarm,  because  it  seemed  to  question  the 
validity  of  all  that  had  been  done  since  the  dethronement  and 
execution  of  Louis  XVL 

The  result  of  this  reactionary  policy  was  widespread  dissatis- 
faction. Some,  fearing  lest  all  the  work  of  the  Revolution  would 
be  undone,  began  to  desire  the  return  of  Napoleon,  and  the  wish 
was  perhaps  what  gave  rise  to  the  report  which  was  spread  about 
that  he  would  come  back  with  the  spring  violets. 

In  the  month  of  March,  18 15,  as  the  commissioners  of  the 
various  powers  were  sitting  at  Vienna  rearranging  the  landmarks 
and  boundaries  obliterated  by  the  French  inundation,  news  was 
brought  to  them  that  Napoleon  had  escaped  from  Elba  and  was 
in  France.  At  first  the  members  of  the  Congress  were  incredu- 
lous, regarding  the  thing  as  a  jest,  and  were  with  difficulty  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  the  report. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  general  dissatisfaction  with  the  rule 
of  the  restored  Bourbons,  Napoleon  had  resolved  upon  a  bold 
push  for  the  recovery  of  his  crown.  Landing  with  about  eight 
hundred  guardsmen  at  one  of  the  southern  ports  of  France,  he 
aroused  all  the  country  with  one  of  his  stirring  addresses,  and 
then  immediately  pushed  on  towards  Paris.  His  journey  to  the 
capital  was  one  continuous  ovation.  One  regiment  after  another, 
forgetting  their  recent  oath  of  loyalty  to  the  Bourbons,  hastened 
to  join  his  train.  His  old  generals  and  soldiers  embraced  him 
with  transports  of  joy.'^®  Marshal  Ney,  sent  to  arrest  the  Emperor, 
whom  he  had  promised  to  bring  to  Paris  in  a  cage,  at  the  first 
sight  of  his  old  commander  threw  himself  into  his  arms  and 
pledged  him  his  sword  and  his  life.    Louis  XVIII,  deserted  by 

2*  Napoleon's  return  was  welcomed  by  the  army,  especially  by  the  returned  prisoners 
from  Russia  and  Germany,  but  it  was  not  welcomed  by  the  French  people  generally 


5/8  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

his  army,  was  left  helpless,  and,  as  Napoleon  approached  the  gates 
of  Paris,  fled  from  his  throne. 

Napoleon  desired  peace  with  the  sovereigns  of  Europe ;  but 
they  did  not  think  the  peace  of  the  continent  could  be  main- 
tained so  long  as  he  sat  upon  the  French  throne.  For  the  seventh 
and  last  time  the  allies  leagued  their  armies  against  "  the  dis- 
turber of  the  peace  of  Europe." 

Hoping  to  overwhelm  the  armies  of  the  allies  by  striking  them 
•one  after  another  before  they  had  time  to  unite,  Napoleon  moved 
swiftly  into  Belgium  with  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  in  order  to  crush  there  the  EngHsh  under  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  and  the  Prussians  under  Bliicher.  He  first  fell  in 
with  and  defeated  the  Prussian  army,  and  then  faced  the  English 
at  Waterloo  (June  i8,  1815). 

The  story  of  Waterloo  need  not  be  told,  —  how  all  day  the 
French  broke  their  columns  in  vain  on  the  English  squares ; 
how,  at  the  critical  moment  towards  the  close  of  the  day  when 
Wellington  was  wishing  for  Bliicher  or  for  night,  Bliicher  with 
a  fresh  force  of  thirty  thousand  Prussians  turned  the  tide  of 
battle ;  and  how  the  famous  Old  Guard,  which  knew  how  to  die 
but  not  how  to  surrender,^^  made  its  last  charge  and  left  its 
hitherto  invincible  squares  upon  the  lost  field. 

A  second  time  Napoleon  was  forced  to  abdicate, ^^  and  a  second 
time  Louis  XVHI  ascended  his  unstable  throne. ^^  Napoleon 
made  his  way  to  the  coast,  purposing  to  take  ship  for  the  United 
States;  but  the  way  was  barred  by  British  watchfulness,  and  he 
was  constrained  to  surrender  to  the  commander  of  the  English 
war  ship  Bellerophon.  "  I  come,  like  Themistocles,"  he  said,  "  to 
throw  myself  upon  the  hospitahty  of  the  English  people." 

But  no  one  beUeved  that  Napoleon  could  safely  be  left  at  large, 
or  that  his  presence,  even  though  he  were  in  close  confinement, 

80  General  Cambronne,  the  commander  of  the  Guard,  when  summoned  to  surrender, 
is  said  to  have  returned  this  reply :  "  The  Guard  dies,  but  never  surrenders."  There 
is  doubt  concerning  the  origin  of  the  famous  phrase. 

81  His  abdication  was  in  favor  of  his  little  son,  whom  he  proclaimed  "  Napoleon  II, 
Emperor  of  the  French." 

82  The  allies  now  signed  with  Louis  what  is  known  as  the  Second  Treaty  of  Paris 
(Nov.  20,  1815).    France  had  now  to  accept  the  frontiers  which  were  hers  in  i;89. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  579 

anjrwhere  in  Europe  would  be  consistent  with  the  future  security 
and  repose  of  the  continent.  Some  even  urged  that  he  be  given 
up  to  Louis  XVIII  to  be  shot  as  a  rebel  and  an  outlaw.  The  final 
decision  was  that  he  should  be  banished  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena, 
in  the  South  Atlantic.  Thither  he  was  carried  by  the  English,  and 
closely  guarded  by  them  until  his  death  in  182 1. 

The  story  of  these  last  years  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  as  gath- 
ered from  the  companions  of  his  exile,  is  one  of  the  most 
pathetic  in  all  history.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  in  his 
fifty-second  year.  As  a  military  genius  and  commander  he  left 
a  deeper  impress  upon  the  imagination  of  the  world,  and  fills  a 
larger  place  in  history,  probably,  than  any  other  man  who  ever  lived. 


Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Bourrienne,  Memoirs  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  Bourrienne  was  Bonaparte's  schoolfellow  and  comrade,  and 
then  his  private  secretary  from  1796  to  1802.  Tarbell,  The  Words  of 
Napoleon,  contains  interesting  selections  from  Napoleon's  addresses  and 
letters.  In  reading  these  extracts  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Napo- 
leon's speeches,  like  his  bulletins,  often  bore  no  relation  to  the  actual 
facts  or  to  his  own  real  thoughts  and  purposes. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Among  the  numerous  biographies  of  Napoleon 
the  following  possess  special  merit  and  authority :  Fournier,  Napoleon 
the  First ;  Johnston,  Napoleon;  Rose,  The  Life  of  Napoleon  I;  Sloane, 
Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  ;  Lanfrey,  The  History  of  Napoleon  the  First 
(left  incomplete  by  the  death  of  the  author) ;  Seeley,  Napoleon  the  First ; 
and  Ropes,  The  First  Napoleon.  Lanfrey  makes  the  Emperor  the  subject 
of  bitter  reproach.  One  of  the  best  extended  histories  of  the  Napoleonic 
period  is  Thiers,  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire.  Excellent 
short  accounts  are  Stephens,  Revolutionary  Europe,  ijSg-iSt^,  chaps, 
vii-xi;  Rose,  The  Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  Era,  last  part,  chap,  vii; 
and  Andrews,  The  Historical  Development  of  Europe,  vol.  i,  chap.  ii. 

Works  dealing  with  special  phases  of  the  history  of  the  period :  Mahan, 
The  Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  the  French  Revolution  and  Empire^ 
vol.  ii;  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein ;  and  Bigelow,  History  of  the 
German  Strujrgle  for  Liberty.  See  also  Lord  Rosebery,  Napoleon:  the 
Last  Phase  ;  on  the  Emperor's  imprisonment  at  St.  Helena. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Bonaparte  at  school.  2.  The  sale  of 
Louisiana  to  the  United  States.  3.  The  Civil  Code.  4.  Execution  of  the 
Duke  of  Enghien.  5.  The  Congress  at  Erfurt,  6.  Baron  vom  Stein  and 
his  reforms.     7.  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena. 


III.    THE    RESTORATION    OF    1815    AND    THE     DEMO- 
CRATIC REACTION:  THE  SEQUEL  TO 
THE  REVOLUTION 
(1815-1904) 

CHAPTER   XXXV 
THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA  AND  METTERNICH 

644.  Ideas  bequeathed  by  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Nine- 
teenth Century.  —  The  social  and  political  history  of  Europe 
since  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  is  a  continuation  of  the  history 
of  the  great  social  and  political  upheaval  which  we  have  been 
witnessing.  The  dominant  forces  at  work  throughout  this  period 
have  been  the  ideas  or  principles  inherited  from  the  French 
Revolution. 

There  were  three  of  these  ideas,  with  which,  as  revolution- 
ary forces  in  history,  we  have  already  become  familiar  in  tracing 
the  story  of  the  Revolution  and  the  Empire.  The  first  was  the 
idea  or  principle  of  equality.*  The  Revolutionists  proclaimed  this 
doctrine  with  religious  fervor.  It  was  spread  broadcast  over 
Europe.  The  French  army,  as  it  has  been  tersely  expressed,  was 
"  equality  on  the  march."  The  Code  Napole'on,  as  we  have  seen, 
embodied  this  principle  of  equality,  and  wherever  it  was  set  up, — 
in  the  Netherlands,  in  the  West  German  states,  in  part  of  Poland, 
in  Switzerland,  and  in  Italy, — it  exerted  the  same  leveling  influence 
that  it  had  in  France.  As  Christianity  brought  in  equality  before 
God,  so  did  the  Revolution  bring  in  equality  before  Caesar.  The 
one  made  all  men  equal  in  the  religious  realm,  the  other  made  all 
men  equal  in  the  civil  realm. 

580 


THE   CONGRESS    OF  VIENNA  581 

The  second  principle  promulgated  by  the  Revolution  was  that 
of  popular  sovereignty.  According  to  this  doctrine,  governments 
derive  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed.  The 
laws  should  be  the  expression  of  the  will  of  all.  The  people 
either  directly  or  through  their  representatives  should  have  part 
in  the  government.  All  rulers  and  magistrates  are  the  servants  of 
the  people  and  are  responsible  to  them. 

The  third  principle  that  underlay  the  Revolution  was  that  of 
nationality.  This  principle  requires  that  the  state  shall  coincide 
with  the  nation.  It  demands  that  every  nation  shall  be  free  to 
choose  its  own  form  of  government  and  to  manage  its  own  affairs 
in  its  own  way.  This  idea  worked  itself  out  during  the  course 
of  the  Revolution.  It  was  evoked,  as  we  have  learned,  in  great 
measure  by  Napoleon's  cynical  disregard  of  national  sentiment 
and  his  wanton  violation  of  national  rights. 

These  principles  or  ideas,  as  we  have  said,  were  the  precious 
political  heritage  which  the  nineteenth  century  received  from  the 
Revolution.^  They  were  full  of  vitality  and  energy.  Their  out- 
working, their  embodiment  in  social  institutions,  in  law,  in  gov- 
ernment, makes  up  a  large  part  of  the  history  of  the  more 
advanced  nations  of  the  world  since  the  downfall  of  Napoleon. 

But  these  ideas,  as  we  have  intimated,  have  not  had  free  course. 
Their  embodiment  in  social  institutions  and  in  political  forms  has, 
in  most  of  the  European  countries,  been  a  process  violent  and 
revolutionary  in  character.  This  has  resulted  from  these  liberal 
principles  coming  into  conflict  with  certain  opposing  conserva- 
tive doctrines  with  which  they  have  had  to  struggle  for  supremacy. 
And  this  brings  us  to  the  starting  point  of  the  history  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  —  the  celebrated  Congress  of  Vienna. 

645.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  (September,  1814-June,  18 15).  — 
After  the  first  abdication  of  Napoleon,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
European  sovereigns,  either  in  person  or  by  their  representatives, 


1  Of  course  these  ideas  were  not  novel  doctrines  pronuilgated  now  for  the  first 
time.  All  that  is  meant  by  calling  them  the  ideas  of  the  French  Revolution  is  that 
by  the  Revolution  they  were  invested  with  new  authority  and  were  given  a  new  course 
in  the  world. 


582     CONGRESS   OF    VIENNA  AND    METTERNICH 

met  at  Vienna  to  readjust  the  affairs  of  the  Continent.  As  we 
shall  hereafter,  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  separate 
European  countries,  have  occasion  to  say  something  respecting 
the  relations  of  each  to  the  Congress,  we  shall  here  say  only  a 
word  regarding  the  spirit  and  temper  of  the  assembly  and  the 
general  character  of  its  work. 

The  Vienna  commissioners  seemed  to  have  but  one  thought 
and  aim,  —  to  restore  everything  as  nearly  as  possible  to  its  con- 
dition before  the  Revolution.  They  had  no  care  for  the  people ; 
the  princes  were  their  only  concern.  The  principle  of  nationality 
was  wholly  ignored,  while  that  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people 
was,  by  most  of  the  plenipotentiaries,  looked  upon  as  a  principle 
of  disorder  to  be  repressed  in  every  possible  way. 

The  first  principle  adopted  by  the  Congress  was  that  of  legiti- 
macy. According  to  this  principle  a  throne  is  to  be  regarded  like 
any  ordinary  piece  of  property.  Long  possession  gives  a  good  and 
indefeasible  title. 

Under  this  rule  all  the  new  usurping  famiUes  set  up  by  Na- 
poleon were  swept  aside  without  ceremony,  and  the  old  exiled 
dynasties  were  restored.  The  most  important  of  these  restitutions, 
effected  either  by  the  direct  action  of  the  Congress  or  already 
consummated  by  events  and  confirmed  by  it,  were  those  which 
brought  back  the  banished  Bourbon  dynasties  in  France,  Spain, 
and  Naples.^ 

The  question  of  legitimacy  having  been  settled,  the  next  ques- 
tion was  how  the  territories  recovered  from  Napoleon  should  be 
distributed  among  the  dynasties  recognized  as  legitimate.  For 
most  of  the  sovereigns  this  was  the  subject  of  chief  interest. 
Russia  wanted  the  whole  of  Poland ;  Prussia  wanted  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony ;  Sweden  wanted  Norway ;  Austria  wanted  territory  in  Italy. 

In  making  the  distribution  the  Vienna  map  makers  took  no 
thought  whatever  of  the  rights  and  claims  of  race  or  nationality. 


2  The  principle  was  applied  only  in  the  case  of  hereditary  lay  rulers.  And  even 
here  an  exception  was  made  in  the  case  of  the  hundreds  of  petty  German  rulers  whose 
territories  Napoleon  in  his  reorganization  of  Germany  had  given  to  the  larger  states. 
These  princelets  were  not  restored. 


I    - 


12°     Longitude  East  from  Gree 


c  1      J/h^-^ 

V 

Danzig^  T      \  O  V, 


^  /Thorn  ^-'^-T--  /  Xl.,,^A-~     i 


V   O  L,^"*' 


..^^)^ 


•:•.    X  r^      \.    1  G  .  A     L  \1    ^"^^\\  \     »   P  O  n  I  K:^*^  m 


ib 


•  Debreczin 


OXX. 


Hij. 


THE  CONGRESS   OF  VIENNA  583 

The  inhabitants  of  the  countries  available  for  division  were  ap- 
portioned among  the  different  sovereigns  exactly  as  a  herd  of 
cattle  might  be  divided  up  and  apportioned  among  different 
owners.  The  following  territorial  settlements  were  among  the 
most  important. 

The  Belgian  and  Dutch  provinces  were  united  into  a  single 
state,  which  under  the  name  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
was  given  to  a  prince  of  the  House  of  Orange.  The  idea  here 
was  to  create  on  this  side  of  France  as  strong  a  barrier  as  pos- 
sible against  French  aggression  in  the  future.  The  fact  that  the 
Dutch  and  the  Belgians,  by  reason  of  differences  in  race,  in  reli- 
gion, and  in  industrial  development,  formed  really  two  distinct 
nations  was  wholly  ignored. 

Sweden  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Norway,*  which 
Denmark  lost  as  a  consequence  of  her  alliance  with  Napoleon. 

Russia  was  allowed  to  retain  Finland  and  Bessarabia,  and  was 
given  the  greater  part  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  The  Polish 
lands  acquired  by  Russia  were  made  into  what  was  called  the  King- 
dom of  Poland,  with  the  Tsar  as  its  king.  The  Poles  were  informed 
that  they  must  give  up  all  thought  and  hope  of  the  restoration  of 
their  national  independence. 

Prussia  was  given  about  half  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  exten- 
sive territories  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  and  other  lands,  which 
gave  her  a  more  preponderant  position  in  Germany  than  she  had 
before  the  Revolution. 

Austria,  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  her  Netherland  prov- 
inces, was  given,  besides  a  long  strip  of  the  eastern  shore  lands 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  Lombardy  and  Venetia  in  Upper  Italy.  This 
extension  of  Austrian  rule  over  Italian  lands  was  one  of  the  gross- 
est violations  of  the  principles  of  nationality  of  which  the  Congress 
was  guilty,  and  was  to  be  signally  avenged  when  the  hour  for 
Italian  unity  and  independence  arrived. 

8  In  the  midst  of  the  War  of  Liberation,  Bernadotte,  king  of  Sweden,  had  forced 
from  the  Danish  king  (Treaty  of  Kiel,  Jan.  14,  1814)  the  cession  of  Norway.  The 
arrangement  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  confirmed  by  the  Congress  has  subsisted 
to  the  present  time.  The  two  countries  form  a  dual  monarchy,  each  having  its  own 
Parliament  or  Diet,  but  united  under  a  single  crown. 


584     CONGRESS   OF   VIENNA  AND   METTERNICH 

In  Germany  the  Congress  built  upon  the  basis  laid  by  Napo- 
leon. Thirty-nine  of  the  forty-two  sovereign  states,  including 
Prussia  and  Austria,  to  which  he  had  reduced  the  hundreds  of 
states  constituting  the  old  Germanic  system,  were  organized  into 
a  confederation  modeled  upon  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.* 

In  Italy,  on  the  other  hand,  Napoleon's  work  was  undone  and 
the  old  order  of  things  was  reestablished.  With  the  exception  of 
the  provinces  in  the  north,  which  had  been  given  to  Austria,  the 
peninsula  was  divided  into  independent  states,  such  as  had  existed 
before  the  Revolution. 

A  third  matter  which  occupied  the  attention  particularly  of  the 
committee  on  German  affairs  was  the  granting  of  constitutions 
to  their  subjects  by  the  different  sovereigns.  In  spirit  and  in 
temper  the  restored  rulers  were  for  the  most  part  the  old  pre- 
revolutionary  despots  come  to  their  own  again,  but  thoroughly 
frightened  by  what  had  happened.  Their  desire  was  to  rule  in 
the  old  arbitrary  way ;  but  there  were  those  among  them  who 
recognized  that  a  change  had  come  over  the  world,  and  that  the 
old  absolutism  could  not  with  safety  be  reestablished.  The  Tsar 
Alexander  seemed  to  entertain  some  genuine  liberal  ideas. 

Consequently  constitutions  were  talked  about.  Louis  XVIII 
had  been  required  by  the  terms  of  the  treaties  of  Paris  to  give 
France  -a  constitution,  the  allies  understanding  perfectly  that  if 
the  restored  Bourbons  should  attempt  to  rule  as  absolute  sover- 
eigns there  would  be  trouble  again  which  would  unsettle  every- 
thing in  Europe.  And  now  the  Congress  recommended  to  the  Ger- 
man princes  that  representative  bodies  (Assemblies  of  Estates)  be 
established  in  each  state.  But  the  only  states,  besides  France, 
which  at  this  time  actually  received  constitutions  were  the  Nether- 
lands, Switzerland,  Poland,  and  Norway. 

And  even  where  constitutions  already  existed  or  were  now 
granted,  these  charters  gave  the  people  very  little  share  in  the 
government.  They  were  constitutions  of  the  aristocratic  type, 
that  is,  they  placed  the  government,  where  its  form  was  monar- 
chical, in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign  and  a  very  small  body  of 

4  For  further  details  concerning  the  reorganization  of  Germany,  see  sec.  701. 


PRINCE   METTERNICH 


585 


voters.   Practically  the  old  regime  of  absolutism  was  almost  every- 
where reestablished. 

But  the  Revolution  had  impaired  beyond  restoration  reverence 
for  the  divine  right  of  kings.  An  attempt  to  restore  autocratic 
government  in  Europe  was  an  attempt  to  restore  an  outgrown 
cult,  —  to  set  up  again  the  fallen  Dagon  in  his  place.  Notwith- 
standing, the  commissioners  at  Vienna,  blind  to  the  spirit  and 
tendencies  of  the  times,  did  set  up  once  more  the  broken  idol, 
—  only,  however,  to  see  it  flung  down  again  by  the  memorable 
political  upheavals  of  the  next  half  century.  The  kings  had  had 
their  Congress ;  the  people  were 
to  have  theirs,  —  in  1820  and  '30 
and  '48. 

646 .  Prince  Metternich,  the  Incar- 
nation of  the  Spirit  of  the  Restora- 
tion. — The  spirit  of  the  monarchical 
restoration  of  18 1 5 ,  the  spirit  which 
controlled  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
was  incarnate  in  the  celebrated  Aus- 
trian minister,  Prince  Metternich. 

Metternich  hated  the  Revolution,  "^  ^^ft»aa»e^E»K^;t 

which  to  him  was  the  spirit  of  evil 
let  loose  in  the  world.  The  demo- 
cratic spirit  he  declared  to  be  the  Fig^q;.- Prince  Metternich 
spirit  of  disorder  which  could  not 
fail  **  to  change  daylight  into  dark- 
est night."  The  demand  of  the  people  for  a  share  in  government 
he  regarded  as  presumptuous,  and  was  wholly  convinced  that  any 
concession  to  their  demands  could  result  in  nothing  save  horrible 
confusion  and  bloodshed. 

Metternich' s  system,  therefore,  was  a  system  of  repression.  His 
maxim  was,  Let  nothing  be  changed.  A  diplomatist  of  wonder- 
ful astuteness,  of  wide  experience,  and  possessed  of  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  public  affairs  of  all  Europe,  Metternich  ex- 
erted a  vast  influence  upon  the  history  of  the  years  from  18 15 
to  1848.    This  period  might  appropriately  be  called  the  Age  of 


(From  a  painting  by  .SVr  Thomas 
Lawrence) 


586      CONGRESS   OF   VIENNA  AND   METTERNICH 

Metternich.  It  was  due  largely  to  the  Prince  that  during  this 
period  the  old  autocratic  form  of  government  prevailed  so  gener- 
ally in  Europe. 

647.  Metternich  and  the  Holy  Alliance.  — The  activity  of  Met- 
ternich during  the  earlier  portion  of  the  period  of  his  ascendancy 
was  so  closely  connected  with  a  celebrated  league  known  as  the 
Holy  Alliance  that  we  must  here  say  a  word  respecting  the  origin 
of  this  association. 

The  Holy  Alliance  was  a  religious  league  formed  just  after  the 
fall  of  Napoleon  by  the  Tsar  Alexander  and  having  as  its  chief 
members  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia.  The  ostensible  object  of 
the  league  was  the  maintenance  of  religion,  peace,  and  order  in 
Europe  and  the  reduction  to  practice  in  politics  of  the  maxims 
of  Christ.  The  several  sovereigns  entering  into  the  union  promised 
to  be  fathers  to  their  people,  to  rule  in  love  and  with  reference 
solely  to  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  their  subjects. 

All  this  had  a  very  millennial  look.  But  the  Holy  Alliance  very 
soon  became  practically  a  league  for  the  maintenance  of  absolute 
principles  of  government,  in  opposition  to  the  liberal  tendencies 
of  the  age.  Under  the  pretext  of  maintaining  religion,  justice, 
and  order,  'the  sovereigns  of  the  union  acted  in  concert  to  sup- 
press every  aspiration  for  political  liberty  among  their  subjects. 

648.  Other  Nineteenth-Century  Principles,  Movements,  and  Inter- 
ests. —  Lest  the  foregoing  paragraphs  should  create  in  the  mind 
of  the  reader  a  wrong  impression  of  nineteenth-century  history,  we 
must  here  remind  him  of  what  we  have  said  repeatedly,  namely, 
that  no  single  formula  will  suffice  to  sum  up  the  history  of  any  age. 
History  is  ever  very  complex,  for  many  ideas  and  many  forces  are 
always  simultaneously  at  work  shaping  and  coloring  events. 

The  history  of  the  nineteenth  century  presents  a  special  com- 
plexity. While  the  great  ideas  transmitted  to  the  age  as  a  bequest 
from  the  Revolution  were  forces  that  gave  the  age  its  chief  features, 
still  throughout  the  century  various  other  ideas,  principles,  and 
interests  manifested  themselves  and  contributed  greatly  to  fill  par- 
ticularly the  later  years  of  the  period  with  a  vast  complexity  of 
movements,  —  intellectual,  political,  and  industrial. 


NINETEENTH-CENTURY   MOVEMENTS  587 

The  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  was  in  the  society  of  the  period 
a  pervasive  and  powerful  influence.  Throughout  the  century  intel- 
ligence was  becoming  more  diffused,  and  modern  science,  the  spe- 
cial product  of  the  Revival  of  Learning,  was  constantly  revealing 
fresh  wonders  and  arming  man  with  new  instruments  of  research 
and  of  mastery  over  nature. 

The  true  spirit  of  the  Reformation,  too,  was  at  work.  As  the 
century  advanced,  creeds  grew  more  liberal,  and  the  beneficent 
sentiment  of  toleration  in  religion,  which  has  been  declared  to 
be  "  the  best  fruit  of  the  last  four  centuries,"  ^  made  rapid  prog- 
ress in  the  world. 

Furthermore,  the  century  was  marked  by  a  wonderful  expansion 
movement  of  the  European  peoples,  a  movement  which  has  given 
the  v/orld  into  the  possession  of  the  new  and  higher  civilization 
created  by  the  revolutions  of  the  last  three  centuries  in  the  home 
land  of  Europe.  To  this  significant  movement  we  shall  devote  a 
separate  chapter  under  the  heading  "The  Expansion  of  Europe." 

Lastly,  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed  an  unparalleled  indus- 
trial development,  resulting  from  fortunate  mechanical  inventions 
and  a  great  variety  of  other  causes.  To  the  phenomena  of  this 
new  movement  we  shall  be  able  to  devote  only  a  few  closing  para- 
graphs. In  these  we  shall  attempt  nothing  more  than  merely  to 
indicate  the  relation  of  this  industrial  revolution  to  the  general 
development  of  human  society. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Memoirs  of  Prince  MetUrnich  (trans,  by 
Mrs.  Alexander  Napier),  vol.  ii,  pp.  553-599,  and  vols,  iii-v.  These  volumes 
cover  the  years  from  18 15  to  1829.  They  a/e  of  the  first  importance  for  this 
period.  In  them  the  spirit  of  the  Restoration  is  incarnated.  Ford,  Life  and 
Letters  of  Madame  Krudener.  This  work  lights  up  a  remarkable  passage  in 
the  life  of  the  Russian  Emperor  Alexander  I,  and  reveals  the  genesis  of  the 
Holy  Alliance.  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i,  No.  3,  "  The  Restoration 
and  the  European  Policy  of  Mettemich  "  (ed.  by  James  Harvey  Robinson). 

Secondary  Works.  —  Among  the  great  number  of  works  on  nineteenth- 
century  history  the  following  are  among  the  best  of  those  in  English  which 
present  in  brief  survey  the  whole  or  some  considerable  part  of  the  history 

6  The  inscription  written  by  President  Charles  W.  Eliot  for  the  Water  Gate  of  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1893. 


588      CONGRESS    OF  VIENNA  AND    METTERNICH 

of  the  period:  Yxyy^^  A  History  of  Moaern  Europe,  I'jg2-i8y8 ;  Phillips, 
Modern  Europe,  i8i^-i8gg ;  Andrews,  The  Historical  Development  of 
Modern  Europe;  Seignobos,  A  Political  History  of  Europe  since  1814; 
Whitcomb,  a  History  of  Modern  Europe  ;  Robinson,  An  Introduction  to 
the  History  of  Western  Europe  ;  MiJLLER,  Political  History  of  Recent  Times  ; 
and  JUDSON,  Europe  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Biographies  and  works  deaUng  with  some  particular  subject  or  some 
limited  portion  of  the  nineteenth  century:  Stephens,  Revolutionary 
Europe,  i'/8g-i8i^,  "  Introduction,"  for  suggestive  paragraphs  on  the 
principles  which  have  molded  nineteenth-century  history,  and  chap,  xi, 
for  the  Congress  of  Vienna ;  Malleson,  Life  of  Prince  Metternich ; 
Lowell,  Go7)ernme7its  and  Parties  in  Contitiental  Europe ;  and  Lodge, 
A  History  of  Modern  Europe,  chaps,  xxv-xxviii. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Talleyrand  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
2.  Prince  Metternich  and  his  system.  3,  Madame  Kriidener  and  the  Tsar 
Alexander  II. 


CHAPTER   XXXVI 
FRANCE  SINCE  THE  SECOND  RESTORATION  (1815-1903) 

649.  Character  of  the  Period.  — The  social  and  political  history 
of  France  since  the  second  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  may  be 
characterized  briefly.  It  has  been  simply  a  continuation  of  the 
Revolution/ — of  the  struggle  between  democratic  and  monarchical 
principles.  The  aim  of  the  Revolution  was  to  abolish  privileges 
and  establish  rights,  —  to  give  every  man  lot  and  part  in  the 
government  under  which  he  lives.  These  liberal  ideas  and  prin- 
ciples have  on  the  whole,  notwithstanding  repeated  reverses, 
gained  ground ;  for  revolutions  never  move  backward.  There 
may  be  eddies  and  countercurrents  in  a  river,  but  the  steady  and 
powerful  sweep  of  the  stream  is  ever  onward  towards  the  sea. 
Not  otherwise  is  it  with  the  great  social  and  intellectual  move- 
ments of  history. 

650.  The  Reign  of  Louis  XVIII  (181 5  [14]- 1824). —"  Your 
king,  whose  fathers  reigned  over  your  fathers  for  more  than  eight 
centuries,  now  returns  to  devote  the  rest  of  his  days  to  defend 
and  to  comfort  you." 

Such  were  the  words  used  by  Louis  upon  his  second  return  to 
his  people  after  Waterloo.  The  events  of  the  Hundred  Days  had 
instructed  and  humbled  him :  '*  I  may  have  made  mistakes,"  he 
said  frankly,  "and  probably  have  done  so." 

Profiting  by  his  experience,  Louis  ruled  throughout  a  great 
part  of  the  remainder  of  his  reign  with  reasonable  heed  to  the 
changes  effected  by  the  Revolution.  But  as  he  grew  old  and 
infirm  he  yielded  more  and  more  to  the  extreme  Royalist  party, 

1  Each  of  the  revolutions  of  the  period  may  be  characterized  as  Mettemich  charac- 
terized the  Revolution  of  1830,  namely,  "as  nothing  else  than  a  recurrence  of  the 
Revolution  of  1789." 

589 


590  FRANCE   SINCE   THE   RESTORATION 

which  was  again  raising  its  head,  and  the  government  entered  upon 
a  course  looking  to  the  restoration  of  the  old  order  of  things. 

651.  The  Reign  of  Charles  X  (1824- 1830);  the  Revolution 
of  1830. — Upon  the  death  of  Louis  in  1824  and  the  acces- 
sion of  Charles  X,  this  reactionary  pohcy  soon  became  more 
pronounced.  The  new  king  seemed  utterly  incapable  of  profiting 
by  the  teachings  of  the  past.  It  was  particularly  his  blind,  stub- 
born course  that  gave  point  to  the  saying,  "A  Bourbon  learns 
nothing  and  forgets  nothing." 

It  is  not  necessary  for  our  purpose  that  we  rehearse  in  detail 
what  Charles  did  or  what  he  failed  to  do.  His  aim  was  to  undo 
the  work  of  the  Revolution,  just  as  it  was  the  aim  of  James  II  in 
England  to  undo  the  work  of  the  Puritan  Revolution.  He  dis- 
regarded the  constitution,  restored  the  clergy  to  power,  reestab- 
Hshed  a  strict  censorship  of  the  press,  and  changed  the  laws  by 
royal  proclamation.  He  seemed  bent  on  restoring  divine-right 
monarchy  in  France.  He  declared  that  he  would  rather  saw 
wood  for  a  living  than  rule  after  the  fashion  of  the  English  kings. 

The  outcome  of  Charles'  course  might  have  been  foreseen  : 
Paris  rose  in  revolt;  the  streets  were  blocked  with  barricades; 
Charles  was  escorted  to  the  seacoast,  whence  he  took  ship  for 
England. 

France  did  not  at  this  time  think  of  a  republic.  She  was 
inclined  to  try  further  the  experiment  of  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy. Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  represented  the 
younger  branch  of  the  Bourbon  family,  was  placed  on  the  throne 
and  the  constitution  was  revised.  In  the  charter  which  Louis 
XVIII  had  granted  he  had  styled  himself  "  King  of  France  by  the 
grace  of  GodJ"  The  new  constitution  declared  Louis  Philippe  to 
be  "  King  of  the  French  by  the  grace  of  God  and  by  the  will  of 
the  nation'^  The  first  principle  of  the  Revolution  —  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  people  —  was  thus  embodied  in  the  fundamental 
law  of  France. 

Louis  Philippe  had  traveled  about  the  world  considerably 
and  had  lived  in  a  democratic  sort  of  way.  He  had  looked  on 
complacently  at  the  taking  of  the  Bastille,  had  been  in  America,  and 


THE  "JULY   REVOLUTION"  OF   1830  591 

had  taught  school  in  Switzerland.  The  middle  classes  therefore 
with  some  reason  looked  upon  him  as  one  of  themselves,  and  gave 
him  the  title  of  "  Citizen  King." 

652.  Effect  upon  Europe  of  the  *'July  Revolution"  of  1830; 
Origin  of  the  Kingdom  of  Belgium.  —  France  has  been  called  the 
Enceladus  of  Europe.  There  is  sufficient  instruction  in  the  sug- 
gested parable  to  make  it  worth  our  while  to  recall  the  myth  to 
memory.  As  fable  has  it,  Enceladus  was  one  of  the  giants  who 
made  war  upon  Olympian  Jove.  In  the  rout  of  the  giants, 
Minerva,  helping  Jove,  disabled  Enceladus  by  throwing  ^tna  on 
top  of  him  and  pinning  him  forever  to  the  earth.  The  stability 
of  things  in  Sicily  was  thereby  endangered,  for  as  often  as  the 
giant  turned  his  weary  sides  the  whole  island  was  convulsed. 

France  having  made  war  upon  the  Olympian  hierarchy  of  divine- 
right  kings  is  by  them  worsted  in  battle  and  then  pinned  to  the 
earth  with  the  weight  of  Bourbonism.  As  often  as  the  giant 
turns  his  weary  sides  there  is  an  eruption,  and  the  whole  continent, 
like  Trinacria  of  old,  trembles  to  its  remotest  verge. 

The  convulsion  in  Paris  shook  all  the  restored  thrones,  and 
for  a  moment  threatened  to  topple  into  ruins  the  whole  fabric  of 
absolutism  that  had  been  so  carefully  upreared  by  Metternich  and 
the  other  political  restorationists  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

In  the  Netherlands  the  artificial  order  established  in  1815 
(sec.  645)  was  wholly  destroyed.  The  Belgians  arose,  declared 
themselves  independent  of  Holland,  adopted  a  liberal  constitu- 
tion, and  elected  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  as  their  king  (1831). 
Thus  came  into  existence  the  separate  kingdom  of  Belgium.  The 
independence  and  neutrality  of  the  little  state  was  guaranteed  by 
all  the  great  powers. 

653.  The  Revolution  of  1848  and  the  Establishment  of  the  Second 
Republic. — The  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  up  to  1848  was  very 
unquiet,  yet  was  not  marked  by  any  disturbance  of  great  impor- 
tance. But  during  all  this  time  the  ideas  of  the  Revolution  were 
working  among  the  people,  and  the  democratic  party  was  con- 
stantly gaining  in  strength.  Finally,  there  came  a  demand  for 
the  extension  of  the  suffrage.    At  this  time  there  were  only  about 


592  FRANCE    SINCE   THE    RESTORATION 

two  hundred  thousand  voters  in  France,  the  possession  of  a  certain 
amount  of  property  being  required  as  a  qualification  for  the  fran- 
chise. The  government  steadily  refused  all  electoral  reforms. 
Guizot,  the  king's  chief  minister,  declared  that  '*  this  world  is  no 
place  for  universal  suffrage." 

Enceladus  at  last  turned  his  weary  sides.  There  was  a  convul- 
sion like  that  of  1830.  The  center  of  this  disturbance  of  course 
was  Paris.  Louis  Philippe,  thoroughly  frightened  by  the  prodigy, 
fled  to  England.  After  his  departure  the  Paris  mob  dragged  the 
throne  out  of  the  Tuileries  and  made  a  bonfire  of  it. 

The  Second  Republic  was  now  established,  with  the  poet  his- 
torian Lamartine  as  its  provisional  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
A  new  constitution,  some  features  of  which  were  copied  from  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States,  established  universal  suffrage.^ 
The  number  of  voters  was  at  a  stroke  increased  from  a  quarter  of 
a  million  to  upwards  of  eight  millions.  An  election  being  ordered, 
Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,^  a  nephew  of  the  great  Napoleon,  was 
chosen  President  of  the  new  Republic  (Dec.  10,  1848). 

The  Paris  "  February  Revolution,"  as  it  is  called,  lighted  the 
beacon  fires  of  liberty  throughout  Europe.*  *'  It  is  scarcely  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that,  during  the  month  of  March,  1848,  not 
a  single  day  passed  without  a  constitution  being  granted  some- 
where." France  had  made  another  of  her  irresistible  invasions 
of  the  states  of  Europe,  —  "  an  invasion  of  ideas." 

2  There  was  a  socialistic  element  in  this  Revolution  of  '48,  It  was  inaugurated  by 
the  working  classes  of  Paris.  One  of  the  demands  of  the  socialists  was  that  the 
government  should  find  work  for  the  unemployed.  National  workshops  were  estab- 
lished by  the  provisional  government,  but  the  experiment  was  unsuccessful  and  the 
shops  were  soon  closed. 

3  This  man  had  already  played  a  singular  role.  In  1836  he  had  appeared  suddenly 
at  Strasburg,  thinking  to  raise  the  French  garrison  there  against  the  government.  He 
was  arrested  and  banished  to  America.  Again  in  1840  the  adventurer,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  revival  of  popular  interest  in  the  first  Napoleon  caused  by  the  bringing  of 
his  ashes  from  St.  Helena  to  France,  made  a  somewhat  similar  attempt  at  revolution 
at  Boulogne.  He  was  arrested  a  second  time  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for 
life  in  the  fortress  of  Ham  in  Picardy.  After  about  five  years'  confinement  he  escaped 
and  found  his  way  to  England. 

4  The  revolution  in  Paris  was  not  so  much  the  cause  as  merely  the  signal  for  revo- 
lutions elsewhere.  It  imparted  fresh  energy  to  revolutionary  forces  which  were  ready 
to  break  forth  or  which  had  already  found  vent  in  violent  explosions. 


THE   SECOND   EMPIRE 


593 


654.  The  Second  Empire  (1852-1870). — The  Hfe  of  the  Sec- 
ond Republic  spanned  only  three  years.  By  almost  exactly  the 
same  steps  as  those  by  which  his  uncle  had  mounted  the  imperial 
throne,  Louis  Napoleon  now  also  ascended  to  the  imperial  dignity, 
crushing  the  Republic  as  he  rose. 

A  contest  having  arisen  between  the  President  and  the  National 
Assembly,  the  President  planned  a  coup  d'etat,  — a  second  Eight- 
eenth Brumaire  (sec.  607).  He  caused  the  arrest  at  night  of  the 
most  prominent  of  the  deputies  opposed  to  him  in  the  Assembly 
and  such  popular  leaders  in  Paris  as  might  incite  the  people  to 
resistance.  When  the  inhabitants  of 
the  capital  awoke  in  the  morning 
(Dec.  2,  185 1)  they  found  the  city 
placarded  with  proclamations  an- 
nouncing the  dissolution  of  the 
Assembly  and  outlining  the  main 
articles  of  a  new  constitution,  which 
was  to  be  at  once  submitted  to  the 
people  for  approval. 

The  President's  appeal  to  the 
people  to  indorse  what  he  had  done 
met  with  a  most  extraordinary  re- 
sponse. By  a  majority  of  almost 
seven  million  votes  ^  the  nation 
approved  the  President's  coup  d'etat 
and  rewarded  him  for  it  by  extend- 
ing his  term  of  office  to  ten  years.  This  was  in  effect  the  revival 
of  the  Consulate  of  1799.  The  next  year  Louis  Napoleon  was 
made  Emperor,  and  took  the  title  of  Napoleon  III  (1852). 

The  secret  of  Louis  Napoleon's  success  in  his  coup  d'etat  ^2l% 
in  part  the  fear  that  prevailed  of  the  renewal  of  the  Terror  of  '93, 
and  in  part  the  magic  power  of  the  name  he  bore.  At  just  this 
time  the  name  Napoleon  was  in  France  a  name  to  conjure  with. 
There  had  been  growing  up  a  Napoleonic  legend.  Time  had 
idealized  the  founder  of  the  First  Empire. 

*  The  exact  vote  was  7,481,216  to  684,419. 


Fig. 98.  —  Napolf.on  IIL  (After 
a  portrait  by  /'.  WititerhalUr) 


594  FRANCE  SINCE  THE   RESTORATION 

As  the  Second  and  the  Third  Republic  were  simply  revivals 
and  continuations  of  the  First  Republic,  so  was  the  Second  Em- 
pire merely  the  revival  and  continuation  of  the  First  Empire.  It 
was  virtually  the  same  in  origin,  in  spirit,  and  in  policy. 

Louis  Napoleon  had  declared  that  the  Empire  meant  peace. 
But  it  meant  anything  except  that.  The  pages  of  its  history  are 
filled  with  the  records  of  wars.  There  were  three  important  ones 
in  which  the  armies  of  the  Empire  took  part,  —  the  Crimean  War 
(185 3-1 85 6),  the  Austro-Sardinian  War  (1859),  and  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  (1870-1871). 

The  first  two  of  these  wars  need  not  detain  us  at  this  time, 
since  we  shall  speak  of  them  later  in  connection  with  Russian  and 
Italian  affairs.^  All  that  need  be  said  here  is  that  in  each  of  them 
Louis  Napoleon  greatly  enhanced  his  prestige  throughout  Europe. 

The  real  cause  of  the  third  war,  the  one  between  Prussia  and 
France,  was  French  jealousy  of  the  growing  power  of  Prussia, 
around  which  as  the  preponderant  German  state  the  unification 
of  Germany  was  fast  proceeding. 

Louis  Napoleon,  now  aging  and  broken  in  health,  was  himself 
averse  to  the  war.  But  he  was  forced  into  it  by  the  mad  clamor 
of  Paris  and  the  vehemence  of  the  war  party  throughout  the  coun- 
try. Even  the  Empress  Eugenie  was  eager  for  war,  since  she 
beHeved  that  thereby  the  Empire  would  be  strengthened  in  the 
affections  of  the  French  people  and  the  succession  of  her  son  to 
the  imperial  throne  assured. 

With  everything  in  a  state  of  culpable  and  incredible  unreadi- 
ness, although  the  highest  mihtary  authority  had  declared  that  the 
army  was  ready  and  more  than  ready,  France,  "with  a  light 
heart,"  plunged  into  the  fateful  war.  The  French  had  no  other 
thought  than  that  their  armies  would  repeat  the  campaign  of  Jena 
and  Auerstadt  (sec.  624).  "  Down  with  Prussia  !  On  to  BerHn  !  " 
was  the  cry. 

There  came  a  quick  and  terrible  disillusionment.  A  single  small 
column  of  French  soldiers  was  barely  able  to  set  foot  for  a  moment 
on  German  soil.  In  a  few  days  after  the  French  declaration  of 
6  See  sees.  694  and  722. 


THE  SECOND   EMPIRE  595 

war  the  great  German  hosts  had  been  gathered.  Three  immense 
armies,  numbering  half  a  million  of  men,  all  animated  by  the 
spirit  of  18 13,  swept  over  the  frontier. 

One  large  French  army  was  defeated  in  the  memorable  battle 
of  Gravelotte  (Aug.  18,  1870)  and  shut  up  in  Metz.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  surrender  at  Sedan,  where  eighty-three  thousand  men, 
including  the  Emperor  himself,  gave  themselves  up  as  prisoners 
of  war^  (Sept.  2,  1870). 

The  German  columns  now  advanced  to  Paris  and  began  the 
investment  of  the  city  (Sept.  19,  1870).  All  reasonable  hope  of 
a  successful  defense  of  the  capital  was  soon  destroyed  by  the  sur- 
render to  the  Germans  of  Marshal  Bazaine  at  Metz  (Oct.  23, 
1870).  One  hundred  and  seventy-three  thousand  soldiers  and 
six  thousand  officers  became  prisoners  of  war,  —  the  largest  army 
ever  taken  captive. 

But  Paris  held  out  stubbornly,  with  great  suffering  from  cold 
and  hunger,  three  months  longer;  and  then,  all  outside  measures 
for  raising  the  siege  having  failed,  capitulated  (Jan.  30,  1871). 

Outside  of  Paris,  at  Bordeaux,  was  a  sort  of  provisional  govern- 
ment headed  by  M.  Thiers,  which  had  been  organized  after  the 
capture  of  the  Emperor.  With  this  body  the  conquerors  carried 
on  their  negotiations  for  peace.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  were 
that  France  should  surrender  to  Germany  the  Rhenish  province 
of  Alsace  and  one  half  of  Lorraine,  pay  an  indemnity  of  five 
thousand  million  francs  (about  ;?  1,000,000,000),  and  consent  to 
the  occupation  of  certain  portions  of  French  territory  until  the 
fine  was  paid.    Never  before  was  such  a  ransom  paid  by  a  nation. 

The  most  lamentable  part  of  the  struggle  now  began.  The 
Red  Republicans  or  Communists  of  Paris,®  rising  in  insurrection 
against  the  provisional  government  both  because  of  what  it  repre- 
sented —  the  cause  and  programme  of  the  conservative,  property- 
holding  classes  —  and  because  of  its  action  in  assenting  to  the 

'  After  the  war  Louis  Napoleon  found  an  asylum  in  England  (at  Chiselhurst), 
where  he  died  Jan.  9,  1873. 

8  The  strength  of  this  party  lay  in  the  workingmen  of  Paris.  It  was  the  heir  of 
the  extreme  RepubHcan  party  of  184S  (sec.  653,  n.  2)  and  in  a  sense  the  precursor  of 
the  socialist  party  found  to  day  in  almost  every  country. 


596  THE   SECOND   RESTORATION 

dismemberment  of  France,  organized  a  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
in  imitation  of  that  of  1793,  and  called  the  population  of  the  cap- 
ital to  arms.  The  government  finally  succeeded  in  suppressing 
the  insurgents,  and  order  was  restored,  though  only  after  the  de- 
struction by  fire  of  many  public  buildings,  and  frightful  slaughters 
in  the  streets  and  squares  of  the  city. 

655.  The  Third  Republic  (1870-  ). — The  provisional  gov- 
ernment which  replaced  the  Empire  was  republican  in  form. 
M.  Thiers,  the  historian,  was  the  first  President  (187 1 -187 3).  But 
not  until  1875  was  it  definitely  decided  that  France  should  be  a 
republic  and  not  a  monarchy  or  an  empire.  In  that  year  a  consti- 
tution^ was  adopted,  the  tenth  since  1791,  which  provided  defi- 
nitely for  a  republican  form  of  government. 

France  has  now  (1905)  been  under  the  government  of  the 
Third  Republic  for  thirty-five  years,  a  longer  period  of  freedom 
from  revolution  than  any  other  since  1792.  The  current  of  polit- 
ical events,  however,  has  during  this  time  run  somewhat  turbu- 
lently.  There  have  been  many  changes  of  presidents'^  and  of 
ministries,  and  much  party  rancor  has  been  displayed ;  yet  in 
spite  of  all  untoward  circumstances  the  cause  of  the  Republic  has 
steadily  advanced,  while  that  of  the  Monarchy  and  that  of  the 
Empire  have  as  steadily  gone  backward.  Bourbons  and  Bona- 
partes,  like  Stuarts,  have  gone  into  an  exile  from  which  there  is 
no  return. 

Many  of  the  difficulties  and  problems  which  have  confronted 
the  RepubHc  were  legacies  to  it  from  the  Monarchy  and  the 
Empire,  or  more  directly  from  the  Franco-Prussian  War. 

An  unfortunate  heritage  from  the  war  that  destroyed  the 
Empire  is  the  Alsace  and  Lorraine  question.    The  French  people 

9  This  constitution  is  not,  like  our  own,  a  single  document,  but  consists  of  a  series 
of  laws  passed  at  different  times.  As  it  now  (1905)  stands  it  provides  for  a  legis- 
lature of  two  chambers,  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  a  President  elected  for 
seven  years  by  the  chambers  in  a  joint  meeting,  and  a  Cabinet  responsible  to  the 
legislature.    The  suffrage  is  universal. 

10  These  are  the  presidents  of  the  Republic  since  the  resignation  of  Thiers  in 
1873:  Marshal  MacMahon  (resigned),  1873-1879;  M.  Grevy  (resigned),  1879-1887; 
M.  Carnot  (assassinated),  1887-1894;  M.  Casimir-Perier  (resigned),  1894-1895;  M. 
Felix  Faure  (died  in  office),  1895-1899;  and  M.  Loubet  (1899-        ). 


THE  THIRD    REPUBLIC  597 

have  never  been  able  to  reconcile  themselves  to  the  loss  of  these 
provinces,  and  their  determination  to  regain  them  has  contributed 
largely  to  convert  France,  and  the  whole  Continent  as  well,  into 
a  pennanent  armed  camp,  and  to  make  times  of  peace  almost  as 
burdensome  to  the  nations  as  times  of  war. 

A  second  legacy  to  the  Republic  was  influential  parties  of 
Monarchists  and  Imperialists,  who  have  endeavored  in  every 
way  to  discredit  the  republican  regime,  and  who  have  watched 
for  an  opportunity  to  set  up  again  either  the  Monarchy  or  the 
Empire.  The  dangerous  intrigues  of  these  parties  led  in  1886 
to  the  expulsion  from  France  of  all  the  Bourbon  and  Bonaparte 
claimants  of  the  throne  and  their  direct  heirs. 

A  third  bequest  to  the  Republic  from  the  ancient  regime  was  the 
educational  problem.  Before  the  Revolution,  education  in  France 
was  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  religious  orders.  The  Revolution 
swept  away  these  bodies  and  secularized  the  educational  system. 

The  restoration  of  the  Monarchy  brought  about  also  the  res- 
toration of  the  religious  orders.  The  system  of  education  was 
now  mixed,  being  in  part  lay  and  in  part  clerical.  Two  wholly 
different  spirits  were  at  work  in  it,  —  the  spirit  of  the  ancient, 
and  the  spirit  of  the  modern,  regime.  Among  the  Liberals  a 
strong  section  demanded  the  suppression  of  the  clerical  schools 
and  the  complete  secularization  of  education. 

The  first  of  the  religious  associations  to  suffer  was  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  In  1880  the  convents  and  schools  of  the  Jesuits  were 
closed  and  the  society  was  expelled  from  France.  In  1903  fifty- 
four  religious  orders  of  men,  embracing  teaching,  preaching,  and 
commercial  associations,  were  suppressed.  Over  two  thousand 
convents  were  closed.  The  wisdom  as  well  as  the  justice  of  this 
censorship  of  teaching  may  well  be  questioned. 

The  Republic  has  also  had  troubles  which  can  in  no  sense  be 
regarded  as  an  inheritance  from  the  ancient  regime.  During  the 
years  1889-189  2  all  France  was  shaken  by  a  great  scandal  arising 
from  the  gross  mismanagement  and  failure  of  a  company  organ- 
ized by  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  who  had  won  great  fame  by  the 
successful  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal,  for  the  digging  of  a 


598  THE   SECOND   RESTORATION 

similar  canal  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  After  the  expenditure  of 
upwards  of  ^260,000,000,  with  the  work  in  a  very  unsatisfactory- 
condition,  the  company  became  bankrupt.  It  then  developed  that 
bribery  and  corruption  on  a  scale  as  gigantic  as  the  undertaking 
itself  had  been  resorted  to  by  the  promoters  of  the  enterprise. 
Prosecutions  followed.  Among  those  condemned  to  severe  punish- 
ment was  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  himself.  He  was  already  dying 
from  age  and  worry  when  this  final  blow  fell  upon  him.  It  was  a 
pathetic  ending  of  a  career  which,  aside  from  this  last  deplorable 
incident,  is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  in  modern  French  history.^* 
As  to  the  part  which  France  has  taken  in  recent  colonial  enter- 
prises, particularly  in  the  opening  up  to  civilization  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa,  we  shall  find  it  more  convenient  to  speak  in  another 
connection  (Chapter  XLIII). 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Forbes,  My  Experience  of  the  War 
between  France  and  Germany ;  BiNGHAM,  Journal  of  the  Siege  of  Paris. 
A  graphic  account  of  the  siege  by  an  Englishman  who  remained  in  Paris 
in  order  "  to  observe  the  conduct  of  the  citizens."  For  material  for  a 
systematic  study  of  the  period,  the  special  student  should  turn  to  Ander- 
son, Constitutions  and  other  Select  Documents. 

Secondary  Works.  —  In  most  of  the  works  cited  for  the  preceding 
chapter  will  be  found  chapters  and  sections  deahng  with  French  affairs 
during  the  period  under  review.  To  these  authorities  add  the  following : 
Martin,  A  Popular  History  of  France,  vols,  ii  (last  part)  and  iii ;  Hanotaux, 
Contemporary  France ;  BoDLEY,  France  (a  study  of  political  institutions) ; 
Dickinson,  Revolution  and  Reaction  in  Modern  France;  Coubertin,  7'he 
Evolution  of  France  tinder  the  Third  Republic ;  and  Lebon  and  Pelet, 
France  as  it  is. 

For  the  Second  Empire ;  Jerrold,  The  Life  of  Napoleon  III,  and 
Forbes,  The  Life  of  Napoleon  the  Third. 

For  brief  summaries  of  the  events  of  the  period  :  Lebon,  Modern  France, 
chaps,  viii-xvi;  Duruy,  A  History  of  France ;  Adams,  The  Growth  of  the 
French  Nation,  chap,  xviii ;  and  Hassall,  The  French  People,  chaps,  xviii- 
xxi  and  xxiii. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Louis  Napoleon  before  1848.  2.  The 
Paris  Commune  of  187 1.  3.  Alfred  Dreyfus.  4.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps 
and  the  Panama  Canal.     5.  France  and  the  Vatican. 

11  Another  unfortunate  affair  belonging  to  this  period  is  the  case  of  Alfred  Drey- 
fus, a  young  Jewish  captain  of  artillery  in  the  French  army,  who  became  the  victim  of 
a  cruel  and  unjust  sentence  by  a  military  court.    The  story  is  too  long  for  recital  here. 


.r:  i"^ 


Fig.  99.  —  Queen  Victoria  as  a  Young  Woman 
(After  a  painting  by  Patridge) 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 
ENGLAND  SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO  (1815-1905) 

656.  The  Four  Chief  Matters.  —  English  history  during  the  nine- 
teenth century  embraces  a  multitude  of  events.  A  short  chapter 
covering  the  entire  period  will  possess  no  instructive  value  unless 
it  reduces  the  heterogeneous  mass  of  facts  to  some  sort  of  unity 
by  placing  events  in  relation  with  their  causes,  and  thus  shows 
how  they  are  connected  with  a  few  broad  national  movements 
or  tendencies. 

Studying  the  period  in  this  way,  we  shall  find  that  very  many 
of  its  leading  events  may  be  summed  up  under  the  four  follow- 
ing heads:  (i)  progress  towards  democracy;  (2)  extension  of 
the  principle  of  religious  equality ;  (3)  England's  relations  with 
Ireland ;  and  (4)  the  growth  of  the  British  colonial  empire. 

We  shall  attempt  nothing  more  in  the  present  chapter  than  to 
indicate  the  most  prominent  matters  that  should  claim  the  stu- 
dent's attention  along  the  first  three  lines  of  inquiry,  reserving 
for  later  sections  the  consideration  of  England's  colonial  affairs. 

599 


600     ENGLAND   SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO 

I.  Progress  towards  Democracy 

657.  Introductory. — The  English  Revolution  of  1688  trans- 
ferred authority  from  the  king  to  the  Parliament.  The  elective 
branch  of  that  body,  however,  rested  upon  a  very  narrow  elect- 
oral basis.  Out  of  upwards  of  five  million  Englishmen  who  should 
have  had  a  voice  in  the  government,  less  than  two  hundred  thou- 
sand were  voters,  and  these  were  chiefly  of  the  rich  upper  classes. 
The  political  democratizing  of  England  during  the  nineteenth 
century  consists  in  the  widening  of  the  electorate,  —  in  the  giving 
to  every  intelligent  and  honest  man  a  right  to  vote,  to  participate 
in  the  government  under  which  he  lives. 

658.  Effects  of  the  French  Revolution  upon  Liberalism  in  Eng- 
land ;  Reform  versus  Revolution.  —  The  French  Revolution  at 
first  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  liberal  tendencies.  The  English 
Liberals  watched  the  course  of  the  French  Repubhcans  with  the 
deepest  interest  and  sympathy.  It  will  be  recalled  how  the  states- 
man Fox  rejoiced  at  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  and  what  auguries  of 
hope  he  saw  in  that  event  (sec.  567).  The  young  writers,  Cole- 
ridge, Wordsworth,  and  Southey,  were  all  infected  with  democratic 
sentiments  and  inspired  with  a  generous  enthusiasm  for  political 
liberty  and  equality.  But  the  wild  excesses  of  the  French  levelers 
terrified  the  English  Liberals.  There  was  a  sudden  revulsion  of 
feeling.  Liberal  sentiments  were  denounced  as  dangerous  and 
revolutionary. 

But  in  a  few  years  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  the  terrors  of 
the  French  Revolution  were  forgotten.  Liberal  sentiments  began 
to  spread  among  the  masses.  The  people  very  justly  complained 
that,  while  the  English  government  claimed  to  be  a  government 
of  the  people,  they  had  no  part  in  it. 

Now,  it  is  instructive  to  note  the  different  ways  in  which 
Liberalism  was  dealt  with  by  the  English  government  and  by 
the  rulers  on  the  Continent.  In  the  continental  countries  the 
rising  spirit  of  democracy  was  met  by  cruel  and  despotic  repres- 
sions. The  people  were  denied  by 'their  rulers  all  participation 
in  the  affairs  of  government.    We  have  seen  the  result  of  this 


THE   REFORM   BILL  OF   1832  6oi 

policy  in  France,  and  later  shall  see  the  outcome  of  it  in  other 
continental  countries.  l>iberalism  triumphed  indeed  at  last,  but 
triumphed  only  through  revolution. 

In  England  the  government  did  not  resist  the  popular  demands 
to  the  point  of  revolution.  It  made  timely  concessions  to  the 
growing  spirit  of  democracy.  Hence  here,  instead  of  a  series  of 
revolutions  we  have  a  series  of  reform  measures  which,  gradually 
popularizing  the  House  of  Commons,  at  last  rendered  the  English 
nation,  not  alone  in  name  but  in  reality,  a  self-governing  people. 

659.  The  Reform  Bill  of  1832.  — The  first  Parliamentary  step 
in  reform  was  taken  in  1832.  To  understand  this  important  act 
a  glance  backward  becomes  necessary. 

When,  in  1265,  the  Commons  were  first  admitted  to  Parlia- 
ment, members  were  called  only  from  those  cities  and  boroughs 
whose  wealth  and  population  fairly  entitled  them  to  representa- 
tion. In  the  course  of  time  some  of  these  places  dwindled  in 
population  and  new  towns  sprang  up ;  yet  the  decayed  boroughs 
retained  their  ancient  privilege  of  sending  members  to  Parlia- 
ment, while  the  new  towTis  were  left  entirely  without  represen- 
tation. Thus  Old  Sarum,  an  ancient  town  now  utterly  decayed 
and  without  a  single  inhabitant,  was  represented  in  the  Commons 
by  two  members.  '  Furthermore,  the  sovereign,  for  the  purpose 
of  gaining  influence  in  the  Commons,  had,  from  time  to  time, 
given  unimportant  places  the  right  of  returning  members  to  the 
Lower  House.  It  was  inevitable  that  elections  in  these  small  or 
"pocket  boroughs,"  as  they  were  called,  should  almost  always 
be  determined  by  the  corrupt  influence  of  the  crown  or  of  the 
great  landowners.  The  Lower  House  of  Parliament  was  thus 
filled  with  the  nominees  of  the  king,  or  with  persons  who  had 
bought  their  seats,  often  with  little  effort  at  concealment.  At 
the  same  time,  such  large,  recently-grown  manufacturing  towns 
as  Birmingham,  Leeds,  and  Manchester  had  no  representation 
at  all  in  the  Commons. 

Agitation  was  begun  for  the  reform  of  this  corrupt  and  farcical 
system  of  representation.  The  movement  was  greatly  aided  and 
given  a  more  popular  character  than  any  earlier  reform  agitation 


602    ENGLAND  SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO 

by  the  great  newspapers  which  had  come  into  existence  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  contest  between 
Whigs  and  Tories,  or  Liberals  and  Conservatives,  was  long  and 
bitter,  the  Conservatives  opposing  all  reform  and  denying  that 
there  was  any  necessity  for  it.  The  excited  state  of  the  pubHc 
feeling  may  be  inferred  from  the  following  description  by  Lord 
Macaulay  of  the  scene  in  the  House  of  Commons  upon  the  pas- 
sage in  that  chamber  of  the  first  Reform  Bill  (183 1)  :  "Such  a 
scene  as  the  division  of  last  Tuesday,"  he  says,  "  I  never  saw, 
and  never  expect  to  see  again.  ...  It  was  like  seeing  Caesar 
stabbed  in  the  Senate-house,  or  seeing  Oliver  taking  the  mace 
from  the  table;  a  sight  to  be  seen  only  once,  and  never  to  be 
forgotten.  .  .  .  The  ayes  and  noes  were  like  two  volleys  of 
cannon  from  opposite  sides  of  a  field  of  battle." 

At  last  public  feeling  became  so  strong  and  menacing  that  the 
Lords,  who  were  blocking  the  measure  in  the  Upper  House,  were 
forced  to  yield,  and  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  became  a  law.  By 
this  act  the  English  electoral  system  was  radically  changed. 
Eighty-six  of  the  "  rotten  boroughs  "  were  disfranchised  or  semi- 
disfranchised  and  the  hundred  and  forty-two  seats  in  the  Lower 
House  taken  from  them  were  given  to  different  counties  and  to 
large  towns  hitherto  unrepresented.  The  bill  also  somewhat 
increased  the  number  of  electors  by  extending  the  right  of  voting 
to  all  persons  in  the  towns  owning  or  leasing  property  of  a  cer- 
tain value,  and  by  lowering  the  property  quahfication  of  voters  in 
the  counties. 

The  importance  of  this  reform  bill  can  hardly  be  exaggerated. 
It  is  the  Magna  Carta  of  English  political  democracy.^ 

1  The  reform  of  the  House  of  Commons  gave  an  impulse  to  legislation  of  an 
humanitarian  and  popular  character.  In  1833  an  act  was  passed  in  the  British  Com- 
mons for  the  abolition  of  slavery.  Nearly  800,000  slaves,  chiefly  in  the  British  West 
Indies,  were  freed  at  a  cost  to  the  English  nation  of  ;^2o,ooo,ooo.  This  same  year 
(1833)  the  first  effective  Factory  Act  was  passed.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  long 
series  of  laws  which  gradually  corrected  the  almost  incredible  abuses,  particularly 
in  connection  with  the  employment  of  children,  which  had  crept  into  the  English 
factory  system.  A  similar  series  of  laws  regulated  labor  in  the  mines.  Also  this  same 
year  Parliament  voted  an  annual  grant  of  ^20,000  to  aid  in  the  erection  of  school- 
houses.    This  was  the  first  step  taken  by  the  EngUsh  government  in  the  promotion  of 


THE   MUNICIPAL  REFORM   ACT  OF  1835         603 

660.  The  Municipal  Reform  Act  of  1835. — The  government 
of  the  English  towns  of  this  period  needed  reform  as  urgently  as 
had  the  British  Parliament.  This  municipal  system  was  a  system 
inherited  from  the  Middle  Ages.  Most  of  the  towns  were  ruled  by 
corrupt  ohgarchies.  Long  agitation  for  their  overthrow  resulted 
in  the  passing  of  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  of  1835.  I^^is  act 
accomplished  for  the  government  of  the  cities  what  the  Reform  Bill 
of  1832  had  effected  for  the  general  government  of  the  kingdom. 
It  transformed  the  cities  from  grotesque,  iniquitous  oligarchies 
into  something  like  democracies,  wherein  the  government  was  in 
the  hands  of  a  mayor  and  a  council  elected  by  the  townsmen. 

661.  Chartism:  the  Revolutionary  Year  of  1848. — Although 
the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  was  almost  revolutionary  in  the  princi- 
ple it  established,  still  it  went  only  a  little  way  in  the  application 
of  that  principle.  It  admitted  to  the  franchise  the  middle  classes 
only.  The  great  laboring  class  were  given  no  part  in  the  govern- 
ment. They  now  began  an  agitation,  characterized  by  much 
bitterness,  known  as  Chartism,  from  a  document  called  the 
"  People's  Charter,"  which  embodied  the  reforms  they  desired. 
These  were  "universal  suffrage,  vote  by  ballot,  annual  parlia- 
ments, the  division  of  the  country  into  equal  electoral  districts, 
the  abolition  of  the  property  qualification  of  members,  and  pay- 
ment for  their  services." 

The  agitation  for  these  changes  in  the  constitution  went  on 
with  more  or  less  violence  until  1848,  in  which  year,  encouraged 
by  the  revolutions  then  shaking  almost  every  throne  on  the 
European  continent,  the  Chartists  indulged  in  riotous  demonstra- 
tions, which  frightened  the  law-abiding  citizens  and  brought 
discredit  upon  themselves.  Their  organization  now  fell  to  pieces. 
The  reforms,  however,  which  they  had  labored  to  secure,  were,  in 
the  main,  desirable  and  just,  and  the  most  important  of  them  have 
since  been  adopted  and  made  a  part  of  the  English  constitution. 

public  education.  In  1846  England,  by  the  repeal  of  her  "  corn  la%vs,"  abandoned  the 
commercial  policy  of  protection,  which  favored  the  great  landowners,  and  adopted 
that  of  free  trade.  The  chief  advocates  of  this  important  measure  were  Richard 
Cobden  and  John  Bright.  The  enactment  of  the  law  was  hastened  by  the  blight  of 
the  potato  crop  in  Ireland  and  consequent  famine  in  the  island. 


604    ENGLAND  SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO 

662.  The  Reform  Bill  of  1867  and  the  Education  Act  of  1870. 

—  The  Reform  Bill  of  1867  was  simply  another  step  taken  by 
the  English  government  in  the  direction  of  the  Reform  Bill  of 
1832.  Like  that  measure,  it  was  passed  only  after  long  and  vio- 
lent agitation  and  discussion  both  without  and  within  the  walls 
of  Parliament.  The  main  effect  of  the  bill  was  the  extension  of 
the  right  of  voting,  —  the  enfranchisement  of  the  great  "  fourth 
estate." 

As  after  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  so  now  the  attention  of  Par- 
liament was  directed  to  the  matter  of  public  instruction ;  for  all 
recognized  that  universal  education  must  go  along  with  universal 
suffrage.  Three  years  after  the  passage  of  this  second  reform 
bill.  Parliament  passed  an  education  act  (1870)  which  aimed  to 
provide  an  elementary  education  for  every  child  in  the  British 
Isles  by  investing  the  local  authorities  with  power  to  establish  and 
maintain  schools  and  compel  the  attendance  of  the  children. 

663.  The  Reform  Bill  of  1884. — One  of  the  conservative 
leaders,  the  Earl  of  Derby,  in  the  discussions  upon  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1867,  said,  "  No  doubt  we  are  making  a  great  experiment, 
and  taking  a  leap  in  the  dark."  Just  seventeen  years  after  the 
passage  of  that  bill  the  English  people  were  ready  to  take  another 
leap.  But  they  were  not  now  leaping  in  the  dark.  The  wisdom 
and  safety  of  admitting  the  lower  classes  to  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment had  been  demonstrated. 

In  1884  Mr.  Gladstone,  then  Prime  Minister,  introduced  and 
pushed  to  a  successful  vote  a  new  reform  bill  more  radical  and 
sweeping  in  its  provisions  than  any  preceding  one.  It  increased 
the  number  of  voters  from  about  three  millions  to  five  milHons. 
The  quahfication  of  voters  in  the  counties  was  made  the  same  as 
that  required  of  voters  in  the  boroughs.  Hence  its  effect  was  to 
enfranchise  the  great  agricultural  classes. 

A  redistribution  bill,  which  was  passed  in  connection  with  the 
reform  bill,  rearranged  the  electoral  districts  in  such  manner 
that  the  Commons  should  more  fairly  represent  the  popular  will. 
The  number  of  members  from  the  boroughs  was  lessened  and  the 
number  from  the  counties  increased. 


REFORM  OF  RURAL  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT     605 

664.  The  Reform  of  Rural  Local  Government. — Parliament 
and  the  government  of  the  municipalities  were  now  fairly  democ- 
ratized. The  rural  districts  were  the  last  to  feel  the  influence  of 
the  liberal  movement  that  was  so  profoundly  reconstructing  in 
the  interest  of  the  masses  the  governmental  institutions  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  But  the  movement  finally  reached  these,  and 
the  work  of  democratic  reconstruction  has  been  rounded  out  and 
completed  by  different  acts  of  Parliament,^  which  have  put  more 
directly  into  the  hands  of  the  people  of  each  of  the  smaller  sub- 
divisions of  the  realm  the  management  of  their  local  affairs. 

665.  Only  the  Forms  of  Monarchy  remain The  English  gov- 
ernment in  its  local  as  well  as  in  its  national  branches  is  now  in 
reality  as  democratic  as  our  own.  Only  the  forms  of  the  aristo- 
cratic monarchy  remain.  It  does  not  seem  possible  that  these, 
in  spite  of  the  English  love  of  ancient  forms,  can  always  with- 
stand the  encroachments  of  democracy.  Hereditary  right  and 
privilege,  as  represented  by  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  Crown, 
must  in  time  be  abolished.  Even  now  whenever  the  Lords  attempt 
to  thwart  the  will  of  the  Commons  there  are  ominous  threats  of 
abolishing  the  Upper  House,  as  at  present  constituted.  It  seems 
inevitable  that  these  monarchical  and  aristocratic  forms,  repre- 
senting as  they  do  an  old  order  of  things,  should  give  way  to 
purely  modern  democratic  institutions ;  for,  as  the  advocates  of 
popular  self-government  maintain,  the  republic  is  the  logical  form 
of  the  democratic  state. 


II.    Extension  of  the  Principle  of  Religious 
Equality 

666.  Religious  Freedom  and  Religious  Equality.  —  Alongside 
the  political  movement  traced  in  the  preceding  section  ran  a  similar 
one  in  the  religious  realm.  This  was  a  growing  recognition  by  the 
English  people  of  the  true  principle  of  religious  toleration. 

2  The  most  important  of  these  statutes  are  the  Local  Government  Act  of  i888  (for 
England  and  Wales),  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1889  (for  Scotland),  the  Local 
Government  Act  of  189S  (for  Ireland),  and  the  Parish  Council  Act  of  1894. 


6o6    ENGLAND  SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO 

At  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  in  England 
rehgious  freedom,  but  no  religious  equaHty.  That  is  to  say,  one 
might  be  a  Catholic  or  a  Protestant  dissenter  without  fear  of 
persecution.  Dissent  from  the  Established  Church  was  not  unlaw- 
ful; but  one's  being  a  Catholic  or  a  Protestant  nonconformist 
disqualified  him  from  holding  certain  public  offices.  Where  there 
exists  such  discrimination  against  any  religious  sect,  or  where 
any  one  sect  is  favored  or  sustained  by  the  government,  there  of 
course  is  no  religious  equality^  although  there  may  be  religious 
freedom. 

Progress  in  this  direction,  then,  will  consist  in  the  growth  of  a 
really  tolerant  spirit,  which  shall  lead  to  the  removal  of  all  civil 
disabilities  from  Catholics,  Protestant  dissenters  and  Jews,  and 
the  placing  of  all  sects  on  an  absolute  equality  before  the  law. 

667.  Methodism  and  its  Effects  upon  Toleration.  —  One  thing 
that  helped  to  bring  prominently  forward  the  question  of  emanci- 
pating nonconformists  from  the  civil  disabilities  under  which  they 
were  placed,  was  the  great  religious  movement  known  as  Metho- 
dism (sec.  539).  By  vastly  increasing  the  body  of  Protestant  dis- 
senters, Methodism  gave  new  strength  to  the  agitation  for  the 
repeal  of  the  laws  which  bore  so  heavily  upon  them.  So  now 
began  a  series  of  legislative  acts  which  made  a  more  and  more 
perfect  application  of  the  great  principle  of  religious  equality. 
We  shall  simply  refer  to  two  or  three  of  the  most  important  of 
these  measures. 

668.  Disabilities  removed  from  Protestant  Dissenters  (1828).  — 
One  of  the  earliest  and  most  important  of  the  acts  of  Parliament 
in  this  century  in  recognition  of  the  principle  of  religious  equality 
was  the  repeal  of  the  Corporation  and  Test  acts,  in  so  far  as  they 
bore  upon  Protestant  dissenters.  These  were  acts  passed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II,  which  required  every  officer  of  a  corporation, 
and  all  persons  holding  civil  and  military  positions,  to  take  cer- 
tain oaths  and  partake  of  the  communion  according  to  the  rites 
of  the  Anglican  Church.  It  is  true  that  these  laws  were  not  now 
strictly  enforced  ;  nevertheless,  the  laws  were  invidious  and  vexa- 
tious, and  the  Protestant  dissenters  demanded  their  repeal. 


DISABILITIES  REMOVED  FROM  CATHOLICS      607 

Those  opposed  to  the  repeal  argued  that  the  principle  of  reli- 
gious toleration  did  not  require  it.  They  insisted  that,  where 
every  one  has  perfect  freedom  of  worship,  it  is  no  infringement 
of  the  principle  of  toleration  for  the  government  to  refuse  to 
employ  as  a  public  servant  one  who  dissents  from  the  State 
Church.  The  result  of  the  debate  in  Parliament  was  the  repeal 
of  such  parts  of  the  ancient  acts  as  it  was  necessary  to  rescind  in 
order  to  relieve  Protestant  dissenters. 

669.  Disabilities  removed  from  the  Catholics  (1829). — The 
bill  of  1828  gave  no  relief  to  Catholics.  They  were  still  excluded 
from  Parliament  and  various  civil  offices  by  the  declarations  of 
beHef  and  the  oaths  required  of  office  holders,  —  declarations  and 
oaths  which  no  good  Catholic  could  conscientiously  make.^  They 
now  demanded  that  the  same  concessions  be  made  them  that  had 
been  granted  Protestant  dissenters. 

A  threatened  revolt  on  the  part  of  the  Irish  Catholics  hurried 
through  Parliament  the  progress  of  what  was  known  as  the  "  Cath- 
olic Emancipation  Act."  This  law  opened  Parliament  and  all 
the  offices  of  the  kingdom,  below  the  Crown,  —  save  that  of 
Regent,  of  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  England  and  Ireland,  of 
Lord  Deputy  of  Ii eland,  and  a  few  others, — to  the  Catholic 
subjects  of  the  realm. 

670.  Disabilities  removed  from  the  Jews  (1858). — Persons 
professing  the  Jewish  religion  were  still  laboring  under  all  the  dis- 
abilities which  had  now  been  removed  from  Protestant  dissenters 
and  Catholics.  In  1858  an  act  (Jewish  Relief  Act)  was  passed  by 
Parliament  which  so  changed  the  oath  required  of  a  person  taking 
office  —  the  oath  contained  the  words,  "  Upon  the  true  faith  of  a 
Christian  "  —  as  to  open  all  public  positions,  except  a  few  special 
offices,  to  persons  of  the  Jewish  faith. 

671.  Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church  (1869).  —  Forty 
years  after  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  the  English  govern- 
ment took  another  great  step  in  the  direction  of  religious  equality 
by  the  disestablishment  of  the  State  Church  in  Ireland. 

8  In  England  Catholics  were  excluded  from  the  privilege  of  voting  as  well  as  from 
the  holding  of  office. 


6o8    ENGLAND  SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO 


'IJSfty." 


The  Irish  have  always  and  steadily  refused  to  accept  the  religion 
which  their  English  conquerors  have  somehow  felt  constrained  to 
try  to  force  upon  them.  The  vast  majority  of  the  people  are 
to-day,  and  ever  have  been,  Catholics ;  yet  up  to  the  time  where 
we  have  now  arrived  these  Irish  Catholics  had  been  compelled 
to  pay  tithes  and  fees  for  the  maintenance  among  them  of  the 
Anglican   Church  worship.    Meanwhile   their   own   churches,   in 

which  the  great  masses  were 
instructed  and  cared  for 
spiritually,  had  to  be  kept  up 
by  voluntary  contributions. 

The  rank  injustice  in  thus 
forcing  the  Irish  Catholics  to 
support  a  Church  in  which 
they  not  only  did  not  believe 
but  which  they  regarded  with 
special  aversion  and  hatred 
as  the  symbol  of  their  sub- 
jection and  persecution,  was 
perceived  and  declaimed 
against  by  many  among  the 
English  Protestants  them- 
selves. 

The  proposal  to  do  away 
with  this  grievance  by  the 
disestablishment  of  the  State 
Church  in  Ireland  was  bit- 
terly opposed  by  the  Con- 
servatives, headed  by  Lord 
Derby  and  Mr.  Disraeli ;  but 
at  length,  after  a  memorable 
debate,  the  Liberals,  under  the  lead  of  Bright  and  Gladstone,  the 
latter  then  Prime  Minister,  carried  the  measure.  This  was  in 
1869,  but  the  actual  disestablishment  was  not  to  take  place  until 
the  year  187 1,  at  which  time  the  Irish  Church,  ceasing  to  exist 
as  a  state  institution,  became  a  free  Episcopal  Church.     The 


Fig.  100.  —  Lord  Beaconsfield  (Dis- 
raeli), "The  Courtier  Premier" 
(From  the  monument  in  Westminster 
Abbey) 


ENGLAND'S    RELATIONS    WITH    IRELAND       609 

historian  May  pronounces  this  "  the  most  important  ecclesiastical 
matter  since  the  Reformation." 

672.  Proposed  Disestablishment  of  the  State  Church  in  England 
and  Scotland.  —  The  perfect  application  of  the  principle  of  reli- 
gious equality  demands,  in  the  opinion  of  many  English  Liberals, 
the  disestablishment  of  the  State  Church  in  England  and  Scotland.* 
They  feel  that  for  the  government  to  maintain  any  particular  sect 
is  to  give  the  state  a  monopoly  in  religion.  They  would  have  the 
churches  of  all  denominations  placed  on  an  absolute  equality. 
Especially  in  Scotland  is  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  disestablishment 
very  strong. 

III.  England's  Relations  with  Ireland 

673.  Legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (1800).  — 
The  history  of  Ireland  in  the  nineteenth  century,  like  her  history 
in  all  preceding  centuries,  is  in  the  main  a  story  of  Irish  grievances 
against  England.  These  grievances  have  for  the  most  part  arisen 
out  of  three  distinct  yet  closely  related  subject-matters,  —  religion, 
Home  Rule,  and  the  land.  Concerning  the  religious  grievances 
of  the  Irish  and  their  redress  we  have  already  spoken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  general  religious  emancipation  movement  in  Eng- 
land. For  an  understanding  of  the  subject  of  Irish  Home  Rule 
a  glance  backward  at  Irish  parliamentary  history  is  necessary. 

Ireland,  it  will  be  recalled,  secured  legislative  independence  of 
England  in  1782  (sec.  542).  When,  a  little  later.  Napoleon  came 
to  the  head  of  affairs  in  France,  there  was  apprehension  on  the 
part  of  English  statesmen  lest  he  should  utilize  Irish  discontent 
to  secure  a  foothold  in  the  islands.  As  a  measure  of  precaution 
the  English  government  resolved  to  get  rid  of  the  Irish  Parliament. 
By  wholesale  bribery  its  members  were  induced  to  pass  a  sort  of 
self-denying  ordinance  whereby  the  Parliament  was  abolished,  or 
rather  merged  with  that  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland  being  given  repre- 
sentation at  Westminster.  The  two  islands  were  henceforth  to  bear 
the  name  of  "  The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland." 
*  The  Established  Church  in  Scotland  is  the  Presbyterian. 


6lO    ENGLAND  SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO 

674.  Agitation  for  the  Repeal  of  the  Union.  —  The  great  body  of 
Irish  patriots  did  not  at  the  time  of  these  transactions  admit,  nor 
have  they  at  any  time  since  admitted,  the  vaUdity  of  the  Act  of 
Union  whereby  their  Parliament  was  taken  from  them.  In  the  early 
forties  the  agitation  for  the  repeal  of  the  Union  and  the  reestab- 
lishment  of  their  native  legislature  assumed,  under  the  incitement 
of  the  eloquence  of  the  Irish  patriot  Daniel  O'Connell,  almost  the 
character  of  a  rebellion.  Some  years  later,  in  the  sixties,  the  agita- 
tion was  carried  to  the  point  of  actual  insurrection,  but  the  move- 
ment was  quickly  suppressed  and  its  leaders  punished. 

675.  Gladstone  and  Home  Rule  for  Ireland.  —  It  was  not  long 
before  the  Irish  question  was  again  to  the  front.  In  1886  Wil- 
liam Ewart  Gladstone  became  for  the  third  time  Prime  Minister. 
Almost  his  first  act  was  the  introduction  in  the  Commons  of  a 
Home  Rule  bill  for  Ireland.  The  main  feature  of  this  measure 
was  an  Irish  legislature  sitting  at  Dublin,  to  which  was  to  be 
intrusted  the  management  of  all  exclusively  Irish  affairs. 

The  chief  arguments  urged  by  the  opponents  of  the  bill  were 
that  an  Irish  legislature  would  deal  unfairly  with  English  landlords 
in  Ireland,  would  oppress  the  Protestant  portion  of  the  population, 
and,  above  all,  in  time  of  national  distress  would  sever  Ireland  from 
the  British  Empire. 

After  a  long  debate  the  bill  was  rejected  by  the  Commons 
(1886).  Gladstone  appealed  to  the  country.  The  elections  re- 
sulted in  his  defeat.  Lord  Salisbury  became  the  head  of  the 
next  cabinet. 

The  agitation  for  Irish  Home  Rule,  however,  went  on.  In  1892 
the  elections  resulted  in  bringing  Gladstone  to  the  premiership 
for  the  fourth  time.  He  now  brought  in  a  new  Home  Rule  bill 
(1893),  which  in  its  essential  features  was  like  his  first.  There 
followed  a  long  and  bitter  debate  between  the  partisans  of  the 
measure  and  its  opponents.  The  bill  passed  the  Commons,  but 
was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote. 

The  following  year,  owing  to  the  infirmities  of  advanced  age, 
Gladstone  laid  down  the  burdens  of  the  premiership  and  retired 
from  public  life.    He  died  in  1898  at  the  age  of  eighty-eight, 


IRISH   LOCAL  GOVERNMENT   BILL  6ll 

and,  amidst  unusual  demonstrations  of  national  grief,  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  name  has  a  sure  place  among  the 
great  names  in  English  history. 

676.  Irish  Local  Government  Bill  (1898). — The  cause  of  Irish 
Home  Rule  seemed  to  have  descended  into  the  tomb  with  Glad- 
stone.   The  Conservative  ministry  of  Lord  Salisbury,  however,  in 


Fig.  ioi.  —  William  Ewart  Gladstone.    (After  a  painting 
by  Lenbach) 

1898,  hoping  to  satisfy  in  a  measure  Irish  demands,  enacted  a 
law  which  created  local  governing  bodies  in  Ireland,  like  those 
which  had  then  recently  been  established  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom  (sec.  664). 

The  Irish  had  good  reason  in  this  matter  to  fear  the  Tories 
bringing  gifts.    One  purpose  of  the  Conservatives  in  this  piece 


6l2     ENGLAND  SINCE  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO 

of  legislation  was  "to  kill  Home  Rule  with  kindness";  that  is, 
by  the  creation  of  a  number  of  local  councils,  to  induce  the  Irish 
to  cease  their  clamor  for  a  general  legislature  for  Ireland. 

But  it  seems  hardly  likely  that  these  tardy  and  partial  conces- 
sions to  the  Irish  demands  for  self-government  will  persuade  the 
Irish  to  abate  their  demands  for  a  national  Parliament  at  Dublin, 
a  body  that  shall  truly  represent  the  hopes  and  aspirations  of  the 
Irish  people  as  one  of  the  great  nations  of  the  British  Empire. 

677.  Agrarian  Troubles  and  Agrarian  Legislation.  —  It  is  the 
opinion  of  many  students  of  the  Irish  Question  that  it  is  at  bottom 
an  economic  rather  than  a  poHtical  one,  and  that  if  Irish  economic 
grievances  were  removed  the  Irish  would  cease  to  care  for  Home 
Rule. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  very  much  of  Irish  misery  and  discon- 
tent arises  from  absentee  landlordism.  A  great  part  of  the  soil 
of  Ireland  is  owned  by  a  few  hundred  English  proprietors,  who 
represent  in  the  main,  either  as  heirs  or  as  purchasers,  those 
English  and  Scotch  settlers  to  whom  the  lands  confiscated  from 
the  natives  were  given  at  the  time  of  the  Cromwellian  and  other 
Protestant  "settlements"  of  the  island.  Before  the  recent  relief 
legislation,  of  which  we  shall  speak  directly,  it  was  often  the  case 
that  the  agents  of  these  absentee  landlords  dealt  harshly  with 
their  tenants  and  exacted  as  rent  every  penny  that  could  be 
wrung  from  their  poverty.  If  a  tenant  made  improvements  upon 
the  land  he  tilled,  and  by  ditching  and  subduing  it  increased  its 
productive  power,  straightway  his  rent  was  raised.  If  he  failed 
to  pay  the  higher  rent,  he  was  evicted.  The  records  of  "  evic- 
tions "  form  a  sad  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  Irish  peasantry. 

A  long  series  of  Irish  land  laws  marks  the  efforts  of  the  British 
Parliament  to  alleviate  the  distress  of  the  Irish  tenant  farmers. 
In  1903  an  Irish  land  purchase  bill,  more  sweeping  and  liberal 
than  any  preceding  measure,  was  enacted  into  a  law.  This  law 
differs  from  earlier  ones  in  the  provision  that  peasants  desiring 
to  buy  their  holdings  shall  be  aided,  not  merely  by  a  government 
loan  on  long  time  and  low  interest,  but  further  by  the  govern- 
ment itself  paying  a  part  of  the  purchase  price.    Should  this  liberal 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  613 

measure  be  carried  into  full  effect  it  would  convert  nearly  half  a 
million  of  Irish  tenants  into  proprietors  and  would  thus  wholly 
revolutionize  the  relation  of  the  Irish  peasantry  to  the  Irish  soil. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Lee,  Source-Book,  pp.  483-541;  Ken- 
dall, Source-Book,  chaps,  xx  and  xxi ;  and  Colby,  Selections,  Nos.  1 13-1 17. 
The  most  important  documents  for  the  period  will  be  found  in  Adams  and 
Stephens,  Select  Documents  of  English  Constitutional  History,  pp.  497-555. 

Secondary  Works.  —  For  Parliamentary  reform  :  May,  The  Constitutional 
History  of  England ;  Gam  MAGE,  History  of  the  Chartist  Movement,  i8jy-^4; 
McCarthy,  The  Epoch  of  Reform  ;  Carlyle,  Chartism;  and  Dickinson, 
The  Development  of  Parliament  during  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

For  Irish  matters  :  Lecky,  History  of  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
vol.  V,  chaps,  xii  and  xiii,  for  the  legislative  union  of  England  and  Ireland ; 
Two  Centuries  of  Irish  History,  ibgi-iSyo,  by  different  writers,  with  an 
Introduction  by  James  Bryce  ;  Dicey,  England's  Case  against  Home  Rule; 
McCarthy,  Ireland  since  the  Union;  and  King,  The  Irish  Question. 

Biographies :  Morley,  The  Life  of  Richard  Cobden  and  The  Life  of 
William  Ewart  Gladstone.  In  the  last  biography  (vol.  i,  pp.  635-640),  read 
the  remarkable  letter  of  young  Gladstone  to  his  father  on  the  choice  of 
a  profession.  Brandes,  Lord  Beaconsfield.  It  will  hardly  be  necessary 
again  to  remind  the  reader  of  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

For  the  social,  intellectual,  and  industrial  life  of  the  period :  Traill, 
Social  England,  vol.  vi ;  and  Cheyney,  An  Introduction  to  the  Social  History 
of  England,  chaps,  viii-x.  For  a  general  review  of  the  events  of  the  period  : 
McCarthy,  History  of  our  Own  Times. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Lord  Beaconsfield,  the  courtier  Premier. 
2.  Gladstone,  the  Liberal  Premier.  3.  John  Bright,  the  orator.  4.  Daniel 
O'Connell,  the  Irish  patriot.  5.  The  potato  famine  in  Ireland.  6.  Factory 
reform. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
SPAIN  AND  THE  REVOLT  OF  HER  AMERICAN  COLONIES 

678.  Effects  of  Napoleon's  Invasion  of  Spain. — The  plan  of 
our  work  permits  us  to  touch  upon  only  those  passages  in  nine- 
teenth-century Spanish  history  which,  through  their  relation  to 
the  French  Revolution  or  to  the  general  democratic  movement 
since  181 5,  constitute  a  part  of  universal  history. 

The  invasion  of  Spain  by  Napoleon  in  1808  (sec.  630),  wanton 
as  was  this  attack  upon  Spanish  nationality,  resulted  ultimately 
in  the  destruction  there  of  the  old  corrupt  absolute  monarchical 
system.  As  an  outcome  of  the  national  uprising  against  the 
French  invaders,  the  country  received  from  the  Spanish  patriot 
party  a  charter  of  liberty  known  as  the  Constitution  of  18 12. 
The  maxims  and  principles  underlying  this  instrument  were  like 
those  embodied  in  the  French  Constitution  of  1791.  This  marks 
the  beginning  of  constitutional  government  in  Spain. 

679.  The  Bourbon  Restoration  and  the  Revolution  of  1820- 
1823. — The  Restoration  of  181 4  brought  back  the  Bourbons 
in  the  person  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Ferdinand  was  an  absolutist. 
Straightway  he  set  about  the  restoration  of  the  old  regime.  He 
abolished  the  constitution,  dissolved  the  Cortes  or  National 
Assembly,  and  banished  or  imprisoned  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal 
party.  This  policy  of  reaction  and  repression  was  met  in  1820 
by  an  uprising  of  the  Liberals.  The  insurgents  proclaimed  the 
Constitution  of  181 2,  and  forced  the  king  to  swear  to  rule 
henceforth  in  accordance  with  its  provisions. 

But  the  absolute  sovereigns  of  Europe  would  not  allow  the 
Spanish  people  to  have  a  constitutional  government.  They 
regarded  the  setting  up  of  such  a  system  in  the  peninsula  as  a 
menace    to    their    own    system    of   absolutism.      They   met   in 

614 


REVOLT  OF  SPAIN'S  AMERICAN  COLONIES     615 

conference  ^  and  France  was  assured  of  the  support  of  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  if  she  should  undertake  to  suppress  the  liberal 
movement.  A  French  army  at  once  crossed  the  Pyrenees.  The 
constitutional  government  was  overthrown  and  Ferdinand  was 
restored  to  his  former  authority  as  an  absolute  ruler.*^ 

For  ten  years  the  old  regime  was  in  force  in  all  its  rigor. 
Thousands  of  Liberals  were  immured  in  dungeons  or  driven  into 
exile.  The  monasteries,  which  had  been  suppressed  during  the 
French  regime,  were  reopened.  The  Inquisition,  which  had  also 
been  abolished,  was  reestablished.  The  people  were  forbidden 
to  read  foreign  books,  which  were  presumably  filled  with  the 
contagion  of  democratic  ideas. 

680.  The  Revolt  of  Spain's  American  Colonies.  —  At  the  opening 
of  the  nineteenth  century  Spain's  system  of  government  in  her 
over-the-sea  dependencies  was  based  on  the  seventeenth-century 
maxim  that  colonies  exist  for  the  sake  of  the  mother  country. 
The  colonists  were  forbidden  to  trade  with  any  country  save  the 
home  land.  All  the  chief  offices  in  State  and  Church  were  filled 
by  persons  born  in  Spain ;  the  Creoles,  that  is  Spaniards  born 
in  the  colonies,  were  allowed  no  part  in  the  government.   The 


1  During  these  troubled  times  the  sovereigns  of  the  great  powers,  either  in  person 
or  by  representatives,  met  in  three  celebrated  conferences,  —  the  Congress  of  Troppau 
(1820),  the  Congress  of  Laibach  (1821),  and  the  Congress  of  Verona  (1822).  It  was 
at  the  Verona  conference  that  action  was  taken  concerning  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Spain.  England,  jealous  of  French  influence  in  the  peninsula,  protested  against  the 
proposed  intervention,  and  withdrew  from  the  congress. 

2  The  revolution  in  Spain  incited  a  like  movement  in  Portugal.  It  will  be  recalled 
that  when  the  French  invaded  Portugal  in  1807  the  roj-al  family  fled  to  Brazil  (sec. 
629).  The  seat  of  government  was  not  retransferred  to  the  home  country  in  1815 
but  Portugal  was  governed  from  Brazil  as  though  it  were  a  dependency  of  the 
colony.  This  situation  was  naturally  displeasing  to  the  people  of  Portugal.  In  1820 
the  dissatisfaction  culminated  in  a  revolution.  The  insurgents  proclaimed  a  liberal 
constitution.  King  John  VI,  urged  to  return  from  Brazil,  finally  set  sail  for  Portugal. 
Upon  his  arrival  he  was  constrained  to  take  an  oath  to  observe  the  new  constitution. 
Then  followed  a  long  troubled  period.  Only  since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury can  the  country  be  said  to  have  had  anything  like  a  regular  constitutional  govern- 
ment. Before  leaving  Brazil  King  John  had  appointed  his  son  Dom  Pedro  as  regent. 
In  1822  the  colony  declared  its  independence  of  Portugal  and  transformed  itself  into 
a  constitutional  empire  with  Dom  Pedro  as  Emperor.  In  1889  a  revolution  over- 
turned the  empire  and  drove  the  imperial  family  into  exile.  A  republic  was  then 
proclaimed  under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  BrazU. 


6l6        SPAIN   AND   HER  AMERICAN   COLONIES 

Indians  and  half-breeds,  who  formed  the  great  bulk  of  the  popu- 
lation, were  held  in  a  kind  of  serfdom.  Negro  slavery  prevailed 
in  all  the  colonies.  The  Inquisition  was  maintained  in  all  its  rigor. 
A  jealous  censorship  of  the  press  prevented  all  free  expression  of 
opinion. 

This  oppressive  and  arbitrary  system  of  government  did  not  fail 
to  arouse  in  the  colonies  a  spirit  of  protest  and  rebellion.  The 
successful  revolt  of  the  English  colonies  in  the  North  and  the 
French  Revolution  gave  a  great  impulse  to  this  revolutionary 
movement  in  all  the  Spanish  American  countries.  The  invasion  of 
Spain  by  the  French  in  1808  was  the  signal  for  insurrection. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  deposition  of  their  king  (sec.  630),  the 
colonists  rose  in  revolt,  demanding  reforms  and  a  share  in  pubHc 
affairs.  When  the  Napoleonic  Wars  ended  in  181 5  Spain  had 
almost  suppressed  these  insurrections  against  her  authority. 

Then  came  the  Restoration  which  placed  the  Bourbon  Ferdi- 
nand VII  upon  the  Spanish  throne.  Had  he  made  wise  con- 
cessions to  the  colonists,  they  might  have  been  held  in  their 
allegiance.  Just  the  opposite  course  was  followed,  which  resulted 
in  fanning  into  a  fierce  flame  the  smoldering  embers  of  insurrec- 
tion. The  Revolution  of  1820  in  Spain  imparted  fresh  energy  to 
the  outbreak.  The  aim  of  the  colonists  now  was  not  simply  a 
redress  of  grievances  but  a  severance  of  all  political  relations  with 
the  mother  country. 

The  details  of  this  war  of  Spanish  colonial  independence 
belong  to  the  special  histories  of  Spain  and  her  colonies.  In  the 
next  paragraph  we  shall  touch  upon  only  a  single  international 
phase  of  the  conflict,  which  throws  a  strong  side  light  upon  the 
great  struggle  at  this  time  going  on  in  Europe  between  the 
absolute  rulers  and  the  people. 

681.  The  Holy  Alliance  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  — The  prin- 
ciples of  absolutism  in  government  having  been  asserted  anew  in 
Spain,'  the  sovereigns  of  the  Holy  Alliance  now  turned  their 
attention  to  the  New  World.  They  began  to  discuss  the  project  of 
aiding  Spain  to  reduce  to  obedience  her  rebellious  colonies. 

3  And  also  in  Italy  (sec.  686). 


THE   MONROE   DOCTRINE  617 

These  deliberations  of  the  absolute  sovereigns  mark  a  critical 
moment  in  the  history  of  the  New  World  and  of  the  cause  of 
popular  self-government.  The  threatened  interference  by  the  Old 
World  monarchies  in  New  World  affairs  awakened  the  apprehen- 
sion of  the  government  of  the  United  States.  John  Quincy  Adams, 
then  Secretary  of  State,  declared  that  "  if  the  Holy  Alliance  sub- 
dues Spanish  America,  the  ultimate  result  of  the  undertaking  will 
be  not  to  set  up  the  standard  of  Spain  but  to  portion  out  the 
continent  among  themselves.  Russia  might  take  California,  Peru, 
and  Chile,  and  thus  make  the  Pacific  a  Russian  lake." 

Such  was  the  situation  when  in  1823  President  Monroe  issued 
his  famous  message.  After  referring  to  the  gloomy  outlook  for 
Liberalism  in  the  Old  World  and  to  the  despotic  system  of  govern- 
ment represented  by  the  Holy  Alliance,  he  said :  "  We  owe  it, 
therefore,  to  candor  and  to  the  amicable  relations  existing  between 
the  United  States  and  those  powers  [the  "Holy  AlHes"],  to 
declare  that  we  should  consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  ex- 
tend their  system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous 
to  our  peace  and  safety." 

This  is  the  essential  part  of  the  celebrated  Monroe  Doctrine  as 
first  formulated.  The  solemn  protest  of  the  United  States,  sup- 
ported as  it  was  by  the  decisive  stand  of  the  English  government,* 
did  not  pass  unheeded  by  the  continental  European  sovereigns. 
The  contemplated  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  the  Spanish  colonies 
did  not  take  place,  and  the  year  1824  saw  all  the  American 
dependencies  of  Spain  freed  from  her  oppressive  yoke.  Fifteen 
independent  republics,  embracing  fifteen  millions  of  her  former 
subjects,  arose  on  the  ruins  of  her  empire. 

682.  End  of  Absolute  Monarchy  in  Spain;  the  Republic  of 
1873-1874.  —  Spain  was  a  corner  of  Europe  which  was  not  seri- 
ously agitated  by  the  upheavals  of  the  revolutionary  year  1 830. 
But  there  was  here  as  elsewhere  an  increasing  demand  by  the 
people  for  a  share  in  the  government.    It  was  in  recognition  of 

*  The  English  government  disapproved  the  plan  of  intervention,  partly  on  account 
of  its  dislike  of  the  principles  of  absolute  government  and  partly  on  account  of 
English  trade  interests  in  the  Spanish-American  countries. 


6l8         SPAIN   AND   HER  AMERICAN    COLONIES 

this  growing  democratic  sentiment  that  in  1837  the  nation  was 
given  a  revised  edition  of  the  Constitution  of  181 2.  This  date 
marks  the  end  of  absolute  monarchy  in  Spain. 

The  matter  most  worthy  of  notice  in  the  internal  history  of  Spain 
as  a  constitutional  state  is  the  establishment  in  the  peninsula  of 
the  short-lived  Republic  of  187 3- 1874.  The  leading  spirit  of  this 
republican  movement,  and  the  third  President  of  the  common- 
wealth, was  Emilio  Castelar,  a  brilliant  orator  and  a  sincere  patriot. 
But  the  people  of  Spain  were  not  yet  prepared  for  republican 
institutions.  The  republic  lasted  less  than  two  years.  Upon  its 
downfall  the  monarchy  was  restored  with  a  liberal  constitution. 

683.  Conclusion.  —  The  century  closed  in  gloom  for  Spain. 
In  1898  came  the  disastrous  and  humiliating  war  with  the 
United  States,  respecting  the  causes  and  incidents  of  which  the 
reader  will  turn  to  the  later  chapters  of  American  history.  It  will 
be  in  place  here  simply  to  say  that  the  war  resulted  in  Spain's 
loss  of  Cuba  and  other  insular  possessions,  —  almost  the  last  rem- 
nants of  one  of  the  most  extended  and  magnificent  of  the  colonial 
empires  of  modern  times. 

Selections  from  the  Sources. —  Hart  and  Channing,  American  His- 
tory Leaflets,  No.  4,  "  Extracts  from  Official  Declarations  of  the  United 
States  embodying  the  Monroe  Doctrine." 

Secondary  Works.  —  Hume,  Modem  Spain.  Moses,  The  Establishment 
of  Spanish  Rule  in  America,  chap,  xi,  "  Spain's  Economic  Policy  in  America." 
WiNSOR,  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  vol.  viii,  chaps,  iv  and  v. 
Oilman,  James  Monroe,  chap,  vii,  "  The  Monroe  Doctrine ;  "  a  valuable 
bibliography  of  Monroe  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  by  Professor  J.  F. 
Jameson,  fonns  an  appendix  to  the  volume.  Reddaway,  The  Monroe 
Doctrine.  Edgington,  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  Hannay,  Don  Emilio 
Castelar.     Latimer,  Spain  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  2.  Simon  Bolivar. 
3.  Emilio  Castelar.     4.  Don  Carlos  and  the  Carlist. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
THE  LIBERATION  AND  UNIFICATION  OF  ITALY 

684.  Italy  at  the  Downfall  of  Napoleon.  —  The  Italian  peoples, 
as  being  the  most  dangerously  infected  with  the  ideas  of  the  Revo- 
lution, were,  by  the  reactionary  Congress  of  Vienna,  condemned 
to  the  most  strict  and  ignominious  slavery.  The  former  republics 
were  not  allowed  to  restore  their  ancient  institutions,  while  the 
petty  principalities  were  handed  over  in  almost  every  case  to  the 
tyrants  or  to  the  heirs  of  the  tyrants  who  had  ruled  them  before 
the  Revolution. 

Austria,  as  has  been  stated,  appropriated  Venetia  and  Lom- 
bardy,  and  from  Northern  Italy  assumed  to  direct  the  affairs  of 
the  whole  peninsula.  "  The  baton  of  Metternich,"  wrote  Mazzini, 
"governs  and  directs  all  the  petty  tyrants  of  Italy."  Tuscany, 
Modena,  Parma,  and  Lucca  were  given  to  princes  of  the  House 
of  Hapsburg.  Naples  was  restored  to  its  old  Bourbon  rulers.  The 
Pope  and  Victor  Emmanuel  I,  king  of  Sardinia  (Piedmont),  were 
the  only  native  rulers,  but  they  also  were  absolutists. 

The  little  republic  of  San  Marino,  whose  very  insignificance  had 
protected  it  during  the  changes  of  the  Revolution,  was  the  only 
patch  of  free  population  left  in  the  entire  peninsula.  The  Italians 
had  become  a  "  Helot  nation."  Italy,  in  the  words  of  Metternich, 
was  merely  a  "  geographical  expression." 

But  the  Revolution  had  sown  the  seeds  of  liberty,  and  time  only 
was  needed  for  their  maturing.  The  Cisalpine,  Ligurian,  Parthe- 
nopean,  and  Tiberine  republics,  short-lived  though  they  were,  had 
awakened  in  the  people  an  aspiration  for  self-government ;  while 
Napoleon's  kingdom  of  Italy,  though  equally  delusive,  had  never- 
theless inspired  thousands  of  Italian  patriots  with  the  sentiment 
of  national  unity.    Thus  the  French  Revolution,  disappointing  as 

619 


620      LIBERATION  AND   UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 

seemed  its  issue,  really  imparted  to  Italy  her  first  impulse  in  the 
direction  of  freedom  and  national  organization. 

685.  Arbitrary  Rule  of  the  Restored  Princes.  — The  setting  up 
of  the  overturned  thrones  meant,  of  course,  the  reinstating  of  the 
old  tyrannies.  The  restored  despots  came  back  with  an  implac- 
able hatred  of  everything  French.  The  liberal  constitutions  of  the 
revolutionary  period  were  set  aside,  and  all  French  institutions  that 
were  supposed  to  tend  in  the  least  to  Liberalism  were  swept  away. 

In  Sardinia,  King  Victor  Emmanuel  I,  the  "  royal  Rip  Van 
Winkle,"  instituted  a  most  extreme  reactionary  policy.  Nothing 
that  bore  the  French  stamp,  nothing  that  had  been  set  up  by 
French  hands,  was  allowed  to  remain.  The  monks  were  given 
back  their  monasteries,  which  had  been  converted  into  factories, 
colleges,  and  hospitals.  The  Jesuits  were  again  placed  in  control 
of  education.  Even  the  French  furniture  in  the  royal  palace  at 
Turin  was  thrown  out  of  the  windows,  and  the  French  plants  in 
the  royal  gardens  were  pulled  up  root  and  branch.  Travel  over 
the  Mount  Cenis  road,  constructed  by  Napoleon,  was  discouraged, 
in  order  that  this  monument  of  French  genius  might  be  forgotten. 

686.  The  Carbonari:  Uprising  of  1820-182 1. — The  natural 
results  of  the  arbitrary  rule  of  the  restored  princes  was  deep  and 
widespread  discontent.  An  old  secret  organization,  the  members 
of  which  were  known  as  the  Carbonari  (charcoal  burners),  formed 
the  nucleus  about  which  gathered  the  elements  of  disaffection. 

In  1820,  incited  by  the  revolution  in  Spain,  the  Carbonari 
raised  an  insurrection  in  Naples  and  forced  King  Ferdinand  to 
grant  his  Neapolitan  subjects  the  Spanish  Constitution  of  18 12 
(sec.  678).  But  Prince  Metternich,  who  had  been  watching  the 
doings  of  the  Neapolitans,  interfered  to  mar  their  plans.  He 
reasoned  that  Lombardy  and  Venetia  could  be  kept  free  from 
the  contagion  of  Liberalism  only  by  the  stamping  out  of  the  infec- 
tion wherever  else  in  Italy  it  might  show  itself.  Sixty  thousand 
Austrian  troops  were  sent  to  crush  the  revolutionary  movement, 
the  liberal  constitution  was  suppressed,  Ferdinand  was  reinstated 
in  his  former  absolute  authority,  and  everything  was  put  back  on 
the  old  footing. 


THE   REVOLUTION   OF   1830-1831  62 1 

Meanwhile  a  similar  revolution  was  running  its  course  in 
Piedmont,  the  aim  of  which  was  to  secure  a  liberal  constitution 
for  Sardinia  and  to  drive  the  Austrians  out  of  Lombardy  and 
join  it  to  the  Sardinian  kingdom.  King  Victor  Emmanuel  I, 
rather  than  yield  to  the  demands  of  his  people  for  a  constitution, 
gave  up  his  crown  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles 
Felix,  a  despot  by  nature,  who,  by  threatening  to  call  to  his  aid 
the  Austrian  army,  compelled  his  subjects  to  cease  their  clamor 
about  kings  ruling  not  by  the  grace  of  God  but  by  the  will  of  the 
people. 

The  suppression  of  the  Liberal  uprisings  seemed  to  Metternich 
the  sure  pledge  of  divine  favor.  He  writes  exultantly :  "  I  see 
the  dawn  of  a  better  day.  .  .  .  Heaven  seems  to  will  that  the 
world  should  not  be  lost." 

687.  The  Revolution  of  1830-1831.  —  For  just  ten  years  all 
Italy  lay  in  sullen  vassalage  to  Austria.  Then  the  revolutionary 
years  of  1830— 183 1  witnessed  a  repetition  of  the  scenes  of  1820- 
182 1.  The  revolution  in  France  which  placed  Louis.  Philippe 
upon  the  French  throne  sent  a  tremor  of  excitement  and  hope 
through  all  Italy.  The  center  of  the  revolution  was  the  Papal 
States.  The  death  of  the  Pope  towards  the  close  of  the  year 
1830  appeared  to  favor  the  undertaking.  In  a  short  time  nearly 
all  the  territories  of  the  Church  were  in  open  revolt,  and  a  reso- 
lution of  the  insurrectionists  declared  that  the  temporal  rule  of 
the  Pope  was  and  by  right  ought  to  be  forever  ended. 

But  the  election  of  a  new  Pope,  and  the  presence  of  Austrian 
troops,  who,  "  true  to  their  old  principle  of  hurrying  with  their 
extinguishers  to  any  spot  in  Italy  where  a  crater  opened,"  had 
poured  into  Central  Italy,  resulted  in  the  speedy  quenching  of  the 
flames  of  the  insurrection. 

688.  The  Three  Parties.  —  Twice  now  had  Austrian  armies 
defeated  the  aspirations  of  the  Italians  for  national  unity  and 
freedom.  Italian  hatred  of  these  foreign  intermeddlers  who  were 
causing  them  to  miss  their  destiny  grew  ever  more  intense,  and 
"Death  to  the  Germans  !  "  as  the  Austrians  were  called,  became 
the  watch  cry  that  united  all  the  peoples  of  the  peninsula. 


622      LIBERATION   AND    UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 

But  while  united  in  their  fierce  hatred  of  the  Austrians,  the 
Italians  were  divided  in  their  views  respecting  the  best  plan  for 
national  organization.  One  party  wanted  a  confederation  of  the 
various  states ;  a  second  party  wished  to  see  Italy  a  constitutional 
monarchy  with  the  king  of  Sardinia  at  its  head  ;  while  still  a  third, 
known  as  ''Young  Italy,"  wanted  a  republic. 

689.  Joseph  Mazzini,  the  Patriot  and  Prophet The  leader 

of  the  third  or  republican  party  was  the  patriot  Joseph  Mazzini, 
who  played  so  special  a  part  in  the  movement  for  Italy's  eman- 
cipation and  regeneration  that  we  must  dwell  for  a  moment  upon 
his  personality  and  work. 

Mazzini  wished  to  see  Italy  freed  from  foreign  domination  and 
the  populations  of  her  different  provinces  united  in  a  strong  cen- 
tralized republic.  The  means  of  emancipation  and  regeneration 
were  to  be  education  and  arms. 

Mazzini  realized  that  there  can  be  no  real  and  successful  Rev- 
olution without  Renaissance.  "Great  ideas,"  he  said,  "must  pre- 
cede great  actions."  Hence  his  aim  was  to  create  among  the 
people  a  new  intellectual  and  moral  life.  "Tell  the  people,"  he 
said,  "of  the  great  past  of  Italy;  tell  them  of  the  advantages  of 
liberty  and  independence;  tell  them  what  their  brothers  are 
doing  in  France,  in  Belgium,  in  Poland,  in  Hungary.  Point  to 
the  Alps  and  cry,  '  Those  are  Italy's  true  frontiers ;  out  with 
the  foreigner  ! ' " 

Mazzini  believed  also  in  the  use  of  bayonets,  but  only  on  con- 
dition that  they  have  "  ideas  at  their  point."  Insurrection  was  to 
be  carried  on  at  first  by  means  of  guerrilla  bands ;  then  later  with 
regular  armies  the  people  would  overturn  the  thrones  of  the  tyrants 
and  set  up  the  republic. 

But  Mazzini  was  not  a  narrow  nationalist.  He  recognized  the 
universal  character  of  the  democratic  revolution.  The  people 
were  oppressed  not  only  in  Italy  but  in  Spain,  in  Portugal,  in 
Hungary,  in  Poland,  in  Russia,  in  Turkey,  —  almost  everywhere, 
in  truth.  Their  cause  was  a  common  cause.  In  opposition  to 
the  Holy  Alliance  of  the  princes  formed  with  aim  to  oppress, 
there  must  be  a  Holy  Alliance  of  the  peoples  formed  with  aim 


THE   REVOLUTION   OF  1848-1849  623 

to  emancipate.  The  French  Revolution,  he  said,  had  proclaimed 
the  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity  of  individual  men ;  the  new 
revolution  should  proclaim  the  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity 
of  nations. 

In  this  great  work  of  the  emancipation  and  unification  of  the 
world,  Italy  was  to  be  head  and  guide  of  the  nations.  To  her 
this  post  of  leadership  was  assigned  by  virtue  of  her  leadership 
in  the  past.  Italy  had  not  yet  consumed  her  life.  She  had  still 
a  third  life  to  live.  Once  pagan  Rome  organized  and  ruled  the 
world.  Then  papal  Rome  organized  and  ruled  it  for  a  thousand 
years.  Now  a  third  world  union  was  to  be  formed,  and  of  this 
union  of  the  free  and  federated  nations  Italy,  Italy  as  a  republic, 
was  to  be  center  and  head.  The  first  Rome  was  the  Rome  of 
the  Caesars ;  the  second  was  the  Rome  of  the  Popes ;  the  third 
was  to  be  the  Rome  of  the  Italian  People. 

Such  was  Mazzini's  interpretation  of  the  drama  of  world  history. 
Such  was  his  splendid  ideal.  Through  kindling  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  Italian  youth,  awakening  the  sentiment  of  patriotism,  and 
keeping  alive  the  spirit  of  insurrection  Mazzini  rendered  a  great 
service  to  the  cause  of  Italian  liberation  and  union. 

690.  The  Revolution  of  1848-1849.  — After  the  suppression  of 
the  uprising  of  1830  until  the  approach  of  the  memorable  year 
1848,  Italy  lay  restless  under  the  heel  of  her  oppressor.  The 
republican  movements  throughout  Europe  which  characterized 
that  year  of  revolutions  encouraged  the  Italian  patriots  in  another 
attempt  to  achieve  independence  and  nationality.  Everywhere 
throughout  the  peninsula  they  rose  against  their  despotic  rulers 
and  forced  them  to  grant  constitutions  and  institute  reforms. 

The  interest  of  the  conflict  centered  in  North  Italy.  The  Sar- 
dinian throne  at  this  time  was  held  by  Charles  Albert,  a  true- 
hearted  and  zealous  patriot,  who  had  just  granted  his  people  a 
liberal  constitution  (1848),  —  a  constitution  which  was  to  become 
the  charter  of  the  liberties  of  united  Italy.  Taking  advantage  of 
the  embarrassment  of  the  Austrian  government  caused  by  popular 
uprisings  in  all  parts  of  its  dominions,  Charles  Albert  declared  war 
against  Austria,  and  straightway  flung  upon  her  forces  in  Lombardy 


624      LIBERATION   AND    UNIFICATION   OF    ITALY 


the  Sardinian  army,  which  had  been  augmented  by  volunteers 
from  all  parts  of  Italy.  At  first  he  was  everywhere  successful,  and 
Lombardy  and  Venice  both  placed  themselves  under  his  rule ;  but 
finally  the  veteran  Austrian  general  Radetzky  turned  the  tide  of  war 
against  him,  recovered  Lombardy,  and,  invading  Piedmont,  inflicted 
upon  the  Sardinian  army  such  a  defeat  (battle  of  Novara,  1849) 
that  Charles  Albert  was  constrained  to  resign  his  crown  in  favor 
of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel  II,  who,  he  hoped,  would  be  able  to 

secure  more  advantageous  terms  from 
the  victorious  Austrians  than  he  him- 
self could  expect  to  obtain. 

Meanwhile  the  Romans  had  risen, 
proclaimed  the  RepubHc,  and  driven 
out  the  Pope,  Pius  IX.  But  the  new 
Tiberine  Republic  was  soon  over- 
thrown by  the  troops  of  the  French 
Republic,  just  recently  set  up  (sec. 
653),  and  the  Pope  was  reinstated  in 
his  authority.  This  interference  by  the 
French  in  Italian  affairs  was  prompted 
by  their  jealousy  of  Austria  and  the 
desire  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  win  the 
good  will  of  the  Catholic  clergy  in 
France.  Thus  through  the  interven- 
tion of  foreigners  was  the  third  Italian  revolution  brought  to  naught. 
691.  Victor  Emmanuel  II,  Count  Cavour,  and  Garibaldi.  — We 
have  just  noticed  the  accession  to  the  Sardinian  throne  of  Victor 
Emmanuel  II  as  a  constitutional  ruler,  —  the  only  one  remaining 
in  Italy.  Austria  had  tried  to  get  him  to  repeal  the  constitution 
his  father  had  granted,  but  he  had  resolutely  refused  to  do  so. 
To  him  it  was  that  the  hopes  of  the  Italian  patriots  now  turned. 
Nor  were  these  hopes  to  be  disappointed.  Victor  Emmanuel 
was  the  destined  Hberator  of  Italy,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  more 
correct  to  say  that  his  was  the  name  in  which  the  achievement 
was  to  be  effected  by  the  wise  policy  of  his  great  minister  Count 
Cavour  and  the  reckless  daring  of  the  national  hero  Garibaldi. 


Fig.   102.  —  Victor   Emman 
UEL  IT.  (From  an  engraving) 


SARDINIA   IN   THE   CRIMEAN    WAR 


625 


Count  Cavour  was  the  Bismarck  of  Italy,  —  one  of  those  great 
men  who  during  this  formative  period  in  the  life  of  the  European 
peoples  have  earned  the  title  of  Nation  Makers.  He  was  lacking 
in  oratorical  and  poetic  gifts.  *'  I  cannot  make  a  sonnet,"  he  said, 
"but  I  can  make  Italy," — an  utterance  suggested  doubtless 
by  that  of  the  Athenian  statesman  (Themistocles)  who  boasted 
that  though  *'  he  knew  nothing  of 
music  and  song,  he  did  know  how  of 
a  mean  city  to  make  a  great  one." 
Cavour  was  the  real  maker  of  modem 
Italy. 

Garibaldi,  ''  the  hero  of  the  red 
shirt,"  the  knight-errant  of  Italian  in- 
dependence, was  a  most  remarkable 
character.  Though  yet  barely  past 
middle  life,  he  had  led  a  career  singu- 
larly crowded  with  varied  experiences 
and  romantic  adventures.  Because  of 
his  violent  republicanism  he  had 
already  been  twice  exiled  from  Italy. 

692.  Sardinia  in  the  Crimean  War. 
—  In  1855,  in  pursuance  of  a  far- 
sighted  policy,  Cavour  sent  a  Sardinian  contingent  of  fifteen 
thousand  men  to  aid  England  and  France  against  Russia  in  the 
Crimean  War  (sec.  722),  with  the  two  chief  aims  of  giving  Sardinia 
a  standing  among  the  powers  of  Europe,  and  of  earning  the  grati- 
tude of  England  and  France,  so  that  the  Italians  in  their  future 
struggles  with  Austria  might  not  have  to  fight  their  battles  alone. 

A  little  incident  in  the  trenches  of  the  allies  before  Sevastopol 
shows  in  what  spirit  the  Sardinians  had  gone  to  the  war.  A  soldier, 
covered  with  mud  and  wearied  with  the  everlasting  digging,  com- 
plained to  his  superior  officer.  "  Never  mind,"  was  the  consoling 
reply ;  "  it  is  with  this  mud  that  Italy  is  to  be  made." 

693.  Cavour  prepares  for  War  with  Austria After  the  Peace 

of  Paris,  which  closed  the  Crimean  War,  Cavour  continued  the 
vigorous  domestic  policy  which  he  had  adopted  for  Sardinia  with 


Fig.  103.  —  Count  Cavour 
(From  an  engraving) 


626      LIBERATION  AND   UNIFICATION    OF    ITALY 

the  aim  of  developing  her  material  resources  and  thus  preparing 
her  for  great  exertions.  The  most  notable  undertaking  which  he 
persuaded  the  Sardinian  government  to  enter  upon  was  the  tun- 
nehng  of  the  Alps  beneath  Mt.  Cenis,  in  order  that  Sardinia  might 
be  brought  into  commercial  intercourse  with  the  north  of  Europe. 
"  If  we  are  to  become  great,"  he  said,  "we  must  do  this.  The 
Alps  must  come  down." 

Another  part  of  Cavour's  poHcy  was  to  cultivate  the  friendship 
of  the  French  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  In  a  secret  meeting  with 
the  Emperor  he  received  from  him  a  promise  that  a  French  army 
would,  when  the  favorable  moment  arrived,  aid  the  Sardinians  in 
driving  the  Austrians  out  of  Italy.  In  this  proffer  of  help  the 
French  Emperor  was  actuated  less  by  gratitude  for  the  aid  of  the 
Sardinian  contingent  in  the  Crimean  War  than  by  a  desire  to  les- 
sen the  power  of  Austria  in  Italy  and  to  replace  it  by  French  influ- 
ence, and  to  secure  Savoy  and  Nice,  which  were  to  be  France's 
reward  for  her  intervention  in  Sardinia's  behalf. 

694.  The  Austro-Sardinian  War  (185 9-1 860).  —  The  hour  for 
striking  another  blow  for  the  freedom  of  Italy  had  now  arrived. 
Sardinia  began  to  arm.  Austria,  alarmed  at  these  demonstrations, 
called  upon  Sardinia  to  disarm  immediately  upon  threat  of  war. 
Cavour  eagerly  accepted  the  challenge. 

The  French  armies  were  now  joined  to  those  of  Sardinia.  The 
two  great  victories  of  Magenta  and  Solferino  drove  the  Austrians 
out  of  Lombardy  and  behind  the  famous  Quadrilateral,  consisting 
of  four  strong  fortresses,  which  sheltered  Venetia.  Just  at  this 
juncture  the  menacing  attitude  of  Prussia  and  other  German  states, 
which  were  alarmed  at  the  prospective  aggrandizement  of  France, 
and  the  rapid  spread  of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Italy,  which 
foreshadowed  the  union  of  all  the  states  of  the  peninsula  in  a  single 
kingdom,  —  something  which  Louis  Napoleon  did  not  wish  to  see 
consummated,^  —  this  new  situation  of  things,  in  connection  with 

1  Napoleon  III  did  not  wish  for  a  united  Italy  any  more  than  he  wished  for  a 
united  Germany.  His  aim  was  to  create  a  kingdom  in  Northern  Italy  which  would 
exclude  Austria  from  the  peninsula  and  then  to  bring  about  a  confederation  of  all  the 
Italian  states  under  the  presidency  of  the  Pope.  Italy  thus  reconstructed  would,  he 
conceived,  be  fain  to  look  to  the  French  Emperor  as  her  champion  and  patron. 


OUTCOME   OF  AUSTRO-SARDINIAN   WAR       627 

other  considerations,  caused  the  French  Emperor  to  draw  back 
and  to  enter  upon  negotiations  of  peace  with  the  Austrian  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph  at  Villafranca. 

The  outcome  was  that  Austria  retained  Venice  but  gave  up  to 
Sardinia  the  larger  part  of  Lombardy.  The  Sardinians  were  bitterly 
disappointed  that  they  did  not  get  Venetia,  and  loudly  accused 
the  French  Emperor  of  having  betrayed  their  cause,  since  at  the 
outset  he  had  promised  them  that  he  would  free  Italy  from  the 
"Alps  to  the  Adriatic." 

But  Sardinia  found  compensation  for  Venice  in  the  accession 
of  Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma,  and  the  Romagna,  the  peoples  of 
which  states,  having  discarded  their  old  rulers,  besought  Victor 
Emmanuel  to  permit  them  to  unite  themselves  to  his  kingdom. 
Thus,  as  the  result  of  the  war,  the  king  of  Sardinia  had  added  to 
his  subjects  a  population  of  seven  millions.  A  long  step  had  been 
taken  in  the  way  of  Italian  unity  and  freedom. 

But  while  the  Sardinian  kingdom  was  thus  vastly  extended  to 
the  east  and  to  the  south,  it  was  cut  away  a  little  on  the  west. 
Savoy  and  Nice,  the  former  "  the  cradle  of  the  Savoyard  House," 
were  given,  according  to  previous  agreement,  as  the  price  of  her 
services,  to  France. 

695.  Sicily  and  Naples,  with  Umbria  and  the  Marches,  added  to 
Victor  Emmanuel's  Kingdom  (i860).  —  The  adventurous  daring 
of  the  hero  Garibaldi  now  added  Sicily  and  Naples,  and  indirectly 
Umbria  and  the  Marches,  to  the  possessions  of  Victor  Emmanuel, 
and  changed  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

These  momentous  events  took  place  under  the  following  cir- 
cumstances. In  i860  the  subjects  of  the  Bourbon  Francis  II, 
king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  rose  in  revolt.  Victor  Emmanuel  and 
his  minister  Cavour  were  in  sympathy  with  the  movement,  yet 
dared  not  send  the  insurgents  aid  through  fear  that  such  action 
would  arouse  the  jealousy  of  Austria  and  of  France.  But  Gari- 
baldi, untrammeled  by  any  such  considerations  and  favored  by 
the  connivance  of  the  Sardinian  government,  having  gathered  a 
band  of  a  thousand  volunteers,  set  sail  from  Genoa  for  Sicily, 
where  upon  landing  he  assumed  the  title  of  Dictator  of  Sicily  for 


62S      LIBERATION   AND    UNIFICATION    OF    ITALY 


Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Italy,  and  quickly  drove  the  troops  of 
King  Francis  out  of  the  island.  Then  crossing  to  the  mainland 
he  marched  triumphantly  to  Naples,  whose  inhabitants  hailed  him 
tumultuously  as  their  deliverer. 

But  Garibaldi's  rashness  was  creating  a  situation  which  threat- 
ened to  bring  about  intervention  by  France  and  Austria,  and 
perhaps  by  other  powers.    Count  Cavour  saw  that  the  time  had 

come  for  the  Sardinian  govern- 
ment to  assume  guidance  of  the 
revolutionary  movement.  The 
papal  territories  of  Umbria  and 
the  Marches  were  accordingly 
occupied  by  a  Sardinian  army, 
which  then  marched  southward 
and,  by  the  capture  after  a  long 
siege  of  the  Neapolitan  strong- 
hold of  Gaeta,  completed  the 
work  of  the  Garibaldian  volun- 
teers. Meanwhile,  a  plebiscite, 
or  popular  vote,  having  been 
ordered,  Umbria,  the  Marches, 
Naples,  and  Sicily  voted  almost 
unanimously  for  annexation  to  the  Sardinian  kingdom. 

Thus  was  another  long  step  taken  in  the  unification  of  Italy. 
Nine  millions  more  of  Italians  had  become  the  subjects  of  Victor 
Emmanuel.  There  was  now  wanting  to  the  complete  union  of 
Italy  only  Venetia  and  Rome  with  the  lands  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  city,  known  as  the  "Patrimony  of  Saint 
Peter." 

696.  Venetia  added  to  the  Kingdom  (1866). — The  Seven 
Weeks'  War  (sec.  710),  which  broke  out  between  Prussia  and 
Austria  in  1866,  afforded  the  Italian  patriots  the  opportunity  for 
which  they  were  watching  to  make  Venetia  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  Victor  Emmanuel  formed  an  alliance  with  the  king  of 
Prussia,  one  of  the  conditions  of  which  was  that  no  peace  should 
be  made  with  Austria  until  she  had  surrendered  Venetia  to  Italy. 


Fig.  104.  —  Garibaldi.    (From 
an  engraving) 


ROME   BECOMES   THE   CAl'lTAL  629 

The  speedy  issue  of  the  war  added  the  coveted  territory  to  the 
dominions  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  Rome  alone  was  now  lacking  to 
the  virtually  complete  unification  of  Italy.^ 

697.  Rome  becomes  the  Capital  (1870).  — After  the  liberation 
of  Naples  and  Sicily  the  city  of  Turin,  the  old  capital  of  the  Sar- 
dinian kingdom,  was  made  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of 
Italy.  In  1865  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  to  Flor- 
ence. But  the  Italians  looked  forward  to  the  time  when  Rome, 
the  ancient  mistress  of  the  peninsula  and  of  the  world,  should  be 
their  capital.  The  power  of  the  Pope,  however,  was  upheld  by 
the  French,  who  maintained  a  garrison  in  the  Papal  States  from 
1849  to  1870,  and  this  made  it  impossible  for  the  Italians  to 
have  their  will  in  this  matter  without  a  conflict  with  France. 

But  events  soon  gave  the  coveted  capital  to  the  Italian  govern- 
ment. In  1870  came  the  sharp,  quick  war  between  France  and 
Prussia,  and  the  French  troops  at  Rome  were  hastily  summoned 
home.  Upon  the  overthrow  of  the  French  monarchy  and  the 
establishment  of  the  republic,  Victor  Emmanuel  was  informed 
that  France  would  no  longer  sustain  the  papal  power.  The  Italian 
government  at  once  gave  notice  to  the  Pope  that  Rome  would 
henceforth  be  considered  a  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and 
forthwith  an  Italian  army  entered  the  city,  which  by  a  vote  of 
almost  a  hundred  to  one  ^  resolved  to  cast  in  its  lot  with  that  of 
the  Italian  nation. 

The  family  was  now  complete.  Italy  was  a  nation  —  and  the 
only  great  nation  in  Europe  *'  made  not  by  conquest  but  by  con- 
sent." July  2,  1 87 1,  Victor  Emmanuel  himself  entered  Rome 
and  took  up  his  official  residence  there.  Since  then  the  Eternal 
City  has  been  the  seat  of  the  national  government,  —  the  capital 
of  a  free  and  united  Italy.* 

2  Some  Italian  patriots  refuse  to  regard  the  unification  of  Italy  as  complete  until 
Trieste  and  the  Tyrol,  together  with  Malta  and  Corsica,  which  provinces  and  islands 
are  largely  Italian  in  blood  and  speech,  shall  have  been  annexed  to  the  Italian  king- 
dom. To  them  these  essentially  Italian  lands  under  foreign  rule  are  "  unredeemed 
Italy"  (Italia  irredenta).  «  Exactly  133,681  to  1507. 

*  Victor  Emmanuel  II  died  in  1878,  and  his  son  came  to  the  throne  with  the  title 
of  Humbert  I.  He  was  assassinated  in  1900,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son,  Victor 
Emmanuel  III. 


630      LIBERATION   AND   UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 

698.  End  of  the  Temporal  Power  of  the  Papacy. — The  occupa- 
tion of  Rome  by  the  Italian  government  marked  the  end  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  Pope,  and  the  end  of  an  ecclesiastical 
state,  the  last  in  Europe,  which  from  long  before  Charlemagne 
had  held  a  place  among  the  temporal  powers  of  Europe,  and 
during  all  that  period  had  been  a  potent  factor  in  the  poHtical 
affairs  not  only  of  Italy  but  of  almost  the  whole  continent.  The 
papal  troops,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  guardsmen,  were  dis- 
banded. The  Vatican  palace  and  some  other  buildings  with  their 
grounds  were  reserved  to  the  Pope  as  a  place  of  residence,  to- 
gether with  a  yearly  allowance  of  over  six  million  dollars.  By  a 
statute  known  as  the  Law  of  the  Papal  Guarantees  (1871),  the 
Pope  was  secured  in  the  free  exercise  of  his  spiritual  functions. 

These  arrangements  have  subsisted  down  to  the  present  time. 
Under  them  the  Pope  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  subject  of  the 
Italian  government  but  rather  as  a  sovereign  residing  at  Rome. 
Like  a  sovereign  he  has  the  right  to  send  and  to  receive  embas- 
sies. His  person  is  inviolable.  No  Italian  officer  may  enter  the 
Vatican  or  its  grounds,  which  the  Italian  government  respects  the 
same  as  though  they  were  foreign  territory.^ 

699.  The  Vatican  and  the  Quirinal :  ^  the  Roman  Question.  — 
The  popes  "^  have  steadily  refused  to  recognize  the  legitimacy  of 
the  act  whereby  they  were  deprived  of  the  temporal  government 
of  Rome  and  the  Papal  States,  and  have  protested  against  it  by 
refraining  from  setting  foot  outside  the  gardens  of  the  Vatican, 
by  refusing  to  accept  the  annuity  provided  for  them,  and  in 
various  other  ways. 

5  It  is  a  matter  worthy  of  note  that  just  a  few  months  before  the  loss  of  his  tem- 
poral sovereignty  a  great  ecumenical  council  of  the  Catholic  Church  (the  Vatican 
Council  of  1869-1870)  had  by  a  solemn  vote  proclaimed  the  doctrine  of  papal  infalli- 
bility, which  declares  the  decisions  of  the  Pope,  when  speaking  ex  cathedra,  "on 
questions  of  faith  and  morals,"  to  be  infallible. 

6  The  Palace  of  the  Quirinal  at  Rome  contains  the  offices  of  the  Italian  govern- 
ment, and  thus  the  term  Quirinal  typifies  the  secular  as  the  term  Vatican  typifies 
the  spiritual  power  in  Italy. 

7  Pius  IX  died  in  1878  and  was  followed  in  the  pontificate  by  Leo  XIII,  who  died 
July  20,  1903,  at  the  patriarchal  age  of  ninety-three,  after  having  won  a  place  among 
the  greatest  and  the  best  of  the  popes.  The  College  of  Cardinals  elected  as  his  suc- 
cessor Cardinal  Joseph  Sarto,  Patriarch  of  Venice,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Pius  X. 


THE  VATICAN  AND  THE  QUIRINAL 


631 


The  partisans  of  the  Papacy  maintain  that  the  act  of  dispos- 
session was  an  act  of  impious  spoliation,  and  that  there  can  be 
no  settlement  of  the  Roman  Question  save  through  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Pope  to  his  former  status  as  an  independent  temporal 
sovereign.  They  contend  that  only  through  the  possession  of 
temporal  power  can  the  Pope  be  secure  in  his  independence 
as  the  spiritual  head 
of  Catholic  Chris- 
tendom. They  de- 
mand, therefore,  the 
retrocession  to  the 
holy  see  of  at  least 
the  city  of  Rome, 
—  maintaining  that 
either  Turin  or 
Florence  or  Venice 
or  Naples  would 
serve  as  well  as 
Rome  for  the  seat 
of  the  Italian  gov- 
ernment. 

To  these  censures 
and  demands  of 
the  papal  party  the 
friends  of  the  mon- 
archy reply  that  the 
extension  of  the 
authority  of  the 
Italian  government  over  Rome  and  the  papal  territories  was  justi- 
fied by  the  modern  principle  of  nationality,  which  recognizes  in 
every  people  the  right  to  choose  their  form  of  government  and  to 
shape  their  own  destiny.  As  to  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  the 
Italian  government  from  Rome  to  some  other  city  of  the  penin- 
sula, they  maintain  that  the  force  of  unique  historical  associations, 
and  race  traditions  and  memories,  make  Rome  the  logical  and 
inevitable  capital  of  a  united  Italy. 


Fig.  105. 


Pope  Pius  X.    (From  a 
photograph) 


632      LIBERATION  AND   UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 

The  long  and  heated  controversy  has  had  lamentable  conse- 
quences for  Italy.  It  has  called  mto  existence  two  bitterly 
hostile  parties;  it  has  hampered  the  Italian  government  in 
many  of  its  policies  of  reform;  and  at  different  times  it  has 
even  imperiled  the  very  existence  of  the  monarchy. 

700.  Doubtful  National  Policies ;  Reform  and  Progress.  —  Other 
things  have  concurred  with  the  antagonism  between  the  Vatican 
and  the  Quirinal  to  retard  Italy's  progress  under  the  new  regime. 
Among  these  hindrances  may  be  reckoned  an  ill-advised  colonial 
poHcy  (sec.  738,  n.  19)  and  an  unfortunate  yet  natural  ambition 
to  play  the  role  of  a  great  European  power,  both  of  which  have 
caused  the  government  to  neglect  domestic  concerns  and  to  burden 
the  country  with  the  maintenance  of  an  army  and  a  navy  altogether 
disproportioned  to  its  needs  and  to  its  strength. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  these  hindrances  to  national  progress, 
very  much  has  been  accomplished  since  the  winning  of  inde- 
pendence and  nationality.  Brigandage,  an  element  of  the  bad 
heritage  from  the  time  of  servitude,  oppression,  and  disunion, 
has  been  in  a  great  degree  suppressed ;  railways  have  been 
built ;  the  Alps  have  been  tunneled ;  the  healthfulness  of  the 
Campagna  and  other  districts  has  been  increased  by  extensive 
systems  of  drainage,  and  regions  long  given  over  to  desolation 
have  been  made  habitable  and  productive ;  the  dense  ignorance 
and  the  deep  moral  degradation  of  the  masses,  particularly  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  peninsula,  —  another  element  of  the 
evil  inheritance  from  the  past,  —  have  been  in  a  measure  over- 
come and  relieved  by  a  public  system  of  education ;  and  Rome 
has  been  rebuilt,  and  from  the  position  of  a  mean  provincial  town 
raised  to  a  place  among  the  great  capitals  of  modern  Europe. 

As  to  the  progress  made  during  the  last  thirty  years  in  the 
development  of  the  sentiment  of  nationality,  upon  the  strength 
of  which  depends  the  peace,  permanency,  and  prosperity  of  the 
new  kingdom  of  Italy,  a  recent  disaster  furnishes  a  milestone  by 
which  to  measure  advance.  In  1902  the  great  historic  campanile 
which  dominated  St.  Mark's  in  Venice  (see  Plate  II),  fell  in  a 
pathetic    heap    of   ruins.    Every  city  of    the   peninsula,   says    a 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  633 

chronicler  of  the  event,  mourned  just  as  if  the  tower  had  been 
its  own,  —  "and  then  they  opened  a  subscription."  Had  the 
catastrophe  happened  a  single  generation  ago  Venice  would  have 
had  to  restore  her  own  bell  tower ;  but  Italy  is  to-day  a  Nation, 
and  the  misfortune  which  befalls  any  Italian  city  afflicts  all  alike. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Mazzini,  Life  and  Writings.  Should 
be  read  by  all  those  whose  souls,  to  use  one  of  Mazzini's  own  phrases,  need 
to  be  retempered  in  abhorrence  of  tyranny.  Della  Rocca,  The  Auto- 
biography of  a  Veteran,  iSoy-iSgj.    A  narrative  of  simplicity  and  charm. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Probyn,  Italy:  from  the  Fall  of  Napoleon  /,  in 
18 IS,  to  the  Year  i8go,  and  Stillman,  The  Union  of  Italy,  iSis-iSgs- 
The  first  of  these  affords  the  best  short  account  for  young  readers;  the 
second  is  the  best  for  a  careful  study.  Martinengo  Cesaresco,  The 
Liberation  of  Italy,  181^-1870 ;  also  by  the  same  writer,  Cavonr.  Thayer, 
The  Dawn  of  Italian  Independence.  Mazade,  Life  of  Cavour.  Dicey, 
Victor  Emmanuel.  Ki]>!G,  Mazzini.  Yentvri,  foseph  Alazzini.  Gallenga, 
The  Pope  and  the  King;   The  War  between  Church  and  State  in  Italy. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  little  republic  of  San  Marino. 
2.  Joseph  Mazzini.  3.  Count  Cavour.  4.  The  Mount  Cenis  tunnel. 
5.  The  Quirinal  and  the  Vatican. 


CHAPTER   XL 
THE   MAKING   OF   THE   NEW   GERMAN   EMPIRE 

701.  Formation  of  the  German  Confederation  (18 15). — The 
creation  of  the  new  German  Empire  is  the  most  important 
matter  in  the  political  history  of  Europe  since  Waterloo.  The 
story  of  this  great  achievement  affords  a  most  instructive  com- 
mentary upon  the  outworkings  of  the  principles  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, —  the  principles  of  popular  sovereignty  and  nationality.  It 
tells  how  nearly  forty  autocratically  governed  and  practically 
sovereign  states,  German  in  speech  and  blood,  which  had  been 
long  separated  by  the  policy  of  their  divine-right  rulers  or  by 
the  circumstances  of  history,  won  free  institutions  and  united 
to  form  a  true  German  fatherland. 

This  story,  so  far  as  it  will  be  narrated  in  the  present  chapter, 
begins  with  the  Congress  of  Vienna.^  That  body  reorganized 
Germany  as  a  Confederation,  with  the  Emperor  of  Austria  as 
President  of  the  league.  The  union  consisted  of  the  Austrian 
Empire,  and  the  four  kingdoms  of  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and 
Wiirtemberg,  besides  various  principalities  and  free  cities,  —  in 
all,  thirty-nine  states.  A  Diet  formed  of  delegates  from  the  sev- 
eral states,  and  sitting  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  was  to  settle  all 
questions  of  dispute  arising  between  members  of.  the  Confedera- 
tion, and  to  determine  matters  of  general  concern.  In  all  matters 
concerning  itself  alone,  each  state  was  to  retain  its  independence. 
It  might  carry  on  war  with  foreign  states  or  enter  into  alliance 
with  them,  but  it  must  do  nothing  to  harm  the  Confederation  or 
any  member  of  it. 

The  articles  of  union,  in  a  spirit  of  concession  to  the  growing 
sentiment  of  the  times,  provided  that  all  sects  of  Christians  should 

1  For  a  word  as  to  how  Napoleon's  reconstruction  of  the  Germanic  body  laid  the 
basis  of  German  unity,  see  sec.  621. 

634 


DEFECTS   OF  THE   CONFEDERATION  635 

enjoy  equal  toleration,  and  that  every  state  should  establish  a 
representative  form  of  government. 

702.  Defects  and  Weaknesses  of  the  Ck)nfederation. — The  ties 
uniting  the  various  states  of  this  Confederation  could  hardly  have 
been  more  lax.  In  this  respect  the  league  resembled  that  first 
formed  by  the  American  states  under  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion. One  chief  defect  of  the  constitution  of  the  league  lurked  in 
the  provisions  concerning  the  Federal  Diet.  The  unwillingness  of 
the  several  states  to  surrender  any  part  of  their  sovereignty  had  led 
to  the  insertion  of  the  rule  that  no  measure  of  first  importance 
should  be  adopted  by  the  Diet  save  by  a  unanimous  vote.  The 
inevitable  result  of  this  provision  was  that  no  measure  of  first 
importance  was  ever  passed  by  the  assembly,  which  became 
throughout  Europe  a  byword  for  hopeless  inefficiency. 

Another  defect  in  the  federal  government  was  that,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  American  Federation,  there  existed  no  effective 
machinery  for  carrying  out  the  acts  of  the  Federal  Diet.  These 
amounted  practically  to  nothing  more  than  recommendations  to 
the  rulers  of  the  several  states,  who  paid  no  heed  whatsoever  to 
them  unless  they  chanced  to  be  in  line  with  their  own  policies  or 
inclinations. 

But  what  contributed  more  than  all  else  to  render  the  federal 
scheme  wholly  unworkable  was  the  presence  in  the  league  of  two 
powerful  and  mutually  jealous  states,  Austria  and  Prussia,  neither 
of  which  was  willing  that  the  other  should  have  predominance  in 
the  affairs  of  the  Confederation. 

Of  these  two  rival  states  Prussia,  though  at  first  she  yielded 
nominal  precedence  to  Austria,  which  had  a  great  past  and  enjoyed 
a  vast  prestige  at  the  European  courts,  was  in  reality  the  stronger 
and  the  more  promising  state.  Her  strength  lay  particularly  in  the 
essentially  German  character  of  her  population.  Austria  was  inher- 
ently weak  because  of  the  mixed  non-German  character  of  most  of 
the  territories  that  had  been  gradually  united  under  the  nile  of  the 
Hapsburgs.  The  greater  part  of  their  lands  lay  outside  of  the 
German  Confederation  and  contained  nearly  twenty-five  million 
Slavs,  Magyars,  Italians,  and  other  non-German  subjects. 


636      MAKING  OF   THE  NEW  GERMAN   EMPIRE 

This  difference  in  the  character  of  the  populations  of  Prussia 
and  the  Austrian  Empire  foreshadowed  their  divergent  destinies, 
—  foreshadowed  that  Austria  should  lose  and  that  Prussia  should 
gain  the  leadership  in  German  affairs. 

703.  The  Dual  Movement  towards  Freedom  and  Union ;  Metter- 
nich  and  the  Absolutist  Reaction.  —  For  a  half  century  after  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  the  history  of  Germany  is  the  history  of  a 
dual  movement,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  say  two  move- 
ments, one  democratic  and  the  other  national  in  character.  The 
aim  of  the  first  movement  was  the  establishment  of  representative 
government  in  the  different  states  of  the  Confederation ;  the  aim  of 
the  second  was  German  unity.  These  movements  were  essentially 
the  same  as  those  which  we  have  seen  creating  in  the  Italian  pen- 
insula a  free  and  united  Italy.  They  were  to  have  the  same  issue 
here  in  Germany,  —  the  creation  of  a  free  and  united  German 
fatherland. 

It  was  the  democratic  sentiment,  the  desire  for  free  institu- 
tions, which  first  made  itself  felt.  Several  of  the  princes  of  the 
smaller  states,  in  particular  of  those  states  along  the  Rhine  which 
had  been  most  directly  under  French  influence,  yielding  to  the 
popular  demand,  granted  their  subjects  constitutions  or  created 
representative  bodies  of  limited  powers. 

Metternich,  who  controlled  the  policies  of  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment, did  not  approve  of  the  action  of  these  liberal-minded  rulers. 
He  bade  them  remember  that  all  the  terrible  trouble  in  France 
had  begun  with  the  assembling  of  the  States-General,  and  solemnly 
adjured  them  not  to  commit  such  an  unpardonable  error  as  Louis 
XVI  committed  in  allowing  that  body  to  come  together.  Several 
of  the  princes  who  had  instituted  representative  government  were 
frightened  into  withdrawing  the  constitutions  they  had  granted 
and  were  persuaded  to  return  to  the  safe  and  tried  system  of 
government  by  the  sole  will  of  the  sovereign. 

704.  The  Revolutions  of  1830 :  Some  Gains  for  Constitutional 
Government.  —  We  have  seen  what  were  the  consequences  of  the 
reactionary  policy  of  the  Bourbons  in  France  and  of  the  despots 
in  Italy.    Events  ran  exactly  the  same  course  in  Germany.    When 


FORMATION  OF  THE  CUSTOMS   UNION         637 

the  news  of  the  February  Revolution  in  Paris  spread  beyond  the 
Rhine,  a  sympathetic  thrill  shot  through  Germany,  and  in  places 
the  Liberal  party  made  threatening  demonstrations  against  their 
reactionary  rulers.  In  several  of  the  minor  states  constitutions 
were  granted. 

Thus  a  little  was  gained  for  free  political  institutions,  though 
after  the  flutter  of  the  revolutionary  years  the  princes  again  took 
up  their  reactionary  policy,  and  under  the  influence  of  Metter- 
nich  did  all  in  their  power  to  check  the  popular  movement  and 
to  keep  governmental  matters  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people. 

705.  Formation  of  the  Customs  Union ;  First  Step  towards 
German  Unity  (1828-1836).  —  It  was  just  at  this  revolutionary 
epoch  that  the  first  step  was  taken  in  the  formation  of  a  real 
German  nation.  Under  the  Act  of  Confederation  of  1815  the 
members  of  the  Germanic  body  were  situated  in  respect  to  inter- 
state trade  almost  precisely  as  the  American  colonies  were  under 
the  Articles  of  Confederation  of  1781.  And  as  it  was  the  neces- 
sity of  some  general  regulations  in  regard  to  commerce  that 
impelled  the  American  states  to  form  a  closer  union,  so  it  was 
the  same  necessity  which  now  led  the  loosely  confederated  states 
of  Germany  to  enter  into  an  arrangement  known  as  the  Zollverein^ 
or  Customs  Union.  This  was  a  sort  of  commercial  treaty  binding 
those  states  that  became  parties  to  it  — by  the  year  1836  almost 
all  the  states  of  the  Confederation  save  Austria  had  become  mem- 
bers of  the  league  —  to  adopt  among  themselves  the  policy  of 
free  trade ;  that  is,  there  were  to  be  no  duties  levied  on  goods 
passing  from  one  state  of  the  Union  to  another  belonging  to  it. 

The  greatest  good  resulting  from  the  Union  was  that  it  taught 
the  people  to  think  of  a  more  perfect  national  union.  And  as 
Prussia  was  the  promoter  of  the  trade  confederation,  it  accus- 
tomed the  smaller  states  to  look  to  her  as  their  head  and  chief. 

706.  The  Uprisings  of  1848  ;  Further  Gains  for  Constitutional 
Government.  —  The  history  of  Germany  from  the  uprising  of 
1830  to  that  of  1848  may  be  summarized  by  saying  that  during 
all  these  years  the  people  were  steadily  growing  more  and  more 
earnest  in  their  demands  for  liberal  forms  of  government,  while 


638       MAKING  OF  THE   NEW  GERMAN  EMPIRE 

most  of  the  princes,  strangely  blind  to  the  spirit  and  tendency  of 
the  times,  were  stubbornly  refusing  all  concessions  that  should 
take  from  them  any  of  their  power  as  absolute  rulers.  In  some 
instances  the  constitutions  already  granted  were  annulled  or 
their  articles  were  disregarded. 

Finally,  in  1848,  news  flew  across  the  Rhine  of  the  uprising  in 
France  against  the  reactionary  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  and 
of  the  establishment  by  the  French  people  of  a  new  republic. 
The  intelligence  kindled  a  flame  of  excitement  throughout  Ger- 
many. The  Liberals  everywhere  arose  and  demanded  constitutional 
government.  Almost  all  the  princes  of  the  minor  states  yielded  to 
the  popular  clamor  and  straightway  adopted  the  liberal  measures 
and  instituted  the  reforms  demanded.  In  Austria  and  Prussia, 
however,  the  party  of  reform  carried  their  point  only  after  demon- 
strations that  issued  in  bloodshed. 

Especially  in  Austria  did  affairs  at  this  epoch  assume  a  most 
threatening  aspect.^  Metternich  was  obliged  to  flee  the  country. 
He  went  to  England,  whither  Louis  Philippe  had  just  preceded 
him.  The  Emperor  Ferdinand  I  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  nephew 
Francis  Joseph  (Dec.  2,  1848),  who  granted  the  people  a  consti- 
tution and  assented  to  the  calling  of  a  national  assembly  to  be 
formed  of  representatives  from  all  his  hereditary  dominions, 
chosen  by  popular  vote.^ 

At  the  Prussian  capital  Berlin  there  was  serious  fighting  in  the 
streets  between  the  people  and  the  soldiers,  and  the  excitement 
was  not  quieted  until  the  king,  Frederick  William  IV,  assured 
the  people  that  their  demands  for  constitutional  government 
should  be  granted.  In  fulfillment  of  this  promise  the  king  granted 
a  constitution  and  took  an  oath  to  rule  in  accord  with  its  provi- 
sions (Feb.  6,  1850).  Prussia  thus  joined  the  ranks  of  constitu- 
tional states.    This  state  was  now  to  play  in  the  unification  of 

2  The  most  serious  trouble  was  in  Hungary.  Led  by  the  distinguished  statesman 
and  orator  Louis  Kossuth,  the  Hungarians  rose  in  revolt  and  declared  their  independ- 
ence of  the  Austrian  crown  (April  14,  1849).  They  made  a  noble  fight  for  freedom, 
but  were  overpowered  by  the  united  Austrian  and  Russian  armies.  Kossuth  escaped 
into  Turkey.  He  died  in  exile  at  Turin  in  1894. 

8  The  Austrian  constitution  was  withdrawn  in  185 1. 


BISMARCK,  THE   UNIFIER   OF  GERMANY       639 

Germany  a  part  like  that  played  by  the  constitutional  state  of 
Piedmont  in  the  unification  of  Italy.  Henceforth  Prussian  history 
is  German  history.* 

707.  Bismarck,  the  Unifier  of  Germany. — In  the  year  1861 
Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia  died,  and  his  brother,  already  an 
old  man  of  sixty-three  yet  destined  to  be  for  almost  a  generation 
the  central  figure  in  the  movement  for  German  unity,  came  to  the 
Prussian  throne  as  William  I.  He  soon  called  to  his  side  Otto 
von  Bismarck  as  Premier  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  Bis- 
marck was  one  of  Germany's  greatest  sons,  —  the  greatest  since 
Frederick  the  Great  or  Luther.  He  was  a  man  of  titantic  mold 
in  body  and  intellect,  of  imperious  will  and  iron  resolution.  He 
was  the  German  Cromwell.  His  appearance  at  the  head  of  the 
Prussian  government  marks  an  epoch  in  history.  "  With  that  day," 
writes  Sybel,  speaking  of  Bismarck's  accession  to  power,  "  a  new 
era  did  in  truth  begin  for  Prussia  and  Germany  and  so  for  Europe." 

Bismarck  believed  that  it  was  Prussia's  mission  to  effect  the 
unification  of  the  German  fatherland.  This  work  he  was  con- 
vinced could  be  accomplished  only  through  the  Prussian  royal 
house.  Hence  he  was  a  royalist,  in  truth,  almost  an  absolutist. 
He  believed  that  to  allow  the  royal  power  in  Prussia  to  be 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  the  royal  power  in  England  would 
be  to  destroy  the  sole  instrument  by  means  of  which  German 
unity  could  be  wrought  out.  This  conviction  determined 
Bismarck's  attitude  towards  the  Prussian  Parliament  when  it 
came  in  conflict  with  the  royal  power.  He  flouted  it  and 
trampled  it  under  foot.  He  was  known  as  the  "  Parliament 
tamer."    Naturally  he  was  distrusted  and  hated  by  the  Liberals. 

Bismarck  saw  clearly  enough  how  the  vexed  question  bet%veen 
Austria  and  Prussia  was  to  be  settled,  — "  by  blood  and  iron." 

^  About  this  same  time  the  growing  desire  for  German  nationality  expressed  itself 
in  an  attempt  to  bind  the  German  states  in  a  closer  union  by  means  of  a  real  national 
parliament  to  take  the  place  of  the  inefficient  Diet  created  by  the  Act  of  Confedera- 
tion in  1815.  To  this  end  there  met  in  Frankfort,  May  18,  1848,  a  Constituent  Assem- 
bly, the  members  of  which  had  been  elected  in  the  different  states  by  popular  vote, 
which,  like  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1879  »"  France,  was  charged  with  the  duty 
of  framing  a  national  constitution  for  the  Gennan  states.  Nothing  was  accomplished 
by  the  meeting. 


640       MAKING  OF  THE   NEW  GERMAN  EMPIRE 

Austria's  power  and  influence  must  be  destroyed  and  she  herself 
forcibly  expelled  from  Germany  before  the  German  states  could 
be  remolded  into  a  real  national  union. 

708.  The  Reform  of  the  Prussian  Army;  Bismarck's  Conflict 
with  the  Prussian  Parliament.  —  It  had  been  King  William's 
policy  to  reform  and  strengthen  the  Prussian  army.  He  had 
selected  Bismarck  as  his  prime  minister  because  he  knew  he 
would  carry  out  this  policy  in  the  face  of  the  opposition  of  the 
Prussian  House  of  Representatives,  That  body  w^ould  not  vote 
the  necessary  taxes.  Bismarck  held  that  it  was  their  duty  to 
make  the  necessary  appropriations  for  the  army  and  when  they 
persisted  in  withholding  grants  of  money  he,  backed  by  his 
sovereign  and  the  House  of  Lords,  raised  without  parliamentary 
sanction  what  money  he  needed  for  his  army  reforms. 

It  was  a  bold  and  dangerous  procedure,  and  has  been  likened 
to  that  followed  by  Charles  I  and  Strafford  in  England.  For- 
tunately for  King  William  and  his  imperious  minister  the  policy 
proved  highly  successful,  issuing  in  Prussia's  predominance  in  Ger- 
many and  in  German  unity,  —  and  the  "  Parhament  tamer"  and 
his  master  escaped  the  fate  of  the  English  king  and  his  minister! 

709 .  The  Schleswig-Holstein  War  (1864).  —  The  weapon  which 
Bismarck  had  forged  was  used  in  three  wars.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  Schleswig-Holstein  War.  Holstein  was  a  German  duchy 
held  by  the  Danish  king,  just  as  the  first  sovereigns  of  the  present 
dynasty  in  England  held  Hanover.  When,  in  1863,  Frederick  VII 
of  Denmark  died,  the  male  line  of  the  royal  family  became 
extinct,  and  it  was  held  by  the  Germans  that  now  this  duchy 
and  also  Schleswig,  for  an  old  treaty  was  regarded  as  having 
made  the  duchies  inseparable,  should  become  entirely  free  of 
the  Danish  crown,  just  as  Hanover  dropped  away  from  England 
upon  the  death  of  William  IV  and  the  accession  of  Victoria  in 
1837.  The  dispute  soon  ripened  into  war  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  and  the  new  Danish  king,  Christian  IX.  Denmark  was 
overpowered  and  forced  to  resign  her  claims  to  the  duchies. 

Straightway  the  duchies  became  a  bone  of  contention  between 
Austria  and  Prussia.    Bismarck  was  bent  on  annexing  them  to 


Plate  VIII.  —  Prince  Bismarck 
(After  a  painting  by  Franz  von  Lenbach) 


THE  SEVEN  WEEKS'  WAR         64I 

Pnissia,  since  they  would  be  a  most  valuable  possession  for  her 
as  a  prospective  sea  power,  giving  her  as  they  would  the  harbor 
of  Kiel  and  control  of  a  proposed  canal  uniting  the  Baltic  and 
the  North  Sea.  Austria  was  determined  that  her  rival  should  not 
get  them  unless  she  received  compensation  in  some  form,  —  a 
bit  of  Silesia,  and  the  promise  of  Prussia's  help  in  case  she  had 
difficulty  with  her  troublesome  non-German  provinces. 

There  was  endless  controversy  over  the  matter.  Bismarck 
realized  that  Prussia  could  secure  the  coveted  prize  only  through 
war  with  Austria,  and  to  this  extreme  he  was  ready  to  go  since 
a  war  would  settle  not  only  the  question  respecting  the  owner- 
ship of  the  duchies  but  also  the  larger  question  as  to  Austrian 
or  Prussian  predominance  in  Germany.  The  hopelessly  entangled 
Gordian  knot  was  to  be  cut  by  the  sword. 

710.  The  Austro-Prussian  or  Seven  Weeks'  War  (1866). — 
Both  Austria  and  Prussia  began  to  arm.  Bismarck  secured  the 
neutrality  of  France  by  permitting  the  Emperor  Napoleon  to 
believe  that  if  Prussia  secured  additional  territory  by  the  war, 
France  would  be  allowed  to  appropriate  Belgium  or  some  Rhenish 
lands  as  a  compensation. 

He  also  made  a  ready  ally  of  Italy  by  engaging  that  in  the 
event  of  a  successful  issue  of  the  war  the  new  Italian  kingdom 
should  in  return  for  its  alliance  receive  Venetia  (sec.  696).  Bids 
in  the  form  of  various  proposals  and  promises  were  also  made 
by  Bismarck  for  the  alliance  of  the  smaller  German  states ;  but 
almost  all  ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of  Austria,  so  that  in 
spite  of  the  Italian  alliance  it  seemed  like  an  unequal  contest 
into  which  Prussia  was  venturing,  since  her  population  was  not 
more  than  a  third  of  that  of  the  states  which  were  likely  to  be 
arrayed  against  her. 

But  Bismarck  had  been  preparing  Prussia  for  the  stniggle 
which  he  had  long  foreseen,  and  now  the  little  kingdom,  with  the 
best  disciplined  army  in  the  world,  ecjuipped  with  breech-loading 
needle  guns  and  headed  by  the  great  commander  Von  Moltke, 
was  to  astonish  the  world  by  a  repetition  of  her  achievements 
under  Frederick  the  Great. 


642       MAKING  OF  THE  NEW  GERMAN   EMPIRE 

The  war  was  carried  on  at  once  in  three  quarters,  —  in  the 
South  German  states,  in  the  Austrian  territory  of  Bohemia,  and 
in  Italy.  We  need  follow  only  the  campaign  in  Bohemia.  Here 
on  the  3d  of  July,  1866,  was  fought  the  great  battle  of  Sadowa, 
or  Koniggratz,  in  which  two  hundred  and  twenty-two  thousand 
Austrians  were  engaged  with  two  hundred  and  twenty-one  thou- 
sand Prussians.  This  was  one  of  the  great  and  decisive  battles 
of  history.  It  was  Austria's  Waterloo.  The  Prussians  pushing  on 
towards  Vienna,  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  was  constrained  to 
sue  for  peace,  and  on  the  23d  of  August  the  Treaty  of  Prague 
was  signed.^ 

The  long  debate  between  Austria  and  Prussia  was  over.  By 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  Austria  consented  to  the  dissolution 
of  the  old  German  Confederation  and  agreed  to  allow  Prussia  to 
reorganize  the  German  states  as  she  might  wish.  At  the  same 
time  she  surrendered  Venetia  to  the  Italian  kingdom.  The  hin- 
drances she  had  so  long  placed  in  the  way  both  of  German  and 
of  Italian  unity  were  now  finally  removed. 

711.  Establishment  of  the  North  German  Confederation  (1867). 
—  Now  quickly  followed  the  reorganization  under  the  presidency 
of  Prussia  of  the  German  states  north  of  the  Main  into  what  was 
called  the  North  German  Confederation.  There  were  twenty- 
one  states  in  all,  reckoning  the  three  free  cities  of  Hamburg, 
Bremen,  and  Llibeck.  The  domains  of  Prussia  were  enlarged  by 
the  annexation  of  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nassau,  the  free  city 
Frankfort,  and  the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein.  These 
annexations  gave  the  Prussian  king  nearly  five  million  new  subjects 
and  united  into  a  fairly  compact  dominion  his  heretofore  severed 
and  scattered  territories. 

A  constitution  was  adopted  which  provided  that  all  common 
concerns  should  be  committed  to  a  Federal  Parliament  or  Diet, 
the  members  of  the  lower  house  of  which  were  to  be  chosen  by 


6  The  fear  of  French  intervention  hastened  the  negotiations  on  the  part  of  the 
Prussian  court.  Since  the  Emperor  Napoleon  as  the  price  of  his  consent  to  ItaUan 
unity  had  received  Savoy  and  Nice  (sec.  694),  so  now  he  thought  to  wring  from  Ger- 
many some  Rhine  lands  as  the  price  of  his  consent  to  German  unity. 


THE   FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR  643 

universal  suffrage  in  the  different  states.  The  Prussian  king  was 
to  be  the  hereditary  executive  of  the  Confederation,  and  the 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  military  forces  of  the  several  states. 

Thus  was  a  long  step  taken  towards  German  unity.  Bismarck's 
policy  of  ''blood  and  iron,"  though  seemingly  rough  and  brutal, 
now  promised  to  prove  a  cure  indeed  for  all  of  Germany's  troubles. 
Though  so  much  had  been  effected,  there  was  still  remaining 
much  to  be  desired.  The  states  to  the  south  of  the  Main  — 
Baden,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt  —  were  yet 
wanting  to  complete  the  unification  of  the  Fatherland. 

A  chief  obstacle  which  had  prevented  the  South  German  states 
from  being  brought  into  the  new  union  was  French  jealousy.  The 
Emperor  Napoleon  had  insisted  that  the  river  Main  should  form 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  Confederation  of  the  North.  He 
had  thought  that  the  South  German  states  would  form  a  union 
among  themselves  and  look  to  him  as  their  champion  against 
Prussian  aggression.  Thus  he  hoped  to  be  able  to  maintain  the 
traditional  position  of  France  as  arbiter  of  German  affairs. 

712.  The  Franco-Prussian  War  (1870-187 1). — The  Austro- 
Prussian  War  had  laid  the  basis  of  a  Franco- Prussian  War.  It 
has  just  been  seen  how  German  unity  had  come  short  of  com- 
plete accomplishment  partly  through  the  officious  intermeddling 
of  the  Emperor  Napoleon.  But  it  was  intolerable  to  German 
patriots,  now  that  the  sentiment  of  German  nationality  was  grow- 
ing stronger,  that  France  should  be  allowed  to  dictate  to  Germans 
respecting  their  internal  affairs,  and  should  stand  between  them 
and  their  national  destiny. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  seemed  intolerable  to  the  French  that  a 
strong  German  Empire  should  be  allowed  to  arise  right  on  the 
frontier  of  France,  and  that  by  this  new  upstart  power  France 
should  be  shouldered  from  her  historic  position  as  arbiter  of 
Europe.  All  her  old  jealous  hatred  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg 
was  now  transferred  to  the  rising  House  of  Hohenzollern.  France 
awaited  simply  a  pretext  for  attacking  her  new  rival  and  pre- 
venting by  force  the  consummation  of  German  unity  under 
Prussian  headship. 


644       MAKING  OF  THE   NEW  GERMAN   EMPIRE 

She  had  not  long  to  wait.  In  1869  the  throne  of  Spain  became 
vacant.  It  was  offered  to  Leopold,  a  member  of  the  Hohenzollern 
family.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  III  affected  to  see  in  this  a 
scheme  on  the  part  of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern  to  unite  the 
interests  of  Prussia  and  Spain,  just  as  Austria  and  Spain  were 
united,  with  such  disastrous  consequences  to  the  peace  of  Europe, 
under  the  princes  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  Even  after  Leo- 
pold, to  avoid  displeasing  France,  had  declined  the  proffered 
crown,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  demanded  of  King  William  assur- 
ance that  no  member  of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern  should  ever 
with  his  consent  become  a  candidate  for  the  Spanish  throne. 

This  most  unreasonable  demand  was  made  of  King  William 
by  the  French  ambassador  Benedetti  at  the  little  watering  place 
of  Ems.  The  king  courteously  refused  the  demand  and  then 
sent  a  telegram  to  Bismarck  informing  him  of  what  had  occurred, 
at  the  same  time  giving  him  permission  to  make  such  use  of  the 
message  as  he  saw  fit.  Bismarck  edited  the  telegram  in  such  a 
way  as  to  convey  the  impression  that  the  French  ambassador  had 
been  brusquely  dismissed  by  King  William,  and  then  gave  it  out 
for  publication.  The  French  people  were  wild  with  rage.  War 
was  now  inevitable. 

The  important  thing  to  be  noted  here  is  the  enthusiasm  that 
the  war  awakened  not  only  throughout  the  states  of  the  North 
German  Confederation  but  among  the  states  of  the  South  as  well, 
which  placed  their  armies  at  the  disposal  of  King  William.  The 
cause  was  looked  upon  as  a  national  one,  and  a  patriotic  fervor 
stirred  the  hearts  of  all  Germans  alike.^ 

Probably  the  world  had  never  seen  a  more  perfect  instrument 
of  war  than  Prussia  had  forged  and  now  launched  against  France. 
In  the  matter  of  the  mobilization  and  transportation  of  the  troops 
everything  had  been  thought  out  and  prearranged  to  the  minutest 
detail.    Nothing  had  been  left  to  chance.    Every  emergency  had 


6  Bismarck  had  made  public  Napoleon's  request  for  Hesse  and  Rhenish  Bavaria  at 
the  time  of  the  Austro-Prussian  War.  These  revelations  had  created  a  tremendous 
sentiment  against  France  not  only  in  the  South  German  states  but  throughout  all 
Germany. 


PROCLAMATION   OF   THE   NEW  EMPIRE        645 


been  foreseen.  It  is  said  that  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  trains,  loaded 
with  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  soldiers,  dispatched  to  the 
French  frontier  not  one  was  a  minute  late.  This  was  in  striking 
contrast  to  the  state  of  unreadiness  and  confusion  on  the  French 
side,  where  regiments  were  sent  forward  without  their  arms,  and 
bewildered  generals  were  telegraphing  hither  and  thither  in  a 
frenzied  search  for  their  lost  commands.'^ 


Fig.  106.  —  Proclamation  of  King  William  as  Emperor  of 
Germany  at  Versailles,  January,  1871.  (After  a  painting 
by  Anton  von  Werner,  Prussian  Court  Painter) 

713.  The  Proclamation  of  the  New  German  Empire  (187 1). — 
The  astonishing  successes  of  the  German  armies  on  French  soil 
(sec.  654)  created  among  Germans   everywhere  such  patriotic 

7  There  was  a  deep  underlying  cause  of  the  superiority  of  the  German  army  over 
the  French  which  is  worth  noting.  We  have  seen  how,  in  the  dark  days  which  fol- 
lowed Jena  in  the  time  of  the  first  Napoleon,  the  statesmen  intrusted  with  devising 
means  for  Prussia's  regeneration  turned  to  education  as  the  surest  agency  for  the 
quickening  and  strengthening  of  the  Prussian  nation  (sec.  640).  It  was  her  system  of 
education,  quite  as  much  as  her  system  of  universal  military  service,  which  had  given 
Prussia  her  strength  and  which  was  now  leading  her  to  these  high  places.  It  is  told 
how  the  Prussian  soldiers  on  the  way  to  Sadowa  relieved  the  tedium  of  the  march  by 
discussing  the  Dialogues  of  Plato;  and  how  in  1870  these  same  student  soldiers,  with 
philological  leanings,  found  amusement  in  publishing  a  favorite  song  in  thirty-two 
different  languages.  Beyond  question  these  Prussian  bayonets  n»t  Mazzini's  require- 
ment for  bayonets,  —  that  they  should  have  ideas  at  their  point. 


646       MAKING  OF  THE  NEW  GERMAN  EMPIRE 

pride  in  the  Fatherland  that  all  the  obstacles  which  had  hitherto 
prevented  anything  more  than  a  partial  union  of  the  members  of 
the  Germanic  body  were  now  swept  out  of  the  way  by  an  irre- 
sistible tide  of  national  sentiment. 

While  the  siege  of  Paris  was  progressing,  commissioners  were 
sent  by  the  southern  states  to  Versailles,  the  headquarters  of  King 
William,  to  represent  to  him  that  they  were  ready  and  anxious  to 
enter  the  North  German  Union.  Thus  in  rapid  succession  Baden, 
Hesse,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Bavaria  were  received  into  the  Confeder- 
ation, the  name  of  which  was  now  changed  to  that  of  the  German 
Confederation. 

Scarcely  was  this  accomplished  when,  upon  the  suggestion  of 
the  king  of  Bavaria,  —  who  had  been  coached  by  Bismarck,  — 
King  William,  who  now  bore  the  title  of  President  of  the  Con- 
federation, was  given  the  title  of  Ge^'man  Emperor,  which  honor 
was  to  be  hereditary  in  his  family.  On  the  i8th  of  January,  187 1, 
within  the  Palace  of  Versailles,  —  the  siege  of  Paris  being  still  in 
progress, —  amidst  indescribable  enthusiasm  the  Imperial  dignity 
was  formally  conferred  upon  King  William,  and  Germany  became 
a  constitutional  Empire.^ 

Thus  amidst  the  throes  of  war  the  free  German  nation  was 
born.  The  German  people,  after  long  centuries  of  division  and 
servitude,  had  at  last  found  freedom  and  unity .^ 

714.  The  Cession  to  Germany  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine. — The 
essential  provisions  of  the  treaty  between  France  and  Germany 
have  already  been  given  (sec.  654).    The  cession  to  Germany  of 

8  The  new  German  Empire  constitutes  a  federal  state  belonging  to  the  same  class 
of  political  organizations  as  the  United  States,  Switzerland,  Canada,  and  the  newly 
formed  Australian  Commonwealth.  Aside  from  the  monarchical  hereditary  character 
of  the  federal  executive  and  of  the  executive  of  each  of  the  various  principalities, 
it  differs  from  our  Union  in  there  being  no  sort  of  equality  in  size  between  the  states 
constituting  the  Empire,  Prussia  exceeding  in  population  all  the  other  states  of  the 
union  taken  together.  (According  to  the  census  of  1900  the  population  of  Prussia 
was  34,472,509;  that  of  all  the  other  states,  including  Alsace-Lorraine,  was  21,  894, 
669.)  Again,  it  differs  from  our  federal  system  by  leaving  to  the  different  states 
in  large  measure  the  carrying  out  of  the  federal  laws. 

9  There  is,  however,  something  lacking  from  the  union.  There  are  nine  million 
persons  of  German  speech  and  German  blood  in  the  Austrian  Empire.  Whether  these 
Germans  shall  ever  come  to  form  part  of  the  German  nation  remains  for  the  future 
to  determine. 


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LATER   EVENTS  647 

Alsace  and  Lorraine  is  the  only  matter  connected  with  these 
momentous  transactions  upon  which  space  will  allow  us  here  to 
comment  anew. 

In  insisting  upon  the  surrender  of  these  provinces,  which  were 
and  which  still  remain  passionately  French  in  sympathy  and  senti- 
ment, although  only  partly  French  in  blood,  Bismarck  has  been 
severely  censured,  since  this  seems  a  gross  violation  of  the  modern 
principle  of  nationality,  particularly  as  the  inhabitants  of  the 
ceded  territories  were  not  allowed  to  have  any  voice  in  the 
question  of  their  transference.  But  Bismarck  reasoned  that  moral 
guarantees,  such  as  French  gratitude  for  lenient  treatment  after 
defeat,  would  prove  worthless ;  that  French  wounded  vanity 
would  impel  France  again  to  attack  Germany  when  a  favorable 
opportunity  occurred,  and  that  consequently  Germany  must  have 
material  guarantees.  "These  guarantees,"  said  Bismarck,  "we 
can  secure  only  by  pushing  the  frontier,  the  starting  point  of 
French  attacks,  farther  back  to  the  West,  and  causing  those 
fortresses  which  have  hitherto  threatened  us  to  be  placed  as 
defensive  bulwarks  in  the  hands  of  Germany." 

715.  Later  Events.  —  For  nearly  twenty  years  after  the  close  of 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  the  policy  of  the  new  Empire  was 
directed  by  Bismarck  as  the  first  Imperial  Chancellor.  We  can 
here  indicate  only  two  or  three  of  the  most  noteworthy  matters 
belonging  to  this  period  of  the  great  Chancellor's  rule. 

Special  interest  attaches  to  the  so-called  Kulturkampf^  which 
was  a  long,  bitter  struggle  carried  on  by  Bismarck  with  the 
Roman  see.  The  papal  party  was  hostile  to  the  new  German 
Empire  because  it  gave  predominance  in  Germany  to  Protestant 
Pnissia.  Very  soon  there  was  open  conflict  between  the  civil  and 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  Bismarck  secured  the  passage  of 
laws,  both  by  the  imperial  and  the  Prussian  Parliament,  in  restraint 
of  the  power  of  the  Catholic  clergy.  The  Pope  declared  the  laws 
null  and  void.  The  fight  grew  in  bitterness  and  recalled  to  mind 
the  struggle  between  Pope  Gregory  VII  and  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.  Bismarck  declared,  "We  shall  not  go  to  Canossa."  But  he  did 
go,  at  least  part  way,  for  in  order  to  secure  CathoHc  support  for 


648       MAKING   OF  THE  NEW  GERMAN  EMPIRE 


certain  of  his  policies,  he  entered  into  a  compromise  with  the 
Papacy,  and  the  strife  between  State  and  Church  was  finally 
stilled  (1887). 

In  his  foreign  policy  Bismarck's  greatest  achievement  was  the 
formation  of  what  is  known  as  the  Triple  Alliance  {Dreibund) 
between  the  German  Empire,  Austria- Hmigary,  and  Italy  (1882). 

The  chief  objects  of  the  Triple 
Alliance  were  to  curb  Russia's 
ambition  in  the  Balkans  and  to 
hold  France  back  from  a  war 
of  revenge  against  Germany. 
Without  doubt  this  league  has 
been  one  of  the  most  potent 
factors  making  for  the  peace 
of  Europe  during  the  last  two 
decades. 

In  1888  Emperor  Wilham  I 
died  at  the  venerable  age  of 
ninety-one.  His  death  moved 
profoundly  the  German  nation. 
His  reign  had  covered  great 
years  in  German  story,  and  he 
had  gone  with  his  people 
through  many  of  the  most 
momentous  passages  in  their 
history. 

William  I  was  followed  by  his 
son  Frederick,  who  at  the  time 
of  his  accession  was  suffering 
from  a  fatal  malady.  He  died  after  a  short  reign  of  three  months, 
and  his  son  came  to  the  throne  as  Emperor  William  II  (1888). 

It  was  generally  thought  that  the  young  sovereign  would  be 
completely  under  the  influence  of  Bismarck.  But  soon  the 
Emperor  disclosed  a  very  imperious  will  of  his  own.  His  rela- 
tions with  Bismarck  became  strained  and  the  aged  Chancellor 
was  brusquely  dismissed  (March  18,  1890).    Many  felt  that  the 


Fig. 


[07.  —  Emperor  William  II 
(From  a  photograph) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  649 

youthful  Emperor  had  treated  the  creator  of  the  Empire  and  the 
maker  of  the  imperial  fortunes  of  the  House  of  HohenzoUern 
with  gross  ingratitude.  On  the  other  hand,  the  friends  of  the 
Emperor  liken  Bismarck  to  Wallenstein,  and  accuse  him  of  "  aim- 
ing at  something  like  sovereign  sway  in  a  province  appertaining 
to  the  Emperor."  ^^ 

The  young  Emperor's  rule  since  his  dismissal  of  Bismarck  has 
been  a  very  personal  one.  He  would  have  made  an  ideal  divine- 
right  king  in  those  halcyon  days  for  autocratic  rulers  when  there 
were  no  representative  assemblies. 

The  remarkable  growth,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
Emperor,  of  the  party  known  as  the  Social  Democrats,  who 
advocate  an  extreme  programme  of  social  and  industrial  reform, 
is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  facts  connected  with  the  domestic 
history  of  the  Empire.^^ 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i,  No.  3, 
for  "  The  Act  of  Confederation "  and  other  documents  (ed.  by  James 
Harvey  Robinson).  Bismarck,  the  Man  and  the  Statesman  (being  Reflec- 
tions and  Reminiscences  of  Otto  Prince  von  Bismarck,  written  and  dictated 
by  himself  after  his  retirement  from  office  ;  ed.  by  A.  J.  Butler).  Moltke, 
The  Franco-German  War,  iSjo-iSji  (trans,  by  A.  Forbes). 

Secondary  Works.  —  Sybel,  The  Founding  of  the  German  Empire. 
Andrews,  The  Historical  Deiielopment  of  Modern  Europe,  vol.  i,  chaps,  vi, 
ix,  and  x;  and  vol.  ii,  chaps,  v  and  vi.  Henderson,  A  Short  History  of 
Germany,  vol.  ii,  chaps,  viii-x.  Lowe,  Prince  Bismarck.  Headlam, 
Bismarck  and  the  Founding  of  the  German  Empire.  Lowe,  The  German 
Emperor  William  II.  Bu sen,  Our  Chancellor.  L,0\VELi^  Governments  and 
Parties  in  Continental  Europe,  vol.  i,  chaps,  v  and  vi ;  and  vol.  ii,  chap.  vii. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  Carlsbad  Decrees.  2.  Louis  Kos- 
suth and  the  Hungarian  Revolt  (1848).  3.  Prince  Bismarck  as  "Parliament 
tamer."  4.  Prince  Leopold  and  the  Spanish  crown.  5.  The  Kulturkampf. 
6.  The  Triple  Alliance. 

1"  In  his  retirement  at  Friedrichsruh,  an  estate  which  was  a  gift  to  him  from  the 
grateful  Emperor  William  I,  Bismarck  played  the  part  of  a  "  German  Prometheus." 
He  hurled  defiance  at  all  his  enemies  and  did  not  scruple  to  subject  the  policies  of 
the  Emperor  and  his  ministers  to  the  most  caustic  criticism.  The  ex-Chancellor  died 
in  1898,  being  then  in  his  eighty-fourth  year. 

11  In  1871  this  party  cast  a  vote  of  about  124,000;  in  1903  its  vote  reached  the 
surprising  figure  of  over  2,911,000,  more  than  a  third  of  the  total  vote  cast 


CHAPTER  XLI 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  AFTER    1866 

716.  The  Reorganization  of  the  Austrian  Empire  after  Sadowa; 
the  Compromise  between  Austria  and  Hungary.  —  The  disaster  of 
Sadowa  did  for  Austria  what  the  disaster  of  Jena  did  for  Prussia, 
—  it  brought  about  its  political  and  social  regeneration. 

Chastened  by  the  bitter  humiliation  and  realizing  that  the 
maintenance  of  the  old  traditional  system  of  absolute  government 
was  henceforth  impossible,  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  was  now 
ready  to  make  concessions  to  the  national  aspirations  of  the  Mag- 
yars, and  to  yield  to  the  growing  demands  of  his  subjects  for 
liberal  reforms  and  constitutional  government.  Soon  after  Sadowa 
he  called  to  his  aid  the  able  Saxon  statesman  Count  Beust  and 
gave  into  his  hands  the  task  of  reorganizing  the  shattered  empire, 
just  as  after  Jena  King  Frederick  William  of  Prussia  intrusted  to 
Baron  vom  Stein  the  readjustment  of  Prussian  affairs  (sec.  640). 

The  first  step  and  the  most  important  one  in  the  process  of 
reorganization  was  the  recognition  by  the  Austrian  court  of  the 
claims  of  the  Magyars  to  the  right  of  equality  in  the  monarchy 
with  the  hitherto  dominant  German  race.  By  an  agreement 
known  as  the  Ausgleich,  or  Compromise,  the  relations  of  Austria 
and  Hungary  in  the  reconstituted  state  were  defined  and  regu- 
lated. It  provided  for  the  division  of  the  old  empire  into  two 
parts,  now  designated  as  the  Austrian  Empire  and  the  Hungarian 
Kingdom.^  Each  state  was  to  have  its  own  parliament,  the  one 
sitting  at  Vienna  and  the  other  at  Budapest,  and  each  was  to  have 
complete  control  of  its  own  internal  affairs.  Neither  was  to 
have  the  least  precedence  over  the  other. 

The  common  interests  of  the  two  states, — those  embracing  for- 
eign affairs,  the  army,  and  finances,  —  were  to  be  regulated  by  a 

1  The  official  designation  of  the  dual  state  is  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy, 

650 


DEPENDENT  RACES   IN  THE  MONARCHY       65 1 

third  peculiar  parliament,  the  so-called  "  Delegations,"  composed 
of  sixty  delegates  from  each  of  the  other  two  parliaments.  The 
hereditary  head  of  the  Austrian  state  was  to  be  also  the  constitu- 
tional king  of  Hungary. 

This  celebrated  compact  was  duly  ratified  by  the  parliaments 
of  Hungary  and  Austria,  and  the  long  struggle  between  the  Mag- 
yars and  the  House  of  Hapsburg  was  at  an  end.  The  Hungarian 
constitution  was  restored  and  the  same  year  (1867)  the  western  half 
of  the  monarchy  was  also  given  a  liberal  constitution,  and  Austria- 
Hungary  now  definitely  entered  the  ranks  of  constitutional  states. 


Fig.  108.  —  The  Parliament  Building  at  Budapest 
(From  a  photograph  by  the  author) 


717.  The  Dependent  Races  in  the  Monarchy ;  Federalism  versus 
Dualism.  — The  Compromise  of  1867  thus  reconstructed  the  old 
Austrian  Empire  as  a* dual  monarchy,  with  the  Germans  as  the 
ruling  race  in  the  western  half  of  the  state,  and  with  the  Magyars 
as  the  ruling  race  in  the  eastern  half.  It  made  no  recognition 
whatsoever  of  the  historic  rights  and  liberties  of  the  other  races 
or  nationalities  of  the  monarchy,  of  which  there  are  many.  That 
is  hardly  a  figure  of  speech  which  describes  the  Austro- Hungarian 
Monarchy  as  a  "  European  Tower  of  Babel."  In  the  Austrian 
Parliament  the  oath  is  administered  to  the  members  in  eight 
different  languages. 

Now  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  monarchy  the  Magyars,  who 
form    only   a    minority    of    the    population    of    the    Hungarian 


652  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY   AFTER  1866 

kingdom,^  but  who,  like  the  English,  are  a  people  of  extraordinary 
energy  and  of  great  pride  of  race,  are  holding  practically  all  the 
non-Magyar  races  of  the  kingdom  in  just  such  political  serfdom 
as  they  themselves  were  subjected  to  before  their  emancipation 
by  the  events  of  18 66-1 867. 

It  is  the  same  in  the  other  half  of  the  monarchy.  There  a  Ger- 
man minority^  is  holding  the  Czechs  in  Bohemia  and  the  Poles 
in  Galicia  in  a  state  of  subjection  similar  to  that  in  which  the 
Magyars  are  holding  the  non-Magyar  races  of  Hungary. 

Now  these  dependent  nationahties  claim  that  they  have  as 
good  a  right  to  self-government  as  have  either  the  Germans  or 
the  Magyars.  The  relations  of  Ireland  to  England,  and  the 
resulting  agitation  on  the  part  of  the  Irish  people  for  Home  Rule, 
will  convey  some  idea  of  the  situation  of  things  in  the  dual  mon- 
archy, and  of  the  turbulence  created  in  the  state  by  the  struggles 
for  autonomy  of  these  subject  races.  In  short,  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Monarchy  has  three  or  four  Irish  problems. 

It  would  seem  that  these  contentions  must  end  either  in  the 
disruption  of  the  monarchy,  or  in  the  recognition  by  the  two 
dominant  races  of  the  justice  of  the  claims  of  these  dependent 
peoples,  and  the  conversion  of  the  dual  monarchy  into  a  federal 
union  composed  of  as  many  states  as  there  are  different  nations 
or  well-defined  ethnic  groups  composing  the  population  of  the 
monarchy.  At  the  present  moment  the  strongest  bond  uniting 
the  different  races  of  the  monarchy  is  the  great  popularity  of  the 
reigning  sovereign.  The  Emperor  Francis'  Joseph  has  endeared 
himself  in  a  remarkable  degree  to  all  classes  of  his  subjects,  and 
so  long  as  he  lives  his  personal  ascendancy  will  doubtless  secure 
the  integrity  of  the  monarchy. 

718.  The  International  Phase  of  Austro-Hungarian  Questions. 
—  The  affairs  of  Austria- Hungary  are  almost  as  much  a  matter  of 
European  concern  as  are  those  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.    This  is 


2  The  census  of  1900  gives  the  total  number  of  inhabitants  of  Hungary  as  19,254,- 
559,  of  whom  only  7,426,730  are  returned  as  being  of  Hungarian  race, 

8  The  total  population  of  Austria  according  to  the  census  of  1900  was  26,150,708; 
the  number  of  Germans,  9,170,939. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  653 

so  for  the  reason  that  most  of  the  ethnic  groups  within  the  mon- 
archy, with  the  exception  of  the  Magyars,  who  constitute  a  com- 
pact and  complete  nation,  are  merely  detatched  areas  of  larger 
bodies  of  kindred  peoples  in  adjoining  lands,  and  that  there  is  a 
tendency  in  these  small  groups  to  gravitate  towards  the  larger 
masses  of  their  kindred  in  these  neighboring  countries.  Thus  the 
Austrian  Germans  are  drawn  towards  the  new  German  Empire ; 
the  Italians  in  Trieste  and  the  Tyrol  towards  the  Italian  king- 
dom ;  the  Rumanians  of  Transylvania  towards  the  principality  of 
Rumania ;  the  Slavs  of  the  South  towards  the  Balkan  Slav  states, 
and  the  Slavs  of  the  North,  in  times  of  special  discontent,  towards 
Russia.  Or  perhaps  it  would  be  more  exact  to  say  that  these  neigh- 
boring states  covet  these  Austro-Hungarian  lands  of  kindred  race 
and  await  an  opportunity  to  annex  them.  Hence  they  are  all  deeply 
interested  in  everything  that  concerns  the  stability  or  lack  of  sta- 
bility of  the  polyglot  monarchy. 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  Beust  (Count  von),  Memoirs.  Count 
Beust  was  not  only  the  reorganizer  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  but  the 
inspirer  of  many  of  those  liberal  reforms  which  after  1867  gave  a  new  and 
modem  aspect  to  the  political,  social,  and  intellectual  life  of  Austria.  His 
Memoirs  possess  a  deep  interest  for  the  student  of  the  history  of  the 
transition  from  the  Austria  of  Metternich  to  the  Austria  of  to-day. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Leger,  A  History  of  Austro-Hungary,  chaps, 
xxxv-xxxviii.  Lowell,  Governments  and  Parties  in  Continental  Europe^ 
vol.  ii,  chaps,  viii-x.  Andrews,  The  Historical  Development  of  Alodem 
Europe,  vol.  ii,  chaps,  vii  and  xii. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  At  this  point  it  would  be  well  for  the 
teacher  to  assign  as  subjects  for  special  study  the  minor  European  states, 
any  account  of  which  the  limitations  of  space  have  excluded  from  the 
text.  In  such  assignments  the  following  states  should  find  a  place: 
I.  Greece.  2.  The  Balkan  States.  3.  Switzerland.  4.  The  Scandinavian 
countries.     5.  Belgium.     6.  The  United  Netherlands. 


CHAPTER  XLII 
RUSSIA  SINCE  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

719.  The  Tsar  Alexander  I  as  a  Liberal  and  as  a  Reactionist.  — 

During  the  earlier  years  of  his  reign  the  Tsar  Alexander  I  (1801- 
1825)  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  certain  liberal  ideas.  It  was  due 
largely  to  his  influence  that  the  French  secured  a  constitution  upon 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  He  introduced  many  beneficent 
reforms  into  Russia,  and  even  encouraged  his  subjects  to  hope 
that  they  should  have  a  constitution  which  would  give  them  part 
in  the  government. 

But  conspiracies  among  his  own  subjects  and  the  popular  upris- 
ings throughout  Europe  all  tended  to  create  in  the  Tsar  a  revul- 
sion of  feeling.  From  an  ardent  apostle  of  liberal  ideas  he  was 
transformed  into  a  violent  absolutist,  and  spent  all  his  latter  years 
in  aiding  the  despotic  rulers  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany  to  repress 
every  movement  among  their  subjects  for  political  freedom. 

720.  The  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1828-1829.  — Alexander  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Nicholas  I  (1825-1855),  who,  carrying 
out  the  later  policy  of  his  predecessor,  strove  to  shut  out  from  his 
empire  every  liberalizing  influence  of  Western  Europe. 

In  1828,  taking  advantage  of  the  embarrassment  of  the  Sul- 
tan through  a  stubborn  insurrection  in  Greece,^  Nicholas  declared 
war  against  the  Ottoman  Porte.    The  Russian  troops  crossed  the 

1  This  was  the  struggle  known  as  the  War  of  Greek  Independence  (1821-1829). 
This  war  was  a  phase  of  the  hberal  and  national  movement  which  in  the  revolutionary 
year  of  182 1  agitated  the  Italian  and  Iberian  peninsulas.  Lord  Byron  devoted  his 
life  and  fortune  to  the  cause  of  Greek  freedom.  He  died  of  fever  at  the  siege  of 
Missolonghi  (1824).  England,  France,  and  Russia  finally  intervened.  The  Turko- 
Egyptian  fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  fleets  of  the  allies  in  the  bay  of  Navarino  (1827). 
The  year  after  this  event  began  the  Russian  campaign  in  the  Danubian  provinces,  as 
narrated  in  the  text. 

654 


THE   POLISH   REVOLT  655 

Balkans  without  serious  opposition,  and  were  marching  upon 
Constantinople  when  the  Sultan  sued  for  peace.  The  Treaty  of 
Adrianople  brought  the  war  to  a  close  (1829). 

Tsar  Nicholas  restored  his  conquests  in  Europe,  but  held  some 
provinces  in  Asia  which  gave  him  control  of  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Euxine.  The  Turkish  provinces  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia 
were  rendered  virtually  independent  of  the  Sultan.  All  Greece 
south  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus  was  liberated,  and  along  with  most 
of  the  islands  of  the  ^^gean  was  formed  into  an  independent 
kingdom  under  the  joint  guardianship  of  England,  France,  and 
Russia.  Prince  Otto  of  Bavaria  accepted  the  crown,  and  became 
the  first  king  of  the  little  Hellenic  state  *  (1832). 

721.  The  Polish  Revolt  (1830-1832).  —  In  accordance  with  a 
mandate  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  Poland  was  reestablished  as 
a  constitutional  kingdom  dependent  upon  Russia  in  some  such  way 
as  Ireland  was  subject  to  England  previous  to  the  Union  in  180 1. 
But  the  rule  of  the  Tsar  over  the  Poles  was  tyrannical,  and  they 
were  impatient  of  an  opportunity  to  throw  off  the  Russian  yoke. 
The  revolutionary  movements  of  the  year  1830  sent  a  wave  of 
hope  through  Poland ;  the  people  arose  and  drove  out  the  Rus- 
sian garrisons.  The  armies  of  the  Tsar,  however,  were  quickly  on 
the  spot,  and  before  the  close  of  the  year  183 1  the  Polish  patriots 
were  once  more  under  the  foot  of  their  Russian  master. 

It  was  a  hard  fate  that  awaited  the  unhappy  nation.  Their 
constitution  was  taken  away  and  Poland  was  made  a  mere  prov- 
ince of  the  Russian  Empire  (1832).  Multitudes  were  banished 
to  Siberia,  while  thousands  more  sought  an  asylum  in  England, 


2  In  1864  the  little  kingdom  was  enlarged  through  the  cession  to  it  of  the  Ionian 
Islands  by  England,  in  whose  hands  they  had  been  since  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
In  1881  it  received  Thessaly  and  a  part  of  Epirus  by  cession  from  Turkey,  but  in 
1897,  as  the  result  of  an  unfortunate  war  with  the  Sultan,  was  forced  to  accede  to  a 
treaty  which  gave  back  to  the  Ottoman  Porte  a  strip  of  Northern  Thessaly.  Under 
the  r6gime  of  freedom  substantial  progress  has  been  made.  The  population  of  the 
little  kingdom  rose  from  612,000  in  1832  to  2,433,806  in  1896.  Industry,  trade,  and 
commerce  have  revived.  The  Isthmus  of  Corinth  has  been  pierced  by  a  canal.  Rail- 
roads have  been  built.  Athens  has  taken  on  the  appearance  of  a  modem  capital.  Its 
university  has  an  attendance  of  between  two  and  three  thousand  students,  —  a  good 
omen  for  the  future.  • 


656    RUSSIA  SINCE  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

America,  and  other  countries.  Of  all  the  peoples  that  rose  for 
freedom  in  1830,  none  suffered  so  cruel  and  complete  an  extin- 
guishment of  their  hopes  as  did  the  patriot  Poles.* 

722.  The  Crimean  War  (185 3-1 85  6).  —  A  celebrated  parable 
employed  by  the  Tsar  Nicholas  in  conversation  with  the  English 
minister  at  St.  Petersburg  throws  a  good  deal  of  light  upon  the 
circumstances  that  led  to  the  Crimean  War.  "We  have  on  our 
hands,"  said  the  Tsar,  "  a  sick  man — a  very  sick  man ;  it  would  be 
a  great  misfortune  if  he  should  give  us  the  slip  some  of  these  days, 
especially  if  it  happened  before  all  the  necessary  arrangements 
were  made." 

Nicholas  had  cultivated  friendly  relations  with  the  English  gov- 
ernment, and  he  now  proposed  that  England  and  Russia  should 
divide  the  estate  of  the  "  sick  man,"  by  which  phrase  Turkey  of 
course  was  meant.  England  was  to  be  allowed  to  take  Egypt  and 
Crete,  while  the  Turkish  provinces  in  Europe  were  to  be  taken 
under  the  protection  of  the  Tsar,  which  meant  of  course  the 
complete  absorption,  in  due  time,  of  all  Southeastern  Europe  into 
the  Russian  Empire. 

A  pretense  for  hastening  the  dissolution  of  the  sick  man  was  not 
long  wanting.  A  quarrel  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Christians 
at  Jerusalem  about  the  holy  places  was  made  the  ground  by 
Nicholas  for  demanding  of  the  Sultan  the  admission  and  recogni- 
tion of  a  Russian  protectorate  over  all  Greek  Christians  in  the 
Ottoman  dominions.  The  demand  was  rejected,  and  Nicholas 
prepared  for  war.  The  Sultan  appealed  to  the  Western  powers 
for  help.  England  and  France  responded  to  the  appeal,  and  later 
Sardinia  joined  her  forces  to  theirs  (sec.  692). 

England  fought  to  prevent  Russia  from  getting  through  the 
Bosporus  to  the  Mediterranean  and  thus  endangering  her  route 
to  her  Eastern  possessions.  The  French  Emperor  acted  under  a 
variety  of  motives,  —  a  friendly  feeling  towards  England,  a  desire 
to  avenge  Moscow,  and  a  wish  to  render  his  recently  established 
imperial  throne  attractive  to  the  French  people  by  surrounding  it 
with  the  glamour  of  successful  war. 
8  For  Russia's  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  revolutionary  )*ars  1848-49,  see  sec.  706,  n.  2. 


EMANCIPATION   OF  THE  RUSSIAN   SERFS     657 

The  main  interest  of  the  struggle  centered  about  Sevastopol,  in 
the  Crimea,  Russia's  great  naval  and  military  depot  in  the  Euxine. 
The  siege  of  this  place,  which  lasted  eleven  months,  was  one  of  the 
most  memorable  in  history.  The  Russian  general  Todleben 
earned  a  great  fame  through  his  masterly  defense  of  the  works. 
The  English  "  Light  Brigade  "  earned  immortality  in  its  memor- 
able charge  at  Balaklava.  The  French  troops,  through  their  dash- 
ing bravery,  brought  great  fame  to  the  Emperor  who  had  sent 
them  to  gather  glory  for  his  throne. 

The  Russians  were  at  length  forced  to  evacuate  their  stronghold. 
The  war  was  now  soon  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
(March  30,  1856).  The  keynote  of  this  treaty  was  the  mainte- 
nance in  its  integrity  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  as  a  barrier  against 
Muscovite  encroachments.  Russia  was  given  back  Sevastopol, 
but  was  required  to  surrender  some  territory  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Danube ;  to  abandon  all  claims  to  a  protectorate  over  any  of  the 
subjects  of  the  Porte  ;  and  to  agree  not  to  raise  any  more  fortresses 
on  the  Euxine  nor  keep  upon  that  sea  any  armed  ships,  save  what 
might  be  needed  for  police  service.* 

723.  Emancipation  of  the  Russian  Serfs  ( 1 86 1 ) .  —  The  name  of 
Tsar  Alexander  II  (185 5-1 881)  will  live  in  history  as  the  Emanci- 
pator of  the  forty-six  millions  of  Russian  serfs.  In  order  to  ren- 
der intelligible  what  emancipation  meant  for  the  serfs,  a  word  is 
needed  respecting  the  former  land  system  in  Russia  and  the  per- 
sonal status  of  the  serf. 

As  to  the  first,  the  estate  of  the  lord  was  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  smaller  of  which  was  reserved  by  the  proprietor  for  his  own 
use,  the  larger  being  allotted  to  his  serfs,  who  formed  a  village 
community  known  as  the  Mir^ 

<  Russia  repudiated  this  article  of  the  treaty  during  the  Franco-Prussian  War  in 
1871.  She  has  restored  Sevastopol  and  its  fortresses  and  is  now  maintaining  a  strong 
fleet  of  war  ships  on  the  Black  Sea. 

6  This  social  and  economic  group  affords  the  key  to  much  of  the  history  of  the 
Russian  people.  It  is  the  Russian  counterpart  of  the  village  of  serfs  on  the  medixval 
manor  of  Western  Europe.  It  is  a  cluster  of  a  dozen  or  perhaps  a  hundred  families, 
—a  clan  settled  down  to  agricultural  life.  At  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great  ninety- 
nine  out  of  every  hundred  Russians  were  members  of  Mirs.  To^iay  about  nine 
tenths  of  the  people  live  in  these  little  villages. 


658      RUSSIA  SINCE  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

Besides  working  the  village  lands,  the  fruits  of  which  were 
enjoyed  by  the  serfs,  the  villagers  were  obliged  to  till  the  lands 
of  the  lord,  three  days  in  a  week  being  the  usual  service  required. 
The  serfs  were  personally  subject  to  the  lord  to  the  extent  that  he 
might  flog  them  in  case  of  disobedience,  but  he  could  not  sell  them 
individually  as  slaves  are  sold ;  yet  when  he  sold  his  estate  the 
whole  community  of  serfs  passed  with  it  to  the  new  proprietor. 

The  Emancipation  Code,  "  the  Magna  Carta  of  the  Russian 
peasant,"  which  was  promulgated  in  1861,  required  the  masters 
of  the  peasant  serfs  to  give  them  the  lands  they  had  farmed  for 
themselves,  for  which,  however,  they  were  to  make  some  fixed 
return  in  labor  or  rent.®  The  lands  thus  acquired  became  the 
common  property  of  the  village.  All  other  serfs,  such  as  house 
servants  and  operatives  in  factories,  were  to  gain  their  freedom  at 
the  end  of  two  years'  additional  service,  during  which  time,  how- 
ever, they  were  to  receive  fair  wages. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  our  South- 
ern States,  the  emancipation  of  the  Russian  serfs  has  not  met  all 
the  hopeful  expectations  of  the  friends  of  the  reform.  One  cause 
of  the  unsatisfactory  outcome  of  the  measure  is  that  the  villagers 
did  not  get  enough  land,  save  in  those  districts  where  the  earth 
is  very  rich,  to  enable  them  to  support  themselves  by  its  tillage. 
Hence  many  of  them  have  fallen  into  debt  and  become  the 
victims  of  heartless  usurers. 

724.  The  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-1878  ;  the  Treaty  of 
Berlin  ;  the  Dismemberment  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  —  Anxiously 
as  the  Treaty  of  Paris  had  provided  for  the  permanent  settlement 
of  the  Eastern  Question,  barely  twenty- two  years  had  passed 
before  it  was  again  up  before  Europe,  and  Russia  and  Turkey 
were  again  in  arms.  The  Sultan  could  not  or  would  not  give  his 
Christian  subjects  that  protection  which  he  had  solemnly  prom- 
ised should  be  given.    In  1875  the  Greek  Christian  population  of 

6  The  serfs  on  the  crown  lands,  about  23,000,000  in  number,  had  already  been 
freed  by  special  edicts  (the  first  issued  in  July,  1858).  They  were  given  at  once,  with- 
out any  return  being  exacted,  the  lands  they  had  so  long  tilled  as  nominal  bondsmen. 
We  say  nominal  bondsmen,  since  this  class  labored  under  only  a  few  restrictions  and 
were  subject  to  the  payment  merely  of  a  light  rent. 


VI  fin 


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THE  TREATY   OF   BERLIN 


659 


Herzegovina  and  Bosnia,  European  provinces  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,"  goaded  to  desperation  by  the  oppression  of  Turkish  tax- 
gatherers,  rose  in  revolt.  Then  the  Bulgarians  also  rose.  The 
Turkish  measures  of  repression  resulted  in  what  are  known  as  the 
"Bulgarian  atrocities,"  —  massacres  of  Christian  men,  women, 
and  children  more  revolting  perhaps  than  any  others  of  which 
history  tells. 

Fierce  indignation  was  kindled  throughout  Europe.  Servia  and 
Montenegro  declared  war.  The  Russian  armies  were  set  in  mo- 
tion.   Kars  in  Asia  Minor  and  Plevna  in  European  Turkey,  the 


Gortcbakoff      Disraeli 


Andrassy       Bismarck      Schuwaloff 


Fig.  109.  — The  Congress  of  Berlin.     (After  a  painting  by 
Anion  von  Werner,  Prussian  Court  Painter) 


latter  after  a  memorable  siege,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians, 
and  the  armies  of  the  Tsar  were  once  more  in  full  march  upon 
Constantinople,  with  the  prospect  of  soon  ending  forever  Turkish 
rule  on  European  soil,  when  England  inter\ened,  sent  her  fleet 
through  the  Dardanelles,  and  arrested  the  triumphant  march  of 
the  Russians. 


66o      RUSSIA  SINCE  THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

The  Treaty  of  Berlin'^  (1878)  adjusted  once  more  the  disor- 
ganized affairs  of  the  Sublime  Porte  and  bolstered  up  as  well  as 
was  possible  the  "  sick  man."  But  he  lost  a  good  part  of  his 
estate,  for  even  his  friends  had  no  longer  any  hope  either  of 
his  recovery  or  of  his  reformation.  Out  of  those  provinces  of  his 
dominions  in  Europe  in  which  the  Christian  population  was  most 
numerous,  there  was  created  a  group  of  wholly  independent  or 
half-independent  states.^  The  northern  frontier  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  in  Europe  was  thus  pushed  back  to  the  Balkans.  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  were  given  to  Austria-Hungary  to  administer,  but 
were  not  actually  severed  from  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

The  island  of  Cyprus,  by  a  secret  arrangement  between  the 
Ottoman  Porte  and  the  English  government,  was  ceded  to  Eng- 
land "  to  be  occupied  and  administered."  In  return  England 
guaranteed  the  integrity  of  the  Sultan's  possessions  in  Asia. 

Russia  acquired  some  places  in  Armenia,  which  gave  her  fuller 
control  of  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Euxine,  and  also  received 
Bessarabia  on  the  Lower  Danube,  which  territory  she  had  been 
forced  to  give  up  at  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War.  In  a  word, 
Russia  regained  everything  she  had  lost  in  that  struggle,  while 
Turkey  was  shorn  of  half  her  European  possessions.  There  were 
left  in  Europe  under  the  direct  authority  of  the  Sultan  barely  five 
million  subjects,  of  which  number  about  one  half  are  Christians.^ 

7  In  this  treaty  the  great  powers  revised  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  which  Russia 
had  concluded  with  Turkey,  and  which  practically  expelled  the  Ottoman  Porte  from 
Europe. 

8  The  absolute  independence  of  Rumania  (the  ancient  provinces  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia),  Servia,  and  Montenegro  was  formally  acknowledged;  Bulgaria,  north 
of  the  Balkans,  was  to  enjoy  self-government,  but  was  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Porte; 
Eastern  Rumelia  was  to  have  a  Christian  governor,  but  was  to  remain  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Sultan.    In  1885  Eastern  Rumelia  united  with  Bulgaria. 

9  At  the  present  writing  (1905)  these  unredeemed  lands,  particularly  the  eastern 
portion  of  them  popularly  designated  as  Macedonia,  are  seething  with  revolt.  Bulgaria 
fosters  the  discontent,  hoping  that  in  the  general  readjustment  of  frontiers  which 
must  necessarily  follow  the  expulsion  of  the  Turks  from  Europe  she  will  be  able  to 
secure  additional  territory.  But  Austria  is  unwilling  to  see  Bulgaria  enlarged  or 
strengthened,  since  this  would  set  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  her  eastern  expansion ; 
while  Russia  is  opposed  to  any  change  in  the  present  situation  of  things  that  would 
enhance  the  influence  of  Austria  in  the  Balkans.  And  so  the  "  unspeakable  Turk  " 
continues  his  oppressive  rule  over  Christian  lands  in  Europe. 


NIHILISM   AND   TERRORISM  66l 

725.  The  Liberal  Movement  in  Russia  ;  Nihilism  and  Terrorism. 

—  We  must  now  note  a  movement  in  Russian  society  more  sig- 
nificant for  Russian  history  and  thus  for  general  history  than  any 
of  the  wars  of  the  Tsars  or  the  diplomacy  of  the  Muscovite  court. 
This  is  the  intellectual  revolt  of  the  educated  Russian  classes 
against  the  autocratic  and  repressive  government  of  the  Tsar. 

This  Liberal  movement  is  nothing  else  than  the  outworking  in 
Russia  of  the  ideas  of  the  French  Revolution.  "  In  regard  to  the 
future  consequences  of  this  singular  revolution,"  writes  that  keen 
observer,  Arthur  Young,  "  as  an  example  to  other  nations,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  but  the  spirit  which  has  produced  it  will,  sooner 
or  later,  spread  throughout  Europe,  according  to  the  different 
degrees  of  enlightenment  amongst  the  common  people."  With- 
out doubt  the  deepest  cause  of  the  Liberal  movement  which  is 
agitating  Russia  to-day  must  be  sought  in  the  awakening  intelli- 
gence of  the  Russian  nation. 

But  if  some  definite  beginning  of  the  movement  be  sought,  this 
may  be  found  in  the  events  of  181 3-1 81 5.  In  those  years,  as  it 
has  been  put,  the  whole  Russian  army,  like  the  great  Tsar  Peter, 
went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  West,  and,  like  Peter,  they  got  some 
new  ideas.  This  was  simply  a  repetition  of  what  had  occurred 
in  the  case  of  those  Frenchmen  who  in  1776  went  to  America 
to  take  part  in  the  War  of  American  Independence  (sec.  560). 

Those  carrying  on  this  propaganda  of  Liberalism  are  known  as 
Nihilists.  They  are  found  especially  in  the  faculties  and  among 
the  students  of  the  universities.  Their  fundamental  demands  are 
for  constitutional  representative  government,  the  reform  of  the 
judicial  system,  and  the  removal  of  the  restriction  upon  free  dis- 
cussion of  public  matters.  In  a  word,  they  demand  that  the  Russian 
people  shall  enjoy  all  those  rights  and  immunities  which  the 
peoples  of  Western  Europe  have  secured  and  are  now  enjoying. 

This  revolutionary  propaganda  is  hindered  and  thwarted  by  the 
stolid  ignorance  of  the  Russian  peasantry,  who  give  to  the  Tsar  a 
blind  devotion,  and  regard  his  person  and  his  office  with  a  super- 
stitious veneration.  In  the  face  of  this  inertness  and  blindness  of 
the  Russian  masses,  the  leaders  of  the  revolt  are  helpless, — all 


662      RUSSIA  SINCE  THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

of  which  affords  a  fresh  illustration  of  the  truth  that  Revolution 
is  impossible  without  Renaissance  and  Reformation.  Russia,  as 
regards  the  common  people,  has  had  neither.  The  PoHtical  Rev- 
olution awaits  the. intellectual  revival  and  the  moral  reform. 

At  the  time  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1878-18 79  the 
Liberal  movement  assumed  a  violent  phase,  —  just  as  the  Revolu- 
tion in  France  did  in  1793,  —  being  then  transformed  into  what 
is  known  as  Terrorism.  Nihilism  took  this  form  under  the  perse- 
cutions and  repressions  of  the  government.  The  principle  of  the 
extreme  Nihilists,  or  Terrorists,  that  assassination  is  a  righteous 
means  of  pohtical  reform  was  now  acted  upon,  March  13,  1881, 
the  Tsar  Alexander  was  assassinated  by  means  of  a  bomb.  Since 
that  event  the  government  under  Alexander  III  (1881-1894)  and 
Nicholas  II  (1894-  )  has  been  even  more  cruelly  despotic  and 
repressive  than  before. 

There  can  be  but  one  outcome  to  this  contest  between  the 
''  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias  "  ^^  and  his  subjects.  Either  through 
wise  concessions  on  the  part  of  its  rulers,  or  through  the  throes  of 
a  terrible  revolution  like  that  of  1789  in  France,  the  Russian 
Empire  will  sooner  or  later  come  to  possess  a  constitutional  rep- 
resentative government.  The  Tsars  of  Russia  are  simply  fighting 
the  hopeless  battle  that  has  been  fought  and  lost  by  the  despotic 
sovereigns  of  every  other  European  country,  a  battle  which  has 
the  same  invariable  issue,  —  the  triumph  of  Liberal  principles  and 
the  admission  of  the  people  to  a  participation  in  the  government. 

726.  The  Russianizing  of  Finland.  —  Like  all  autocrats  the 
Tsars  have  aimed  at  the  establishment  of  uniformity  throughout 
their  empire.  Their  maxim  has  been,  "  One  faith,  one  king,  one 
law."  The  recent  dealings  of  Tsar  Nicholas  with  Finland  will 
illustrate  how  all  the  non-Russian  races  of  the  empire  are  made 
the    victims    of    the    policy    of    the    Tsars    to    Russianize    their 

10  It  is  only  theoretically  of  course  that  the  Tsar  is  the  autocratic  ruler  of  Russia. 
The  power  behind  the  throne,  the  actual  ruler,  is  the  hierarchy  of  officials,  who  con- 
stitute what  is  known  as  a  bureaucracy.  This  body  of  narrow-minded,  selfish,  and 
corrupt  officials  has  been  well  likened  to  the  monster  in  Mrs.  Shelley's  romance 
Fr'ankenstein.  Like  that  monster  it  has  got  beyond  the  control  of  its  creator  and 
commits  wanton  and  revolting  crimes. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  663 

dominions.  Finland  was  ceded  to  Russia  by  Sweden  in  1809.  It 
formed  a  grand  duchy  of  the  Russian  Empire.  It  had  a  Hberal 
constitution  which  the  Tsars  had  sworn  to  maintain  and  which 
secured  the  PMnns  a  full  measure  of  local  self-government.  Under 
their  constitution  the  Finns,  who  number  about  two  million  souls, 
were  a  loyal,  contented,  and  prosperous  people.  During  the  years 
1 899-1902  the  Tsar  Nicholas  by  a  series  of  imperial  decrees 
practically  annulled  the  ancient  Finnish  constitution  and  reduced 
the  country  to  the  condition  of  an  administrative  district  of  the 
empire.    In  a  word,  Finland  was  made  a  second  Poland. 

Commenting  upon  this  act  of  ruthless  and  irresponsible  des- 
potism, Andrew  D.  White,  formerly  American  Minister  to  Russia, 
is  quoted  in  a  recent  interview  as  characterizing  it  as  "  the  most 
wicked  thing  in  the  history  of  the  last  two  centuries."  " 

Selections  from  the  Sources.  —  The  European  Concert  in  the  Eastern 
QiiesYion  (ed.  by  Thomas  Erskine  Holland) ;  contains  the  text  of  all  the 
important  treaties  affecting  the  relations  of  Russia  and  the  Ottoman 
Empire  since  1826.  Hamley,  The  Story  of  the  Campaign.  This  is  a 
graphic  account  of  the  Crimean  War,  "written  in  a  tent  in  the  Crimea," 
by  an  English  officer. 

Secondary  Works.  —  Rambaud,  History  of  Russia,  vol.  iii.  Lerov- 
Beaulieu,  The  Empire  of  the  Tsars  and  the  Russians.  Kinglake,  The 
Invasion  of  the  Crimea.  MoRFiLL,  The  Story  of  Russia,  chaps,  x  and  xi. 
Wallace,  Russia  ;  has  chapters  which  give  an  excellent  account  of  the 
Mir  and  the  effects  upon  the  serfs  of  the  emancipation  measure.  Step- 
niak,  The  Russian  Peasantry.  Noble,  7'/5<!'  Russian  Revolt  and  Russia 
and  the  Russians.  For  works  on  Russia  in  Asia,  see  bibliography  of  the 
next  chapter. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  The  Poles  and  the  grounds  of  their 
discontent.  2.  General  Todleben  at  Sevastopol.  3.  The  Russian  Mir. 
4.  Tsar  Alexander  II  and  the  emancipation  of  the  Russian  serfs.  5.  The 
Russianizing  of  Finland.  6.  The  Russian  bureaucracy.  7.  Liberalism  in 
Russia;  the  Nihilists. 

11  Another  matter  of  supreme  interest  in  nineteenth<entury  Russian  histor>'  is  the 
extraordinary  expansion  of  the  Russian  Empire  in  Asia.  Concerning  this  important 
phase  of  Russian  history  we  shall  say  something  in  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 
EUROPEAN  EXPANSION  IN   THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

I.   Causes  and  General  Phases  of  the  Expansion 
Movement 

727.  Significance  of  the  Expansion  of  Europe  into  Greater 
Europe.  —  In  speaking  of  the  establishment  of  the  European 
colonies  and  settlements  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies we  likened  this  expansion  of  Europe  into  Greater  Europe 
to  the  expansion  in  antiquity  of  Greece  into  Greater  Greece 
and  Rome  into  Greater  Rome  (sec.  310).  We  have  now  to  say 
something  of  the  later  phases  of  this  wonderful  outward  move- 
ment of  the  European  peoples. 

In  the  first  place  we  should  note  that  it  is  this  expansion 
movement  which  gives  such  significance  to  that  intellectual, 
moral,  and  political  development  of  the  European  peoples  which 
we  have  been  studying.  This  evolution  might  well  be  likened  to 
the  religious  evolution  in  ancient  Judea.  That  development  of  a 
new  religion  was  a  matter  of  transcendent  importance  because 
the  new  faith  was  destined  not  for  a  little  corner  of  the  earth 
but  for  all  the  world.  Likewise  the  creation  by  Renaissance, 
Reformation,  and  Revolution  of  a  new,  rich,  and  progressive 
civilization  in  Europe  is  a  matter  of  vast  importance  to  universal 
history  because  that  civilization  has  manifestly  been  wrought  out 
not  for  a  single  continent  or  for  a  single  race  but  for  all  the 
continents  and  for  all  mankind. 

We  are  now  to  see  how  the  bearers  of  this  new  culture  have 
carried  or  are  carrying  it  to  all  lands  and  are  communicating 
it  to  all  peoples,  thereby  opening  up  a  new  era  not  alone  in  the 
history  of  Europe  but  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

664 


THE   EARLIER   COLONIAL  EMPIRES  665 

728.  The  Fate  of  the  Earlier  Colonial  Empires;  Decline  and 
Revival  of  Interest  in  Colonies.  —  The  history  we  have  narrated 
has  revealed  the  fate  of  all  the  colonial  empires  founded  by  the 
various  European  nations  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  The  magnificent  Portuguese  Empire  soon  became  the 
spoil  of  the  Dutch  and  the  English;  France  lost  her  colonial 
possessions  to  England  ;  a  great  part  of  the  colonies  of  the  Dutch 
also  finally  fell  into  English  hands ;  before  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  England  lost  through  revolution  her  thirteen  col- 
onies in  North  America ;  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Spain  in  like  manner  lost  all  her  dependencies  on  the 
mainland  of  the  New  World.^ 

After  these  discouraging  experiences  with  their  colonies  the 
governments  of  Europe  lost  interest  for  a  while  in  possessions 
beyond  the  seas.  Statesmen  came  to  hold  the  doctrine  that 
colonies  are  "like  fruit,  which  as  soon  as  ripe  falls  from  the 
tree."  The  English  minister  Disraeli,  in  referring  to  England's 
colonial  possessions,  once  used  these  words :  "  Those  wretched 
colonies  are  millstones  about  our  neck." 

Before  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  there 
sprang  up  a  most  extraordinary  revival  of  interest  in  colonies 
and  dependencies,  and  the  leading  European  states  began  to 
compete  eagerly  for  over-the-sea  possessions. 

729.  Causes  of  the  Revived  Interest  in  Colonies. — A  variety 
of  causes  concurred  to  awaken  or  to  foster  this  new  interest  in 
colonies.  One  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  rapid  increase  during 
the  nineteenth  century  of  the  people  of  European  stock.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  century  the  estimated  population  of  Europe 
(excluding  Turkey)  was  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  millions; 
at  the  end  of  the  century  it  had  risen  to  four  hundred  and  thirty- 
six  millions.  During  this  same  period  the  number  of  people  of 
European  stock   in  the    world    at    large    rose   from   about  one 

1  For  notices  of  the  rise  and  decline  of  the  Portuguese  Empire,  see  sees.  304,  306, 
307  n.  5,  355,  and  679  n.  2 ;  of  the  Dutch,  sees.  355,  492,  and  736  n.  14;  of  the  French, 
sees.  424,  452,  540,  and  611 ;  of  the  English,  sees.  363,  39a,  461,  540,  and  541 ;  and  of 
the  Spanish,  sees.  311-313,  680,  and  681. 


666  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

hundred  and  seventy  millions  to  over  five  hundred  millions.^  This 
increase  in  numbers  of  the  European  peoples  is  one  of  the  most 
important  facts  in  modern  history.  It  has  caused  Europe  to 
overflow  and  to  inundate  the  world.  It  has  made  the  smallest 
of  the  continents  the  mother  and  nursery  of  nations.^ 

The  political  significance  of  this  great  outward  movement, 
which  almost  unnoticed  for  a  long  time  by  European  statesmen 
was  creating  a  new  Europe  outside  of  Europe  and  shifting  the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  world,  at  last  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
European  governments  and  awakened  an  unwonted  interest  in 
colonies  and  dependencies. 

A  second  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  industrial  revolution 
which  began  in  England  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  (sec.  544)  and  which  gradually  transformed  the  indus- 
trial life  of  all  the  more  advanced  nations.  The  enormous  quan- 
tity of  fabrics  and  wares  of  every  kind  which  the  new  processes 
of  manufacture  created,  led  to  sharp  competition  among  com- 
mercial classes  in  the  different  nations  for  the  control  of  the 
markets  in  the  uncivilized  or  semi-civilized  lands.  In  order  to 
secure  a  monopoly  of  these  markets  for  their  subjects  it  was 
thought  necessary  by  the  European  governments  to  take  pos- 
session of  these  lands  or  to  establish  protectorates  over  them. 

A  third  cause,  one  which  tended  to  give  a  general  character 
to  the  colonial  movement,  was  the  manifest  advantage  that  Eng- 
land was  deriving  from  her  colonial  possessions,  especially  as 
revealed  on  the  occasions  of  Queen  Victoria's  Golden  and  Dia- 
mond Jubilees  in  1887  and  1897,  when  there  passed  along  the 
streets  of  London  imposing  processions  of  representatives  of  all 

2  These  earlier  numbers  must  be  regarded  as  mere  approximations.  We  have 
no  reliable  figures  for  the  beginning  of  the  century.  Census-taking  is  practically  a 
nineteenth-century  innovation,  save  in  two  or  three  countries. 

3  The  great  tide  of  emigration  which  during  the  past  century  has  flowed  from 
Europe  into  the  unoccupied  places  of  the  world  was  not  set  in  motion  by  any  single 
cause.  With  the  pressure  arising  from  the  growing  population  of  Europe,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  primary  cause  of  the  movement,  there  concurred  a  great  variety  of 
other  causes,  political,  religious,  and  economic  in  their  nature,  such  as  have  always 
been  inciting  or  fostering  causes  in  every  great  migration  and  colonization  movement 
known  to  history. 


STANLEY'S   DISCOVERIES 


667 


the  races  of  the  British  F^mpire.  This  spectacle,  unparalleled  in 
modern  times  in  its  suggestions  of  imperial  riches  and  power, 
produced  a  profound  impression  upon  the  witnessing  nations. 
It  stirred  in  them  a  spirit  of  emulation  and  made  them  eager 
to  secure  colonial  possessions  and  dependencies  that  they  too 
like  England  might  rule  over  many  lands  and  races. 

Thus  it  came  about  through  these  and  other  influences  that 
during  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century 
almost  all  the  old  colonizing  peoples  of  Europe  were  exerting 
themselves  to  the  utmost  to  build  up  new  empires  to  take  the 
place  of  those  they  had  lost,  while 
other  nations  that  had  never  pos- 
sessed colonies  now  also  began  to 
compete  eagerly  with  those  earlier 
in  the  field  for  over-the-sea  posses- 
sions. 

730.  Stanley's  Discoveries  open 
up  the  "Dark  Continent."  —  By  the 
time,  however,  of  this  awakening  of 
the  governments  of  Europe  to  the 
importance  of  colonies  almost  all  the 
lands  outside  of  Europe  suited  to 
European  settlement  were  closed 
against  true  colonizing  enterprises  by 
having  been  appropriated  by  Eng- 
land, or  through  their  being  in  the  control  of  independent  states 
that  had  grown  out  of  colonies  planted  by  immigrants  of  European 
speech  and  blood.  The  makers  of  new  empires  had  no  longer  the 
whole  world  before  them  from  which  to  choose. 

Africa,  however,  was  still  left.  For  a  century  intrepid  explorers 
had  been  endeavoring  to  uncover  the  mysteries  of  that  continent. 
Among  these  was  the  missionary-explorer  David  Livingstone. 
He  died  in  1873.  His  mantle  fell  upon  Henry  M.  Stanley,  who 
a  short  time  after  the  death  of  Livingstone  set  out  on  an  adven- 
turous expedition  across  Africa*  (i 874-1877),  in  which  journey 

4  Stanley  had  made  an  earlier  expedition  (1871-1872)  in  search  of  Livingstone. 


Fig.  no.  —  Henry  M.  Stan- 
ley.   (From  a  photograph) 


66S  EUROPEAN  EXPANSION 

he  discovered  the  course  of  the  Congo  and  learned  the  nature 
of  its  great  basin.  Not  since  the  age  of  Columbus  had  there  been 
any  discoveries  in  the  domain  of  geography  comparable  in  impor- 
tance to  these  of  Stanley.  Stanley  gave  the  world  an  account  of 
his  journey  in  a  book  bearing  the  title  Through  the  Dark  Conti- 
nent. The  appearance  of  this  work  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  Africa.  It  inspired  innumerable  enterprises,  pohtical,  commer- 
cial, and  philanthropic,  whose  aim  was  to  develop  the  natural 
resources  of  the  continent  and  to  open  it  up  to  civiHzation. 

731.  The  Founding  of  the  Congo  Free  State  (1885). —  One 
immediate  outcome  of  the  writings  and  discoveries  of  Stanley 
was  the  founding  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 

King  Leopold  II  of  Belgium  was  one  of  those  whose  imagina- 
tion was  touched  by  the  vast  possibilities  of  the  African  continent. 
He  conceived  the  idea  of  establishing  in  the  valley  of  the  Congo 
a  great  state  which  should  be  a  radiating  center  for  the  diffusion 
of  the  benefits  of  civilization  over  the  Dark  Continent.  Through 
his  efforts  an  International  African  Association  was  formed,  under 
whose  auspices  Stanley,  after  his  return  from  his  second  expedi- 
tion, was  sent  out  to  establish  stations  in  the  Congo  basin  and  to 
lay  there  the  foundation  of  European  order  and  government. 

The  Association  had  found  in  Stanley  a  remarkably  able  lieu- 
tenant. His  work  as  an  organizer  and  administrator  was  carried 
on  almost  continuously  for  five  years  (1879-1884),  ''  long  years 
of  bitter  labor,"  as  he  himself  speaks  of  them.  He  made  treaties 
with  over  four  hundred  and  fifty  native  chiefs,  who  ceded  to  him 
their  sovereign  rights  over  their  lands.  He  founded  numerous 
stations  along  the  banks  of  the  Congo  and  its  tributaries.  By 
these  and  like  herculean  labors  Stanley  —  Stanley  Africanus,  it 
has  been  suggested,  should  be  his  ennobled  name  —  became  the 
real  founder  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Congo  Free  State  and 
earned  a  place  among  the  great  administrators  and  state  builders 
of  modern  times.^ 

5  The  Congo  Free  State  has  an  estimated  population  of  thirty  millions.  King 
Leopold  of  Belgium  is  the  head  of  the  state,  whose  independence  and  sovereignty 
have  been  recognized  by  the  United  States  and  most  of  the  governments  of  Europe. 
The  state  is  not  nominally  a  Belgian  colony;  it  is  (at  the  present  time,  1905)  merely 


•e>  «         St.Louls 
Cape  Ver^e Island's  j/  >r^       ly 

••(Port.)    c".  T4rde<^ENEGAlK;^     ' 
/    gambiaV— A;-~,  \ 

Bathunstp^-;;^^^  * 


^     r 


,  T^E  PARTITION  OF 

AFRICA 

,  Blu>wtiie-tlie  Colonies,  Dependencies, 
Protectorates,  and  Spheres  of  Influence  of 
the  different  l^uropean  States. 

LEGEND 
British  cm  Freucli  CHI  German  HZI 
Tortuguese  I       I  Italian  CZl 
Keglous  not  under  European  control  are  uucolored 
Klnished   ^—^—. 


Bailroads 


Proposed  _____ 


Longitude      20    West       from       10     Greenwich 


Cape  Town 

C.of  Good  He 


THE   EXPANSION    OF  ENGLAND  669 

732 .  The  Partition  of  Africa.  —  The  discoveries  of  Stanley  and 
the  founding  of  the  Congo  Free  State  were  the  signal  for  a  scram- 
ble among  the  powers  of  Europe  for  African  territory.  England, 
France,  and  Germany  were  the  strongest  competitors  and  they 
got  the  largest  shares.  In  the  short  space  of  fifteen  years  Africa 
became  a  dependency  of  Europe.  The  only  native  states  retaining 
their  independence  by  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
Abyssinia  and  Morocco,*  together  with  the  negro  republic  of 
Liberia,  the  government  of  which  is  in  the  hands  of  American 
freedmen  or  their  descendants. 

This  transference  of  the  control  of  the  affairs  of  Africa  from 
the  hands  of  its  native  inhabitants  or  those  of  Asiatic  Moham- 
medan intruders  to  the  hands  of  Europeans  is  without  question 
the  most  momentous  transaction  in  the  history  of  that  continent, 
and  one  which  must  shape  its  future  destiny. 

In  the  following  sections  of  this  chapter,  in  which  we  propose 
briefly  to  rehearse  the  part  which  each  of  the  leading  European 
states  has  taken  in  the  general  expansion  movement,  we  shall 
necessarily  have  to  speak  of  the  part  which  each  played  in  the 
partition  of  Africa  and  tell  what  each  secured. 


II.  The  Expansion  of  England 

733.  England  in  America;    the   Dominion    of   Canada. — The 

separation  of  the  thirteen  American  colonies  from  England  in 
1776  (sec.  541)  seemed  to  give  a  fatal  blow  to  English  hopes  of 
establishing  a  great  colonial  empire  in  America.  But  half  of 
North  America  still  remained  in  English  hands. 

an  appanage  of  the  Belgian  crown.  A  railroad  projected  by  Stanley,  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  in  length,  has  been  built  around  the  falls  of  the  Congo.  This  enter- 
prise has  brought  into  touch  with  civilization  a  vast  region  which  throughout  all  the 
long  period  of  history  up  to  the  time  of  Stanley's  achievement  had  been  absolutely  cut 
off  from  communication  with  the  civilized  races  of  mankind.  Regretfully  one  records 
that  just  now  there  are  persistent  reports  of  atrocious  cruelty  on  the  part  of  the  agents 
of  the  Belgian  government  towards  the  natives  in  the  collection  of  the  tribute  of  rub- 
ber which  is  exacted  of  them. 

6  Just  now  (1905)  French  influence  in  Morocco  is  increasing,  and  it  looks  as  though 
the  country  would  soon  pass  under  French  controL 


670  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

Gradually  the  attractions  of  British  North  America  as  a  dwelling- 
place  for  settlers  of  European  stock  became  known.  Immigration, 
mostly  from  the  British  Isles,  increased  in  volume,  so  that  the 
growth  of  the  country  in  population  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury was  phenomenal,  rising  from  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  at 
the  opening  of  the  period  to  over  five  millions  at  its  close. 

One  of  the  most  important  matters  in  the  political  history  of 
Canada  since  the  country  passed  under  English  rule  is  the  granting 
of  responsible  government  to  the  provinces  in  1841.  Up  to  that 
time  England's  colonial  system  was  in  principle  like  that  which 
had  resulted  in  the  loss  to  the  British  Empire  of  the  thirteen 
colonies.  The  concession  marked  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
English  colonization.  The  Canadian  provinces  now  became  in 
all  home  matters  absolutely  self-governing.'' 

The  concession  of  complete  self-government  to  the  provinces 
was  followed,  in  1867,  by  the  union  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  in  a  federal  state  under  the  name 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.^  The  constitution  of  the  Dominion, 
save  as  to  the  federal  principle,  is  modeled  after  the  British, 
wherein  it  differs  from  the  recently  framed  Australian  consti- 
tution, which  follows  closely  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  political  union  of  the  provinces  made  possible  the  success- 
ful accomplishment  of  one  of  the  great  engineering  undertakings 
of  our  age.  This  was  the  construction  of  a  transcontinental  rail- 
road from  Montreal  to  Vancouver.  This  road  has  done  for  the 
confirming  of  the  federal  union  and  for  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  Dominion  what  the  building  of  similar  transcontinen- 
tal lines  has  done  for  the  United  States. 

By  reason  of  its  vast  geographical  extent,  —  its  area  is  more 
than  thirty-five  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  British  Isles,  —  its 
inexhaustible  mineral  deposits,  its  unrivaled  fisheries,  its  limitless 
forests,  grazing  lands,  and  wheat  fields,  its  bracing  cKmate,  and 


7  The  treaty-making  power  and  matters  of  peace  and  war  are  still  in  the  hands  of 
the  English  government. 

8  Later  the  confederation  was  joined  by  British  Columbia,  Prince  Edward  Island, 
and  other  provinces.    Newfoundland  has  steadily  refused  to  join  the  union. 


ENGLAND   IN  AUSTRALASIA  671 

above  all  its  free  institutions,  the  Dominion  of  Canada  seems 
marked  out  to  be  one  of  the  great  future  homes  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race.  What  the  United  States  now  is,  the  Dominion  seems 
destined  at  a  time  not  very  remote  to  become. 

734.  England  in  Australasia;'  the  proclamation  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia  (1901).  —  About  the  time  that  England 
lost  her  American  colonies  the  celebrated  navigator  Captain  Cook 
reached  and  explored  the  shores  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia 
(1769-17  71).  Disregarding  the  claims  of  earlier  visitors  to  these 
lands,  he  took  possession  of  the  islands  for  the  British  crown. 

The  best  use  to  which  England  could  at  first  think  to  put  the 
new  lands  was  to  make  them  a  place  of  exile  for  criminals.  The 
first  shipload  of  convicts  was  landed  at  Botany  Bay  in  Australia 
in  1788.  But  the  agricultural  riches  of  the  new  lands,  their 
adaptability  to  stock  raising,  and  the  healthfulness  of  the  climate 
soon  drew  to  them  a  stream  of  English  immigrants.  In  1851 
came  the  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  fabulously  rich 
deposits  of  gold,  and  then  set  in  a  tide  of  immigration  such  as 
the  world  has  seldom  seen. 

Before  the  close  of  the  century  five  flourishing  colonies  (New 
South  Wales,  Victoria,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  and  West 
Australia),  with  an  aggregate  population,  including  that  of  the 
neighboring  island  of  Tasmania,  of  almost  four  millions,  had 
grown  up  along  the  fertile  well-watered  rim  of  the  Australian 
continent  and  had  developed  free  institutions  similar  to  those 
of  the  mother  country. 

The  great  political  event  in  the  history  of  these  colonies  was 
their  consolidation,  just  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century, 
into  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  a  federal  union  like  our  own. 

The  vast  possibilities  of  the  future  of  this  new  Anglo-Saxon 
commonwealth  in  the  South  Pacific  has  impressed  in  an  unwonted 
way  the  imagination  of  the  world.    It  is  possible  that  in  the 

9  Australasia,  meaning  "  south  land  of  Asia,"  is  the  name  under  which  Australia  and 
New  Zealand  are  comprehended.  Here,  as  in  South  Africa,  in  Canada,  and  in  India, 
England  appeared  late  on  the  ground.  The  Spaniards  and  the  Dutch  had  both  pre- 
ceded her.  The  presence  of  the  Dutch  is  witnessed  by  the  names  New  Holland  (the 
earlier  name  of  Australia)  and  New  Zealand  attaching  to  the  greater  islands. 


6/2  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

coming  periods  of  history  this  new  Britain  will  hold  some  such 
place  in  the  Pacific  as  the  motherland  now  holds  in  the  Atlantic. 

735.  England  in  Asia.  —  We  have  noted  the  founding  of  the 
British  Empire  in  India  (sec.  540).  Throughout  the  nineteenth 
century  England  steadily  advanced  the  frontiers  of  her  dominions 
here  and  consolidated  her  power  until  by  the  close  of  the  century 
she  had  brought  either  under  her  direct  rule  or  under  her  suze- 
rainty almost  three  hundred  millions  of  Asiatics/"  —  the  largest 
number  of  human  beings,  so  far  as  history  knows,  ever  united 
under  a  single  scepter. 

We  must  here  note  how  England's  occupation  of  India  and 
her  large  interests  in  the  trade  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia 
involved  her  during  the  century  in  several  wars  and  shaped  in 
great  measure  her  foreign  policies.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these 
wars  was  that  known  as  the  Afghan  War  of  18 38- 184 2,  into  which 
she  was  drawn  through  her  jealousy  of  Russia.^^ 

At  the  same  time  England  became  involved  in  the  so-called 
Opium  War  with  China  ^^  (1839-1842).  As  a  result  of  this  war 
England  obtained  by  cession  from  China  the  island  and  port  of 
Hongkong,  which  she  has  made  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  and  naval  stations  of  her  empire.  In  1901  over 
twenty-four  thousand  vessels  entered  the  ports  of  the  island. 

Scarcely  was  the  Opium  War  ended  before  England  was 
involved  in  a  gigantic  struggle  with  Russia,  —  the  Crimean 
War,  already  spoken  of  in  connection  with  Russian  history  (sec. 
722).    From  our  present  standpoint  we  can  better  understand 

10  By  the  census  of  1901  the  population  of  the  British  Indian  Empire  (this  includes 
the  feudatory  states)  was  294,461,056. 

11  England's  endeavor  here  was  to  maintain  Afghanistan  as  a  buffer  state  between 
her  Indian  possessions  and  the  expanding  Russian  Empire.  The  war  was  marked  by 
a  great  tragedy,  —  the  virtual  annihilation  in  the  wild  mountain  passes  leading  from 
India  to  Afghanistan  of  an  Anglo-Indian  army  of  16,000  men.  There  was  a  second 
Afghan  War  in  1879-1880. 

12  The  opium  traffic  between  India  and  China  had  grown  into  gigantic  proportions 
aiKi  had  become  a  source  of  wealth  to  the  British  merchants  and  of  revenue  to  the 
Indian  government.  The  Chinese  government,  however,  awake  to  the  evils  of  the 
growing  use  of  the  narcotic,  resisted  the  importation  of  the  drug.  This  was  the  cause 
of  the  war.  The  Chinese  government  was  compelled  to  acquiesce  in  the  continuance 
of  the  nefarious  traffic. 


ENGLAND   IN  ASIA  673 

why  England  threw  herself  into  the  conflict  on  the  side  of 
Turkey.  She  fought  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  in  order  that  her  own  great  rival,  Russia,  might  be  pre- 
vented from  seizing  Constantinople  and  the  Bosporus,  and  from 
that  point  controlling  the  affairs  of  Asia  through  the  command 
of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 

The  echoes  of  the  Crimean  War  had  barely  died  away  before 
England  was  startled  by  the  most  alarming  intelligence  from  the 
country  for  the  secure  possession  of  which  English  soldiers  had 
borne  their  part  in  the  fierce  struggle  before  Sevastopol. 

In  1857  there  broke  out  in  the  armies  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany what  is  known  as  the  Sepoy  Mutiny.^*  Fortunately  many 
of  the  native  regiments  stood  firm  in  their  allegiance  to  England, 
and  with  their  aid  the  revolt  was  speedily  crushed.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  the  mutiny  the  government  of  India  was  by  act  of 
Parliament  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  East  India  Company 
and  vested  in  the  English  crown. 

There  are  without  question  offsets  to  the  indisputably  good 
results  of  English  rule  in  India;  nevertheless  it  is  one  of  the 
most  important  facts  of  modern  history,  and  one  of  special 
import  as  bearing  on  our  present  study,  that  nearly  three  hun- 
dred millions  of  the  population  of  Asia  should  thus  have  passed, 
whether  for  better  or  for  worse,  under  the  rule  and  wardship  of 
a  European  nation. 


18  The  causes  of  the  uprising  were  various.  The  crowd  of  deposed  princes  was 
one  element  of  discontent.  A  widespread  conviction  among  the  natives,  awakened  by 
different  acts  of  the  English,  that  their  religion  was  in  danger  was  another  of  the 
causes  that  led  to  the  rebellion.  There  were  also  military  grievances  of  which  the 
native  soldiers  complained.  The  mutiny  broke  out  simultaneously  at  different  points. 
The  atrocities  committed  by  the  rebels  at  Cawnpur  sent  a  thrill  of  horror  throughout 
the  civilized  world.  Nana  Sahib  had  slain  the  garrison  and  crowded  about  two  hun- 
dred English  women  and  children  into  a  small  chamber.  They  were  spared  the  fate 
of  the  prisoners  in  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  (sec.  540,  n.  14),  but  only  to  meet  a 
more  terrible  one.  Fearing  that  the  English  forces,  advancing  by  forced  marches 
under  General  Henry  Havelock,  would  effect  a  rescue  of  the  prisoners,  Nana  Sahib 
employed  five  assassins  to  go  into  the  room  with  their  swords  and  knives  and  kill 
them  all.  The  work  required  two  hours.  Then  the  bodies  were  dragged  out  and  flung 
into  a  neighboring  well,  where  they  were  found  by  the  rescuing  party,  which  arrived 
just  too  late  to  prevent  the  tragedy. 


674  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

736.  England  in  South  Africa ;  Boer  and  Briton.  —  England 
has  played  a  great  part  in  the  partition  of  Africa,  and  as  usual 
has  got  the  lion's  share  of  the  spoils,  not  as  to  the  size  of  her 
portion  but  as  to  its  real  value.  Her  first  appearance  upon  the 
continent  both  in  Egypt  and  at  the  Cape  was  brought  about 
through  her  solicitude  for  her  East  India  possessions  and  the 
security  of  her  routes  thither.  Later  she  joined  in  the  scramble 
of  European  powers  for  African  territories  for  their  own  sake. 

The  Dutch  had  preceded  the  English  in  South  Africa.  They 
began  their  settlement  at  the  Cape  about  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  in  the  great  days  of  Holland.  During  the  French 
Revolution  and  again  during  Napoleon's  ascendancy  the  Enghsh 
took  the  Dutch  colony  under  their  protection.  After  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon  in  18 14  the  colony  was  ceded  to  England  by 
the  Netherlands.^* 

The  Dutch  settlers  refused  to  become  reconciled  to  the  English 
rule.  In  1836  a  large  number  of  these  aggrieved  colonists  took 
the  heroic  resolve  of  abandoning  their  old  homes  and  going  out 
into  the  African  wilderness  in  search  of  new  ones.  This  was  a 
resolution  worthy  of  their  ancestry,  for  these  African  Pilgrims 
were  descendants  of  those  Dutch  patriots  who  fought  so  hero- 
ically against  Philip  II,  and  of  Huguenot  refugees  who  in  the 
seventeenth  century  fled  from  France  to  escape  the  tyranny  of 
Louis  XIV  (sec.  449). 

This  migration  is  known  as  ''The  Great  Trek."^^  The  immi- 
grants journeyed  from  the  Cape  towards  the  northeast,  driving 
their  herds  before  them  and  carrying  their  women  and  children 
and  all  their  earthly  goods  in  great  clumsy  ox  carts.  Beyond  the 
Orange  River  some  of  the  immigrants  unyoked  their  oxen  and 
set  up  homes,  laying  there  the  basis  of  the  Orange  Free  State ; 
the  more  intrepid  "  trekked  "  still  farther  to  the  north,  across  the 
Vaal  River,  and  established  the  republic  of  the  Transvaal. 

14  After  the  loss  of  the  Cape  Settlement  the  island  of  Java  was  the  most  important 
colonial  possession  remaining  to  the  Dutch.  Gradually  they  got  possession  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  large  island  of  Sumatra.  These  two  islands  form  the  heart  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  of  to-day,  which  embrace  a  native  population  of  about  36,000,000. 

15  Trek  is  Dutch  for  "  migration  "  or  "  journey." 


ENGLAND   IN    SOUTH   AFRICA  675 

Two  generations  passed,  a  period  filled  for  the  little  republics, 
surrounded  by  hostile  African  tribes,  with  anxieties  and  fighting. 
Then  there  came  a  turning  point  in  their  history.  In  the  year 
1885  gold  deposits  of  extraordinary  richness  were  discovered  in 
the  Transvaal.  Straightway  there  began  a  tremendous  inrush  of 
miners  and  adventurers  from  all  parts  of  the  globe. 

A  great  portion  of  these  newcomers  were  English-speaking 
people.  As  aliens — Uitlanders^  "  outlanders,"  they  were  called 
—  they  were  excluded  from  any  share  in  the  government,  although 
they  made  up  two  thirds  of  the  population  of  the  little  state  and 
paid  the  greater  part  of  the  taxes.  They  demanded  the  fran- 
chise. The  Boers,  under  the  lead  of  the  sturdy  President  of  the 
Transvaal,  Paul  Kriiger,  refused  to  accede  to  their  demands,  urging 
that  this  would  mean  practically  the  surrender  of  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Republic  and  its  annexation  to  the  British  Empire. 

The  controversy  grew  more  and  more  bitter  and  soon  ripened 
into  war  between  England  and  the  Transvaal  (1899).  The  Orange 
Free  State  joined  its  little  army  to  that  of  its  sister  state,  —  an 
act  in  which  James  Bryce  declares  there  was  "  an  heroic  quality 
not  surpassed  by  anything  in  the  history  of  the  classical  peoples."  " 

At  the  outset  the  Boers,  who  are  very  expert  with  their  rifles, 
were  everywhere  successful,  inflicting  one  disastrous  defeat  after 
another  upon  the  English  forces,  while  the  world  looked  on  in 
amazement.  The  British  Empire  in  Africa  was  threatened  with 
destruction.  F^ngland  was  stirred  as  she  had  not  been  stirred 
since  the  Sepoy  Mutiny  in  India.  An  army  of  three  hundred 
thousand  men,  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  British  Empire, 
was  hastily  thrown  into  South  Africa,  and  the  supreme  command 
intrusted  to  the  able  and  experienced  general,  Lord  Roberts. 
After  the  maintenance  of  the  struggle  for  over  two  years  the  last  of 
the  Boer  bands  surrendered  (1902).  As  the  outcome  of  the  war 
both  of  the  republics  were  annexed  to  the  British  Empire  under 
the  names  of  the  Transvaal  Colony  and  Orange  River  Colony. 

10  The  total  European  or  white  population  of  the  two  little  republics  that  thus 
threw  down  the  gage  of  battle  to  the  most  powerful  empire  of  modem  times  was 

only  a  little  over  300,000. 


6^6  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

These  new  acquisitions,  taken  in  connection  with  Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  and  the  various  protectorates  and  dependencies  which 
England  has  established  in  West,  East,  and  Central  Africa,^^  form 
a  vast  empire,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  is  well  suited 
to  European  settlement. 

A  political  ideal  of  English  statesmen  is  the  union  of  all  the 
English  and  Anglo-Dutch  colonies  and  states  of  South  Africa  into 
a  great  federation  like  the  Canadian  and  Australian.  This  was  a 
favorite  project  of  the  late  South  African  statesman,  Cecil  Rhodes, 
one  of  the  most  masterful  men  of  his  generation.  Such  a  federa- 
tion must  be  the  ultimate  destiny  of  these  colonies ;  and  if  only 
the  present  bitter  antagonism  between  Boer  and  Briton  dies  away 
here,  as  the  once  like  antagonism  between  French  and  Briton  has 
died  away  in  Canada,  such  a  federal  state  could  not  fail  of  having 
a  great  future. 

Another  important  project  of  the  English  is  the  building  of  a 
Cape-to-Cairo  railroad.  This,  like  the  poHtical  scheme  of  a  fed- 
eration, was  also  a  favorite  project  of  Cecil  Rhodes.  Already  his 
dream  has  been  in  great  part  realized.  The  projected  line  has 
now  (1905)  been  carried  northward  from  Cape  Town  over  fifteen 
hundred  miles,  to  the  celebrated  Victoria  Falls  on  the  Zambesi ; 
while  at  the  other  end  of  the  continent  the  road  has  been 
pushed  up  the  Nile  from  Cairo  to  Khartum,  a  distance  of  over 
thirteen  hundred  miles  (including  a  little  over  two  hundred  miles 
of  river  navigation  above  Assuan).  This  railway  when  completed, 
as  it  without  doubt  will  be  at  no  very  remote  date,  will  be  a  potent 
factor  in  the  opening  up  of  the  Dark  Continent  to  civilization. 

737.  England  in  Egypt.  — In  1876  England  and  France  estab- 
lished what  was  in  effect  a  dual  protectorate  over  Egypt  in  order 
to  secure  against  loss  their  subjects  who  were  holders  of  Egyptian 
bonds.^^    Six  years  later,  in  1882,  there  broke  out  in  the  Egyptian 

17  An  idea  of  the  situation  and  extent  of  these  can  best  be  gained  by  the  use  of  the 
map  after  page  668. 

18  Egypt  was  at  that  time  and  still  is  nominally  an  hereditary  principality  under 
the  suzerainty  of  the  Ottoman  Porte.  Practically  it  was  then  an  independent  state 
and  now  is  virtually  a  part  of  the  British  Empire  ;  for  no  one  doubts  that  the  present 
English  protectorate  will  in  time  be   converted   into   absolute  dominion.   English 


ENGLAND   IN   EGYPT  6'^'j 

army  a  mutiny  against  the  authority  of  the  Khedive.  France 
declining  to  act  with  England  in  suppressing  the  disorder,  Eng- 
land moved  alone  in  the  matter.  The  result  of  her  intervention 
was  the  establishment  of  an  English  protectorate  over  the  country. 

In  1885  a  second  expedition  had  to  be  sent  out  to  the  same 
country.  The  Sudanese,  subjects  of  the  Khedive,  had  revolted 
and  were  threatening  the  Egyptian  garrisons  in  the  Sudan  with 
destruction.  An  Anglo-Egyptian  army  pushed  its  way  up  the 
Nile  to  the  relief  of  Khartum,  which  General  Gordon,  the  mod- 
ern English  knight-errant,  was  holding  against  the  Mahdi,  the 
military  prophet  and  leader  of  the  Sudanese  Arabs.  The  expe- 
dition arrived  too  late,  Khartum  having  fallen  just  before  relief 
reached  the  town.    Gordon  perished  with  most  of  his  followers. 

Thet- English  troops  were  now  recalled  and  the  Sudan  was  aban- 
doned to  the  rebel  Arabs.  For  over  a  decade  this  southern  land 
remained  under  the  cruel  rule  of  the  Mahdi  and  his  successor. 
The  country  was  devastated  by  fire  and  sword,  and  Egypt  was 
continually  harassed  by  raids  of  the  dervishes. 

Finally  in  1896  the  English  sent  up  the  Nile  another  expedition 
under  General  Kitchener  for  the  recovery  of  the  lost  territory.  The 
undertaking  was  successful,  and  the  Eastern  Sudan  and  a  vast  ter- 
ritory embracing  the  basin  of  the  Nile  and  its  tributaries  were 
again  brought  under  the  rule  of  the  Khedive,  that  is  to  say,  under 
the  administrative  control  of  England  (1898). 

No  part  of  the  world  has  benefited  more  by  European  control 
than  Egypt.  When  England  assumed  the  administration  of  its 
affairs  it  was  in  every  respect  one  of  the  most  wretched  of  the 
lands  under  the  rule,  actual  or  nominal,  of  the  Turkish  Sultan. 
The  country  is  now,  according  to  the  claims  of  eminent  English 
authority,  more  prosperous  than  at  any  previous  period  of  its 
history,  not  excepting  the  time  of  the  nile  of  the  Pharaohs.  This 
high  degree  of  prosperity  has  been  secured  mainly  through  Eng- 
land's having  given  Egypt  the  two  things  declared  necessary  to 
its  prosperity,  —  **  justice  and  water." 

statesmen  are  beginning  to  regard  Egypt  as  an  indispensable  link  in  England's  chain 
of  stations  uniting  her  Asian  empire  to  the  home  land. 


6y^  EUROPEAN    EXPANSION 

The  construction  of  the  great  irrigation  or  storage  dam  across 
the  Nile  at  the  First  Cataract  (at  Assuan)  is  one  of  the  greatest 
engineering  achievements  of  modern  times.  The  dam  retains  the 
surplus  waters  of  the  Nile  in  flood  times  and  releases  them  grad- 
ually during  the  months  of  low  water.  This  constant  supply  of 
water  for  irrigation  purposes  will,  it  is  estimated,  increase  by  a 
third  the  agricultural  capabiHties  of  Egypt  not  only  by  greatly 
augmenting  the  area  of  fertile  soil  but  by  making  it  possible  on 
much  of  the  land  to  raise  two  and  even  three  crops  each  year. 


III.  The  Expansion  of  France 

738.  France  in  Africa. — At  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth 
century  France  possessed  only  fragments  of  a  once  promising 
colonial  empire.  From  the  long  Napoleonic  Wars  she  emerged 
too  exhausted  to  give  any  attention  for  a  time  to  interests  out- 
side of  the  home  land. 

When  finally  she  began  to  look  about  her  for  over-the-sea  ter- 
ritories to  make  good  her  losses  in  America  and  Asia,  it  was  the 
North  African  shore  which  on  account  of  proximity  (it  is  only 
twenty-four  hours  distant  by  steam  from  the  southern  ports  of 
France),  climate,  and  products  naturally  attracted  her  attention. 
This  region  possesses  great  agricultural  resources.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  one  of  the  richest  grain-tribute-paying  provinces  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  Its  climate  is  favorable  for  Latin- European 
settlement.  It  is  really  geographically  a  part  of  Europe,  "  the 
true  Africa  beginning  with  the  Sahara." 

France  began  the  conquest  of  Algeria  as  early  as  1830.  The 
subjugation  of  the  country  was  not  effected  without  much  hard 
fighting  with  the  native  tribes  and  a  great  expenditure  in  men 
and  money.  In  the  year  1881,  under  the  pretext  of  defending 
her  Algerian  frontier  against  the  raids  of  the  mountain  tribes 
of  Tunis  on  the  east,  France  sent  troops  into  that  country 
and  established  a  protectorate  over  it.  This  act  of  hers  deeply 
offended  the  Italians,  who  had  had  their  eye  upon  this  district, 


20  Longitude  100   West  from  80   Greenwich  60 


EUROPEAN  EXPANSION 

ANOLO-SAXON  :  Great  Britain,  I— I  United  Stat«ih  I----- J 

LATIN  I  France,  lUly,  Spain  etcCZZD     Indep't  Latin  Countries,  [ZZD 

SLA  VONIC  I  Busaia,  i  I 

Germany,(?~Z7  Other  European  Countries  and  their  Colonic*,  (CSS 

This  Map  is  intended  to  show  :  First,  how  (Treat  a  portion  of  the  world  has  come 

to  be   occupied  or  to  be  dominated  by  peopli>a  of    European   descent  ;   and, 

Becond,  to  indicate  paiticularly  the  relative  arcatt  held  by  Saxon,  Latin,  and  fcUaT. 


20 


60  Um^taO*  80  BmC  ftoa  100  QraMwIch  ISO 


140 


I 


FRANCE    IN   AP^RICA  679 

regarding  it  as  belonging  to  them  by  virtue  of  its  geographical 
position  as  well  as  its  historical  traditions." 

These  North  African  territories  form  the  most  promising  por- 
tion of  France's  new  colonial  empire.  The  more  sanguine  of  her 
statesmen  entertain  hopes  of  ultimately  creating  here  a  new  home 
for  the  French  people,  —  a  sort  of  New  France.  In  any  event  it 
seems  certain  tl^at  all  these  shore  lands,  which  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury were  severed  from  Europe  by  the  Arabian  conquests,  are  now 
again  permanently  reunited  to  that  continent  and  are  henceforth 
to  constitute  virtually  a  part  of  the  European  world. 

Besides  these  lands  in  North  Africa,  France  possesses  a  vast 
domain  in  the  region  of  the  Senegal  and  lays  claim  to  all  the 
Sahara  lying  between  her  colony  of  Senegal  and  Algeria.  She  also 
holds  extensive  territories  just  north  of  the  Congo  Free  State, 
embracing  part  of  Central  Sudan.  The  island  of  Madagascar 
also  forms  a  part  of  the   French-African  empire. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  France  will  not  find  in  Africa  any  such 
valuable  possessions  as  in  the  eighteenth  century  she  lost  to  Eng- 
land in  America  and  Asia.  Yet  she  has  entered  upon  the  work 
of  opening  up  and  developing  her  African  empire  with  character- 
istic enthusiasm  and  expansiveness  of  plans.  She  has  projects 
that  aim  at  the  redemption,  by  means  of  artesian  wells,  of  exten- 
sive tracts  of  the  Sahara.  It  is  thought  not  impracticable  to 
create  a  line  of  these  oases  across  the  Sahara  from  the  city  of 
Constantine  in  Algeria  to  Timbuktu  in  the  Sudan,  and  thus 
to  facilitate  the  construction  of  a  projected  Trans-Saharan  railway. 

739.  France  in  Asia.  —  In  the  year  1862  France  secured  a 
foothold  near  the  mouth  of  the  Cambodia  River  in  Indo-China 
and  has  since  then  steadily  enlarged  her  possessions  until  now  she 

W  Disappointed  in  not  getting  Tunis,  the  Italians  sought  to  secure  a  foothold  oa 
the  Red  Sea  coast.  They  seized  here  a  district  and  organized  it  under  the  name  of 
the  Colony  of  Eritrea ;  but  they  had  hard  luck  almost  from  the  first.  The  coast  b 
hot  and  unhealthy  and  inland  is  the  kingdom  of  Abyssinia.  Over  this  the  Italians 
attempted  to  establish  a  protectorate ;  but  unfortunately  for  them  Abyssinia  does  not 
regard  herself  as  one  of  the  uncivilized  or  moribund  states  over  which  it  b  iiece»* 
sary  for  Europeans  to  extend  their  protection.  King  Menelik  of  that  country  Inflicted 
upon  the  Italian  army  a  most  disastrous  defeat  (1896).  Since  then  the  Italians  have 
done  very  little  in  the  way  of  developing  their  African  possessions. 


68o  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

holds  in  those  quarters  territories  which  exceed  in  extent  the 
home  land.  A  chief  aim  of  the  French  in  this  region  is  to  secure 
the  trade  of  Southern  China.  To  this  end  they  are  projecting 
the  extension  northward  into  China  of  the  system  of  railways 
they  have  already  constructed. 

With  these  ample  African  and  Asiatic  territories  France  feels 
in  a  measure  consoled  for  her  losses  in  the  past,  and  dreams  of  a 
brilliant  career  as  one  of  the  great  colonizing  powers  of  Europe. 
France  has,  however,  one  great  handicap  as  a  colonizing  state. 
She  has  not,  what  both  England  and  Germany  have,  a  rapidly 
increasing  population  at  home.  Nor  have  her  citizens  that  rest- 
less, adventurous  spirit  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  which  has  driven  them 
as  conquerors  and  settlers  into  the  remotest  parts  of  the  earth  and 
made  England  the  mother  of  innumerable  colonies  and  states. 

IV.  The  Expansion  of  Germany 

740.  German  Emigrants  lost  to  Germany.  —  No  country  of 
Europe  during  the  expansion  movement  of  the  nineteenth  century 
has  supplied  a  greater  number  of  emigrants  for  the  settlement  of 
transoceanic  lands  than  Germany.  But  Germany  has  not  until 
recently  possessed  under  her  own  flag  any  over-the-sea  territories, 
and  consequently  the  vast  number  of  emigrants  she  has  sent  out 
have  sought  homes  in  the  United  States,  in  the  different  English 
colonies,  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  republics  of  South 
America,  and  even  in  the  Asiatic  provinces  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  Thus  it  happens  that  although  Germany  has  during  the 
century  sent  out  vast  swarms  of  emigrants  no  true  Greater 
Germany  has  grown  up  outside  of  Europe. 

Stimulated  by  the  patriotic  war  of  1870— 187 1  against  France, 
and  the  consolidation  of  the  German  Empire,  German  statesmen 
began  to  dream  of  making  Germany  a  world  power.  To  this  end 
it  was  deemed  necessary  to  secure  for  Germany  colonies  where  the 
German  emigrants  might  live  under  the  German  flag  and,  instead 
of  contributing  to  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  rival  states,  should 
remain  Germans  and  constitute  a  part  of  the  German  nation. 


GERMANY   IN   AFRICA  AND  ASIA  68l 

741.  Germany  in  Africa. — Consequently  when  the  competition 
came  for  African  territory  Germany  entered  into  the  struggle  with 
great  zeal  and  got  a  fair  share  of  the  spoils.  In  1 884  she  declared 
a  protectorate  over  a  large  region  on  the  southwest  coast  of  the 
continent  just  north  of  the  Orange  River,  and  thus  lying  partly 
in  the  temperate  zone.  This  region  she  has  opened  up  to  civili- 
zation by  the  construction  of  a  railroad  over  two  hundred  and 
thirty  miles  in  length  running  from  the  west  coast  inland.* 

At  almost  the  same  time  she  established  two  smaller  protect- 
orates in  the  tropic  belt  farther  to  the  north.  On  the  East 
African  coast  she  seized  a  great  territory,  twice  as  large  as  Ger- 
many itself,  embracing  a  part  of  the  celebrated  Lake  District. 
These  upland  regions  are  well  adapted  to  European  settlement 
and  must  in  time  be  filled  by  people  of  European  descent. 

742.  Germany  in  Asia.  — The  hopes  of  many  German  expan- 
sionists are  centered  in  Western  Asia  rather  than  in  Africa. 
Thousands  of  Germans  have  crowded  into  Asia  Minor  and  Syria 
and  have  come  to  form  in  some  districts  an  important  element  of 
the  industrial  and  trading  population.  It  is  said  to  be  the  hope 
of  the  present  German  Emperor  that  ultimately  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria  will  come  to  form  a  part  of  the  German  Empire.  Certainly 
if  the  present  process  of  the  Germanization  of  those  regions  con- 
tinues, it  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  a  large  part  of  Western  Asia 
will  come  eventually  into  some  such  relation  to  Germany  as 
Egypt  now  sustains  to  England. 

One  of  the  most  important  projects  of  the  Germans  in  these 
Asian  regions  is  the  extension  of  the  Anatolian  Railway,  now 
under  German  control,  from  Konieh  in  Asia  Minor  down  the 
Euphrates  valley  to  Bagdad  on  the  Lower  Tigris.  Such  a  line 
under  German  control  would  greatly  enhance  German  influence 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopotamia.  Besides  providing  a  new  and 
shorter  route  to  India, —  the  route  used  by  the  ancient  peoples, 
—  it  would  open  up  to  civilization  the  wonderfully  fertile  regions 

^  In  1904  the  German  government  was  forced  to  face  a  serious  revolt  of  some  of 
the  native  tribes  of  the  protectorate.    At  the  present  writing  (January,  1905)  the 

trouble  is  still  unallayed. 


682  EUROPEAN    EXPANSION 

which  formed  the  heart  of  the  early  and  populous  empires  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia.  The  restoration  of  these  lands  from  their 
present  artificial  sterility  would  give  back  to  mankind  some  of  the 
choicest  portions  of  their  heritage,  long  given  over  to  desolation 
and  neglect.^^ 

German  expansion  presses  not  only  on  the  Turkish  Empire 
but  also  upon  the  Chinese  Empire.  In  1897  Germany,  on  the 
pretext  of  protecting  German  missionaries  in  China,  seized  the 
port  of  Kiau-chau  and  forced  its  practical  cession  from  the  Chinese 
government.  This  is  a  spot  of  great  importance  commercially  and 
politically.  The  German  government  aims  to  make  this  colony  a 
true  German  settlement  and  the  outgoing  point  of  German  power 
and  influence  in  the  Far  East.^^ 

V.  The  Expansion  of  Russia 

743.  Russia  as  the  Modern  Rome. — Russia  has  large  and 
numerous  inland  lakes  and  seas  and  vast  rivers,  but  she  lacks 
seaboard.  Her  efforts  to  reach  the  sea  in  different  directions 
is,  as  we  have  learned,  the  key  to  much  of  her  history.  It  is  this 
which  has  given  a  special  character  to  Russian  expansion, — 
which  has  made  it  a  movement  by  land  instead  of  by  sea,  as  in 
the  case  of  all  the  other  European  states  that  have  had  a  part  in 
the  great  expansion  movement. 

The  expansion  of  Russia  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features 
of  the  great  European  development  which  we  are  following. 
Her  conquests  and  colonizations  have  put  her  in  possession  of 
about  one  seventh  of  the  habitable  earth  and  made  her  one 
of  the  most  potent  political  factors  in  the  modern  world. 

21  Along  with  this  railway  project  is  being  discussed  a  proposal  for  the  restoration 
of  the  ancient  irrigation  works  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  region.  It  is  estimated 
by  Sir  William  Willcocks  that  ^100,000,000  expended  in  the  restoration  of  the  irriga- 
tion system  of  the  ancient  Babylonians  would  bring  a  return  of  at  least  ^300,000,000. 
What  has  already  been  done  for  Egypt  by  the  building  of  the  great  storage  Nile  dam 
at  Assuan  will  almost  certainly  at  no  remote  date  be  repeated  here  in  what  was 
formerly  the  "  Asian  Egypt." 

22  Besides  the  colonial  possessions  we  have  named,  Germany  holds  a  number  of 
islands  and  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific. 


RUSSIAN   EXPANSION    IN   ASIA  683 

Patriotic  English  writers  are  fond  of  comparing  England's 
Empire  to  that  of  ancient  Rome  and  the  Pax  Britannica  to  the 
Pax  Romana,  In  the  view  of  patriotic  Russians  these  English 
patriots  wholly  misconceive  England's  real  place  in  the  modem 
world.  To  them  Russia  is  the  representative  of  the  old  Roman 
Empire,  the  heir  of  her  traditions,  of  her  world-wide  sway,  while 
England  is  the  modern  Carthage  with  the  fate  of  old  Carthage 
awaiting  her  in  conflict  with  the  modern  Rome. 

744.  Russian  Expansion  in  Asia  ;  her  Three  Lines  of  Advance. 
—  Russia  has  steadily  gravitated  towards  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  the  Pacific.  Only  in  Europe  has  her  glacier- 
like movement  been  much  impeded  by  the  obstacles  placed  in 
her  path  by  the  jealousy  of  the  other  European  powers.  She 
made  no  material  territorial  gains  in  Europe,  aside  from  the 
acquisition  of  Finland,  during  the  nineteenth  century,  notwith- 
standing that  she  fought  in  three  great  wars  for  this  end  and 
shattered  into  fragments  a  great  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire  which 
lay  between  her  and  the  goal  of  her  ambition. 

But  in  Asia  the  additions  which  Russia  has  made  to  her  empire 
since  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  not  only  immense 
in  extent  but  most  important  to  her  poHtically  and  commercially. 
These  annexations  will  best  be  remembered  if  we  bear  in  mind  the 
three  chief  objects  Russia  has  had  in  view  in  her  Asiatic  acquisi- 
tions. These  have  been  the  securing  of  an  outlet  on  the  Persian 
Gulf,  the  opening  of  an  overland  route  to  India,  and  the  securing 
of  ice-free  ports  on  the  Pacific. 

In  pursuit  of  the  first  object  Russia,  during  the  nineteenth 
century,  conquered  and  absorbed  the  Caucasus  and  the  Trans- 
caucasian  region.  She  dominates  Northern  Persia,  and  it  is  sur- 
mised that  she  has  secretly  secured  from  the  Persian  government 
the  lease  of  Bender  Abbas  on  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  concession 
for  the  construction  of  a  railway  across  Persia  from  the  Caspian 
Sea   to   this  southern   port.'"   Thus   Russia's  expansion  in  this 

28  But  England  stands  guard  here  just  as  she  does  at  the  Dardanelles.  She  has 
declared  a  sort  of  Monroe  Doctrine  for  the  Persian  Gulf  and  warns  off  Russia  and 
all  other  powers.   She  has  good  ground  for  her  action,  for  the  establishment  of  a 


684  EUROPEAN    EXPANSION 

quarter  has  given  her  a  commanding  position  in  Western  Asia 
which  makes  her  a  formidable  competitor  with  Germany  and 
England  for  the  political  control  of  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Persia. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  Russia  steadily 
pushed  forward  her  boundaries  in  Central  Asia.  She  conquered 
or  conciliated  the  tribes  of  Turkestan  and  advanced  her  frontier 
in  this  quarter  far  towards  the  south,  —  close  up  against  Afghan- 
istan. In  the  very  heart  of  the  continent  her  outposts  are  now 
established  upon  the  lofty  table- lands  of  the  Pamirs,  the  "  Roof 
of  the  World."  Here  her  frontier  and  that  of  the  British  Empire 
are  only  twenty  miles  apart.  The  apprehension  with  which  Russia's 
steady  advance  in  these  regions  has  been  viewed  by  England  is 
shown  by  the  constant  efforts  she  has  made  to  prevent  Russian 
influence  from  becoming  dominant  in  Afghanistan  and  to  increase 
her  own  influence  in  that  quarter.^* 

In  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  Asia,  Russia  has  obtained  from 
China  the  lease  of  Port  Arthur  (1898),  one  of  the  most  important 
Asiatic  harbors  on  the  Pacific,  and  has  recently  occupied  the 
large  Chinese  province  of  Manchuria,  which  occupation  it  is 
generally  beHeved  will  end  in  the  actual  annexation  of  that  mag- 
nificent domain  to  the  Russian  Empire.^^  Manchuria  is  probably 
better  adapted  to  European  settlement  than  any  other  thinly 
peopled  region  in  Asia,  and  can  hardly  fail  to  become,  if  it  remains 
in  Russian  hands,  the  chief  center  of  European  population  in 
the  Far  East. 

Thus  in  her  expansion  Russia  has  not  only  subjugated  the  wild 
nomadic  tribes  of  Northern  and  Central' Asia,  but  she  has  also 
wrested  territories  from  the  three  semi-civilized  states  of  the  con- 
tinent, —  Turkey,  Persia,  and  China,  —  and  still  crowds  heavily 

Russian  naval  station  on  the  Persian  Gulf  would  destroy  the  security  of  England's 
route  to  India  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean. 

24  See  sec.  735,  n.  ii. 

26  These  lines  were  written  in  the  late  summer  of  1903.  It  has  been  thought  best 
to  let  them  and  other  passages  in  following  sections  bearing  upon  the  situation  in  the 
Far  East  stand  unchanged,  and  in  an  added  section  (sec.  753)  briefly  to  summarize 
the  course  of  events  in  that  region  during  the  year  1904. 


THE   TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY  685 

upon  all  these  countries,  besides  threatening  to  absorb  the  buffer 
state  of  Afghanistan.  She  overshadows  Europe  and  dominates 
Asia.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  wonder  that  the  steady  growth  of 
this  **  Colossus  of  the  North  "  awakens  the  apprehension  of  the 
rulers  of  India. 

The  outward  movement  we  have  traced  has  given  Russia  a 
physical  basis  which  insures  her  a  rapid  and  unimpeded  develop- 
ment. It  has  made  her  a  competitor  for  a  place  among  the  three 
or  four  probable  world  powers  of  the  future.  It  has  made  perti- 
nent the  question,  Will  Slav  or  Saxon  mold  the  destinies  of  the 
coming  time?  As  it  is,  Russia,  with  her  population  of  a  hundred 
and  thirty  millions,  lacks  only  a  common- school  system  with  com- 
pulsory education  to  make  her  a  chief  force  in  the  world  of  to-day. 

745.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  — Russia's  most  noteworthy 
undertaking  in  connection  with  her  Asiatic  empire  is  the  building 
of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  which  now  unites  St.  Petersburg 
with  Port  Arthur,  the  new  Russian  port  on  the  Pacific.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  gigantic  enterprises  of  its  kind  of  our  age. 

The  building  of  this  road  has  done  as  much  as  any  other  single 
achievement  of  the  past  century  to  make  the  world  small.  Its 
effects  upon  political  relations  in  the  Far  East  will  be  profound. 
It  will  cause  Russia  to  face  the  Pacific.  It  will  make  accessible  to 
Russian  settlers  the  vast  fertile  regions  of  Southern  Siberia,  and 
will  render  that  country  a  part  of  the  civilized  world  ;  for  though  it 
may  be  true  as  to  the  past  that  "  civilization  has  come  riding  on  a 
gun  carriage,"  now  it  comes  riding  on  a  locomotive. 

VI.  The  Expansion  of  the  United  States 

746.  The  Growth  of  the  United  States  a  Part  of  the  Great  £uro^ 
pean  Expansion  Movement.  —  At  first  view  it  might  seem  that  the 
growth  of  our  own  country  should  not  be  given  a  place  in  the 
present  chapter.  But  the  expansion  of  the  United  States  is  as 
truly  a  part  of  European  expansion  as  is  the  increase  of  the  Eng- 
lish race  in  Canada,  or  in  Australasia,  or  in  South  Africa.  The 
circumstance  that  the  development  here  has  taken  place  since 


686  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

the  severance  of  all  political  ties  binding  this  country  to  the 
motherland  is  wholly  immaterial.  The  Canadian,  Australian,  and 
African  developments  have  as  a  matter  of  fact  been  expansion 
movements  from  practically  secondary  and  independent  centers 
of  European  settlement. 

Hence  to  complete  our  survey  of  the  movement  which  has  put 
in  possession  or  in  control  of  the  European  peoples  so  much  of 
the  earth,  we  must  note  —  we  can  simply  note  —  the  expansion 
during  the  past  century  of  the  great  American  Commonwealth. 

747.  How  the  Territorial  Acquisitions  of  the  United  States  and 
its  Growth  in  Population  have  contributed  to  assure  the  Predomi- 
nance of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Race  in  Greater  Europe.  —  Six  times  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century  the  United  States  materially  enlarged 
her  borders.^^  These  gains  in  territory  were  in  the  main  at  the 
expense  of  a  Latin  race,  —  the  Spanish.  They  have  not  therefore 
resulted  in  an  actual  increase  in  the  possessions  of  the  European 
peoples,  but  have  simply  contributed  to  the  predominance,  or 
have  marked  the  growing  predominance,  in  this  new-forming 
European  world  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 

Of  even  greater  significance  than  the  territorial  expansion  of 
the  United  States  during  the  past  century  is  the  amazing  growth 
of  the  Republic  during  this  period  in  population  and  in  material 
and  intellectual  resources.  At  the  opening  of  the  century  the 
white  population  of  the  United  States  was  a  httle  over  four  mil- 
lions ;  at  the  end  of  the  century  it  had  risen  to  over  sixty-seven 
milHons.  This  is  the  largest  aggregate  of  human  force  and  intel- 
ligence that  the  world  has  yet  seen.    Even  more  impressive  than 

26  Just  at  the  end  of  the  century  the  territorial  expansion  of  the  United  States 
assumed  a  character  altogether  unlike  that  which  up  to  that  time  it  had  retained. 
All  our  chief  earlier  acquisitions  were  lands  contiguous  to  our  previous  possessions, 
were  unoccupied  or  practically  unoccupied,  were  adapted  to  European  settlement, 
and  were  secured  with  the  intention  of  making  them  into  territories  which  might 
ultimately  be  carved  into  states  and  made  an  integral  part  of  the  Federal  Union. 
But  in  1898,  as  an  outcome  of  our  war  with  Spain,  we  acquired  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Philippine  Islands.  In  the  latter  islands  we  came  into  possession  of  lands  already 
peopled  with  an  Asiatic  race,  and  moreover  lands  unfitted  for  settlement  by  people 
of  Teutonic  stock.  The  acquisition  by  the  United  States  of  these  Asiatic  tropical 
dependencies  has  created  for  our  government  and  our  people  many  problems  which 
still  remain  unsolved. 


SHALL  CHINA   BE   PARTITIONED?  687 

its  actual  are  its  potential  capacities.  With  practically  unlimited 
room  for  expansion  by  reason  of  the  territorial  acquisitions  we 
have  noted,  it  is  impossible  adequately  to  realize  into  what,  dur- 
ing the  coming  centuries,  the  American  people  will  grow. 

This  remarkable  growth  of  an  English-speaking  nation  on  the 
soil  of  the  New  World  has  contributed  more  than  anything  else, 
save  the  expansion  of  Great  Britain  into  Greater  Britain,  to  lend 
impressiveness  and  import  to  the  movement  indicated  by  the 
expression,  *'  European  expansion." 

VII.  Situations  and  Problems  created  by  the 
European  Race  Expansion 

748.  Shall  China  be  partitioned? — The  outward  movement  of 
the  European  peoples  which  we  have  now  traced  in  broad  outlines 
has  raised  several  of  the  most  serious  problems  that  civilization 
has  ever  faced,  and  has  created  situations  well  calculated  while 
awakening  profound  apprehensions  to  create  also  vast  hopes. 

One  of  the  problems  raised  is  altogether  like  the  old  (and 
yet  ever  new)  problem  —  the  so-called  Eastern  Question.  It  is, 
What  shall  be  done  with  the  **sick  man"  of  the  Far  East? 
Shall  China  be  partitioned? 

This  question  we  repeat  has  been  raised  by  the  great  European 
race  expansion  and  can  be  understood  only  when  viewed  as  a  result 
of  the  pressure  of  the  Occidental  upon  the  Oriental  world.  In  the 
following  paragraphs  we  shall  endeavor  in  the  briefest  way  possible 
to  put  in  their  causal  and  logical  relations  the  series  of  events 
forming  the  antecedents  and  the  causes  of  the  present  situation 
in  Eastern  Asia. 

749.  The  Awakening  of  Japan.  —  Bearing  directly  upon  the 
question  of  the  future  of  China  is  the  recent  wonderful  awaken- 
ing of  Japan.  At  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  Japan 
was  a  hermit  nation.  She  jealously  excluded  foreigners  and 
refused  to  enter  into  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Western 
powers.  But  in  the  year  1854  Commodore  Perry  of  the  United 
States  secured  from  the  Japanese  government  concessions  which 


688 


EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 


opened  the  country  to  Western  influences,  under  which  Japan 
soon  awoke  to  a  new  life. 

During  the  last  half  century  the  progress  made  by  Japan  on 
all  lines,  poHtical,  material,  and  intellectual,  has  been  something 
without  a  parallel  in  history.  She  has  transformed  her  ancient 
feudal  divine-right  government  into  a 
representative  constitutional  system 
modeled  upon  the  political  institutions  of 
the  West.  She  has  adopted  almost  entire 
the  material  side  of  the  civilization  of  the 
Western  nations  and  has  eagerly  absorbed 
their  sciences. 

But  what  has  taken  place,  it  should  be 
carefully  noted,  is  not  a  Europeanization 
of  Japan.  The  new  Japan  is  an  evolution 
of  the  old.  The  Japanese  to-day  in  their 
innermost  life,  in  their  deepest  instincts, 
and  in  their  modes  of  thought  are  still 
an  Oriental  people. 

750.  Chino- Japanese  War  of  1894  ;  a 
Mongolian  Monroe  Doctrine.  —  In  1 894 
came  the  war  between  Japan  and  China. 
A  chief  cause  of  this  war  was  China's 
claim  to  suzerainty  over  Korea  and  her 
efforts  to  secure  control  of  the  affairs  of 
that  country.  But  under  the  conditions 
of  modern  warfare,  and  particularly  in  view  of  the  Russian 
advance  in  Eastern  Asia,  the  maintenance  of  Korea  as  an  inde- 
pendent state  seems  to  Japan  absolutely  necessary  to  the  security 
of  her  island  empire.  The  situation  is  vividly  pictured  in  these 
words  of  Okakura-Kakuzo,  the  author  of  The  Awakening  of  Japan : 


Fig.  III.  —  The  Impe- 
rial Regalia  of  Japan  2? 
(After  a  drawing  by  Goji 
Ukitd) 


27  This  regalia  consists  of  a  mirror,  a  sword,  and  several  tusk-shaped  jewels.  Of 
all  the  royal  or  imperial  regalias  in  the  world,  this  is  the  simplest,  and  the  most 
symbolic  and  historically  interesting.  According  to  Japanese  legend,  the  imperial 
emblems  were  a  gift  of  the  Sun-goddess  to  an  ancestor  of  the  first  Emperor  of  Japan. 
The  goddess  accompanied  the  bestowal  of  the  symbols  with  these  words :  "  Look 
upon  this  mirror  as  if  it  were  my  own  spirit,  and  reverence  it  as  you  would  my  own 


CHINA  IN  PROCESS  OF  DISMEMBERMENT     689 

"  Any  hostile  power,"  he  says,  "  in  occupation  of  the  peninsula 
might  easily  throw  an  army  into  Japan,  for  Korea  lies  like  a  dagger 
ever  pointed  toward  the  very  heart  of  Japan." 

Still  again,  realizing  that  greed  of  territory  would  lead  the  Euro- 
pean powers  sooner  or  later  to  seek  the  partition  of  China  and  the 
political  control  of  the  Mongolian  lands  of  the  Far  East,  Japan 
wished  to  stir  China  from  her  lethargy,  make  herself  her  adviser 
and  leader,  and  thus  get  in  a  position  to  control  the  affairs  of 
Eastern  Asia.  In  a  word  she  was  resolved  to  set  up  a  sort  of 
Monroe  Doctrine  in  her  part  of  the  world,  which  should  close 
Mongolian  lands  against  European  encroachments  and  presej^e 
for  Asiatics  what  was  still  left  of  Asia. 

The  war  was  short  and  decisive.  It  was  a  fight  between  David 
and  Goliath.  China  with  her  great  inert  mass  was  absolutely  help- 
less in  the  hands  of  her  tiny  antagonist.  With  the  Japanese  army 
in  full  march  upon  Peking  the  Chinese  government  was  forced  to 
sue  for  peace.  China  now  recognized  the  independence  of  Korea, 
and  ceded  to  Japan  Formosa  and  the  extreme  southern  part  of 
Manchuria,  including  Port  Arthur.  But  at  this  juncture  of  affairs, 
Russia,  supported  by  France  and  Germany,  jealously  intervened. 

presence.  For  centuries  upon  centuries  shall  thy  descendants  rule  this  kingdom. 
Govern  this  country  with  purity  like  that  of  the  light  that  radiates  from  the  surface 
of  the  mirror.  Deal  with  thy  subjects  with  the  gentleness  typified  by  the  bland  and 
soft  luster  of  the  jewels.  Combat  the  enemies  of  thy  empire  with  this  sword."  No 
other  royal  regalia  is  so  intimately  related  to  the  national  life  of  a  people  as  are 
these  sacred  emblems  of  Japan.  Respecting  this  we  quote  from  a  most  interesting 
paper  on  the  subject,  read  before  the  Japan  Society  of  London,  in  1902,  by  Mr. 
Ukita,  Chancellor  of  the  Imperial  Japanese  Legation  :  "  In  conclusion,  I  should  like 
to  say  one  word  in  regard  to  the  significance  of  the  regalia  in  the  mind  of  the  Jap- 
anese p)eople.  The  emblems,  as  I  have  pointed  out,  symbolize  Knowledge,  Courage, 
and  Mercy ;  and  it  has  always  been  held  that  unless  a  ruler  be  possessed  of  all  these 
three  virtues,  he  will  be  powerless  to  govern  the  country  in  peace  and  prosperity. 
With  this  in  mind,  the  importance  of  the  regalia,  which  symbolizes  these  three 
virtues,  can  be  easily  imagined.  Its  influence  on  the  people  is  enormous.*  Coming 
from  the  gods  to  Zimmu,  the  first  Emperor,  himself  a  descendant  of  the  gods,  its 
existence  dates  from  the  very  foundation  of  the  Japanese  Empire.  Without  it,  the 
Empire  would  hardly  be  conceivable  to  the  Japanese  people.  The  whole  tradition 
of  the  imperial  family  is  bound  up  in  it;  its  possession  bestows  sovereignty  by 
divine  right;  and  the  instinct  of  the  people  ...  is  to  acknowledge  no  nun  as 
Emperor  unless  he  possess  the  regal  symbols."  See  Transactions  and  Proceedings 
0/ the  Japan  Society  (London)  for  1901-1902,  voL  ri 


690  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

These  powers  forced  Japan  to  accept  a  money  indemnity  in  lieu  of 
territory  on  the  continent.  She  was  permitted,  however,  to  take 
possession  of  the  island  of  Formosa. 

751.  China  in  Process  of  Dismemberment;  the  Boxer  Uprising 
(1900).  —  The  march  of  the  little  Japanese  army  into  the  heart  of 
the  huge  Chinese  Empire  was  in  its  consequences  something  like 
the  famous  march  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks  through  the  great 
Persian  Empire.  It  revealed  the  surprising  weakness  of  China  — 
a  fact  known  before  to  all  the  world  but  never  so  perfectly  realized 
as  after  the  Japanese  exploit  —  and  marked  her  out  for  partition. 
The  process  of  dismemberment  began  without  unnecessary  delay. 

Germany  seized  the  port  of  Kiao-chau,^^  as  already  noted,  and 
forced  from  China  a  ninety-nine  years'  lease  of  it  and  some 
adjoining  territory  (January,  1898). 

Then  Russia  asked  and  received  a  twenty-five  years'  lease  of 
Port  Arthur  (March,  1898).  Thereupon  England  demanded  and 
received  from  China  Wei-hai-wei  (April,  1898),  to  be  held  by 
England  "  as  long  as  Russia  should  hold  Port  Arthur." 

France  viewed  these  cessions  to  Germany,  Russia,  and  England 
with  natural  jealousy,  and  immediately  sought  and  obtained  from 
China  as  compensation  a  ninety-nine  years'  lease  of  the  Bay  of 
Kwang-chau-wan  (April,  1898). 

Italy  was  now  reported  to  have  made  demands  upon  the  Chinese 
government  for  something  as  compensation  to  her  for  what  the 
other  powers  had  received.  The  press  in  Europe  and  America 
began  openly  to  discuss  the  impending  partition  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  and  to  speculate  as  to  how  the  spoils  would  be  divided. 

Suddenly  the  whole  Western  world  was  startled  by  the  intelli- 
gence that  the  legations  or  embassies  of  all  the  European  powers 
at  Peking  were  hemmed  in  and  besieged  by  a  Chinese  mob  aided 
by  the  imperial  troops.  Then  quickly  followed  a  report  of  the 
massacre  of  all  the  Europeans  in  the  city. 

Strenuous  efforts  were  at  once  made  by  the  different  Western 
nations,  as  well  as  by  Japan,  to  send  an  international  force  to  the 
rescue  of  their  representatives  and  the  missionaries  and    other 

28  Or  Kiau-chau. 


WILL  THE  WORLD  BK  KUKOPEANIZED  ?        691 

Europeans  with  them,  should  it  chance  that  any  were  still  alive. 
Not  since  the  Crusades  had  so  many  European  nations  joined  in 
a  common  undertaking.  There  were  in  the  relief  army  Russian, 
French,  English,  American,  and  German  troops,  besides  a  strong 
Japanese  contingent.  The  relief  column  fought  its  way  through 
to  Peking  and  forced  the  gates  of  the  capital.  The  worst  had 
not  happened,  and  soon  the  tension  of  the  Western  world,  which 
had  lasted  for  six  weeks,  was  relieved  by  the  glad  news  of  the 
rescue  of  the  beleaguered  little  company  of  Europeans. 

All  which  it  concerns  us  now  to  notice  is  the  place  which  this 
remarkable  passage  in  Chinese  history  holds  in  the  story  of 
European  expansion  which  we  have  been  rehearsing.  The  point 
of  view  to  which  our  study  has  brought  us  discloses  this  at  once. 

The  insurrection  had  at  bottom  for  its  cause  the  determination 
of  the  Chinese  to  set  a  limit  to  the  encroachments  of  the  Western 
races,  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  their  country,  to  pre- 
serve China  for  the  Chinese.  All  the  various  causes  that  have 
been  assigned  for  the  uprising  are  included  in  this  general  under- 
lying cause. 

752.  Will  the  World  be  Europeanized  ?  —  the  Present  Situation 
viewed  in  the  Light  of  the  History  of  Similar  Situations  in  the 
Past.  —  It  is  not  simply  a  Chinese  situation  which  we  face  here 
but  a  world  situation.  Civilization  in  its  advance  has  reached 
what  James  Bryce  in  his  lecture  on  "The  Relations  of  the 
Advanced  and  the  Backward  Races  of  Mankind  "  calls  a  crisis, 
the  probable  issue  of  which  can  best  be  read  in  the  light  afforded 
by  the  issue  of  similar  crises  in  the  history  of  the  past. 

Three  times  in  the  historic  period  previous  to  the  present  epoch, 
strong  prolific  races,  pushing  out  their  borders,  have  created  situ- 
ations like  the  one  the  world  now  faces.  The  outcome  each  time 
teaches  the  truth  which  the  philosopher-historian  Laurent  in  his 
plea  for  the  rights  of  nations  and  races  so  eloquently  urges,  namely, 
that  no  race  is  great  enough  to  absorb  all  other  races. 

In  the  third  century  before  the  Christian  era  the  most  striking 
feature  presented  by  the  historical  arena  was  the  expansion  of  the 
Greek  race.    Hellas  had  expanded  into  Cireater  Hellas  and  was 


692  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

pressing  hard  upon  the  Oriental  world.  That  world  seemed  on  the 
point  of  being  Hellenized.  Fortunately  that  is  not  what  happened. 
The  best  elements  of  Greek  and  Oriental  life  and  thought  blended. 
The  result  was  a  composite  product  which  we  call  Graeco-Oriental 
civilization,  a  culture  which  bore  in  its  bosom  the  germs  of  a 
new  world-religion  —  Christianity. 

About  the  beginning  of  our  era  another  like  situation  had  been 
created  by  the  expansion  of  a  people  who  regarded  it  as  their 
mission  to  conquer  and  to  rule  the  world.  Rome  had  expanded 
into  Greater  Rome.  The  Grseco-Oriental  world  seemed  on  the 
point  of  being  Romanized.  What  really  took  place  was  the  blend- 
ing of  the  two  civilizations  which  had  come  into  contact.  The 
resulting  culture  we  call  the  Grseco-Roman. 

Again,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  our  era  a  new  and 
vigorous  race,  the  German  race  of  the  North,  began  in  its  outward 
movement  to  press  upon  the  then  decadent  Graeco- Roman  world 
of  the  South.  That  world  seemed  on  the  point  of  being  German- 
ized. What  actually  took  place  was  the  blending  of  the  two  races 
and  cultures.  We  indicate  the  composite  character  of  the  new 
civilization  which  arose  by  calling  it  the  Romano-German. 

And  now  for  the  fourth  time  history  repeats  itself.  The  Aryan- 
speaking  peoples  of  Europe,  increasing  wonderfully  in  numbers, 
are  filling  the  earth  with  their  progeny  and  are  pressing  hard  upon 
the  Oriental  nations.  Will  the  result  be  the  Europeanizing  of 
Asia?  That  is  not  to  be  desired.  In  the  words  of  Captain  Mahan, 
what  is  to  be  hoped  for  is  "a  renewed  Asia  and  not  another 
Europe."  The  enrichment  brought  to  civilization  by  a  renewed 
Japan  should  teach  us  the  possible  worth  to  the  common  life  of 
the  world  of  a  renewed  China  and  a  renewed  India. 

It  is  true  that  in  the  purely  scientific  and  material  spheres  there 
is  nothing  in  the  possession  of  either  the  Hindus  or  the  Chinese 
or  the  Japanese  that  can  be  offered  as  a  substitute  for  what  the 
European  peoples  possess  and  are  now  giving  to  the  world.  But 
in  other  life  spheres  it  is  different.  The  Orient,  which  has  given 
the  world  all  its  great  religious  faiths,  may  not  yet  have  exhausted 
its  moral  and  spiritual  life.    It  may  well  be  that,  as  Professor 


THE   RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR  693 

Reinsch  says,  quoting  with  approval  Lord  Curzon,  "The  whole 
cast  of  thought  that  characterizes  the  West,  its  ideals  and  principles, 
may  be  modified  by  the  intimate  contact  with  the  Orient  into 
which  it  is  now  brought  by  imperial  expansion." 

The  student  of  the  past  will  not  only  recognize  how  good  are 
the  grounds  for  such  an  opinion,  but  he  will  also  hopefully  fore- 
cast that  the  issue  of  the  expansion  of  Europe  and  the  contact  of 
the  Christian  West  with  the  Confucian  and  Buddhistic  East  will 
be  to  give  a  new  and  richer  content  to  civilization  and  a  fresh 
impulse  to  the  true  progress  of  humanity. 


753.  The  Russo-Japanese  War  (i  904-1 905).  —  During  the  few 
months  which  have  passed  since  the  above  sections  were  written, 
events  have  moved  rapidly  in  the  Far  East.  Early  in  the  year 
1904  war  opened  between  Japan  and  Russia.  Respecting  the 
profound  cause  of  this  conflict,  little  need  be  added  to  what  has 
already  been  said  in  the  preceding  paragraphs.  Soon  after  Russia 
had  forced  Japan  to  give  up  Port  Arthur  and  the  territory  in 
Manchuria  ceded  to  her  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  with  China 
after  the  Chino-Japanese  War  of  1894  (sec.  750),  she  herself 
secured  from  China  a  lease  of  the  most  "  strategic  portion  "  of 
this  same  territory,  and  straightway  proceeded  to  transform  Port 
Arthur  into  a  great  naval  and  military  fortress,  which  was  to  be  the 
Gibraltar  of  the  East.  Moreover  she  occupied  the  whole  of  the 
great  Chinese  province  of  Manchuria.  Notwithstanding  she  had 
given  her  solemn  pledges  that  the  occupation  of  this  territory 
should  be  only  temporary,  she  not  only  violated  these  pledges 
but  made  it  evident  by  her  acts  that  she  intended,  besides  mak- 
ing Manchuria  a  part  of  the  Russian  Empire,  also  to  seize  Korea. 
But  Russian  control  of  this  stretch  of  seaboard  and  command  of 
the  Eastern  seas  meant  that  Japan  would  be  hemmed  in  by  a 
perpetual  blockade  and  her  existence  as  an  independent  nation 
imperiled.  It  would  place  her  destiny  in  the  hands  of  Russia. 
Japan  could  not  accept  this  fate,  and  drew  the  sword. 


694 


EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 


The  campaign  of  1904  resulted  in  astonishing  victories  for  the 
Japanese  on  land  and  on  sea.  They  assumed  practical  control  of 
Korea,  and  under  Field  Marshal  Oyama  wrested  from  the  Russian 

armies  under  Kuropatkin  the  south- 
ernmost portion  of  Manchuria.  Port 
Arthur,  after  one  of  the  longest  and 
most  memorable  sieges  of  modern 
times,  was  forced  to  capitulate  ^  (Jan- 
uary II,  1905).  The  strong  Russian 
fleet  in  the  Eastern  waters  at  the 
beginning  of  hostilities  was  virtually 
destroyed.  Such  was  the  situation  of 
things  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of 
the  war. 

The  final  issue  of  the  great  struggle 
and  its  ultimate  consequences  for  the 
nations  engaged  and  for  civilization 
lie  hidden  in  the  future  ;  but  it  seems 
already  certain  that  the  results  of  the 
war  will  be  more  momentous  and  far- 
reaching  than  those  of  any  other  con- 
flict of  races  recorded  in  modern 
history.  The  revelation  which  the 
war  has  made  of  the  resources  and 
power  of  Japan,  of  the  strength  of  the 
national  consciousness,  of  the  mihtary 
capacity  and  the  fine  intellectual  and 
spiritual  qualities  of  the  Japanese 
people,  seems  to  make  safe  the  pre- 
diction that  Japan  will  not  only  safe- 
guard her  own  national  existence  but  will  also  insure  the  terri- 
torial integrity  of  Korea  and  China,  —  in  a  word,  will  set  limits 
to  European  encroachments  in  Eastern  Asia  and  put  in  the  hands 
of  the  Mongol  peoples  whose  independence  has  been  imperiled 

29  The  siege  was  conducted  by  General  Nogi  and  Admiral  Togo ;  the  defense 
of  the  place  was  made  by  General  Stoessel. 


Fig.  112.  —  Field  Marshal 
Oyama 

(From  stereograph,  copyright, 
1904,  by  the  H.  C.  White  Com- 
pany, New  York.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  695 

the  shaping  of  their  own  lives  and  destinies.  The  entrance  of 
these  peoples,  under  the  inspiring  leadership  of  Japan,  into  the 
great  family  of  free,  self-governed,  and  progressive  nations,  would 
mean  the  shifting  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  world. 

Another  momentous  result  of  the  war  is  certain  to  be  the  dis- 
crediting of  the  corrupt,  unscrupulous,  and  incapable  Russian 
autocracy  and  the  imparting  of  a  great  impulse  to  the  Liberal 
movement  in  Russia. 


References.  —  In  preparing  the  following  list  of  books  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  distinguish  between  primary  and  secondary  authorities,  for 
the  reason  that  so  many  of  the  works  dealing  with  the  subject  of  this 
chapter  are  of  a  mixed  character. 

Works  of  a  general  character:  Morris,  The  History  of  Colonization. 
Has  a  good  bibliography.  Ireland,  Tropical  Colonization.  This  also 
contains  a  list  of  books  relating  to  the  subject,  Payne,  European  Colonies. 
Reinsch,  Colonial  Government.  Kidd,  The  Control  of  the  Tropics.  Bryce, 
The  Relations  of  the  Advanced  and  the  Backward  Races  of  Mankind. 

For  the  British  Colonial  Empire  :  Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England. 
Egerton,  a  Short  History  of  British  Colonial  Policy.  Caldecott,  Eng- 
lish Colonization  and  Empire.  BoURlNOT,  Canada  under  British  Rule, 
1760-igoo.  ^Y-UKS,  History  of  the  Australasian  Colonies.  Bryce^ /mpres- 
sions  of  South  Africa. 

For  Europe  in  Africa :  Johnston,  A  History  of  the  Colonization  of 
Africa.  Stanley,  Through  the  Dark  Continent  and  The  Congo  and  the 
founding  of  its  Free  State.  Keltie,  The  Partition  of  Africa.  MiLNER, 
England  in  Egypt.  Hughes,  Livingstone.  Hill,  Colonel  Gordon  in 
Central  Africa.  Cloete,  The  History  of  the  Great  Boer  Trek.  Cloete 
was  the  English  High  Commissioner  for  Natal  in  1843-1844.  PAUL 
Kruger,  Memoirs.     De  Wet,  Three  Years'  War. 

For  Russia  in  Asia :  Kennan,  Siberia  and  the  Exile  System.  HsLL- 
WALD,  The  Russians  in  Central  Asia.  CuRZON,  Russia  in  Central  Asia 
in  i88g  and  the  Anglo-Russian  Question.  CoLQUHOUN,  Russia  against 
India  ;  the  Struggle  for  Asia.  Shoemaker,  The  Great  Siberian  Railway. 
Krausse,  Russia  in  Asia.  Norman,  All  the  Russias.  Skrine,  The 
Expansion  of  Russia,  iSis-tgoo.  HosiE,  Manchuria,  Its  People^  Resources^ 
and  Recent  History. 

For  the  problems  of  the  Far  East,  created  by  the  European  expansion 
movement :  China's  Only  Hope,  by  Chang  Chih  Tung,  Viceroy  of  Liang  Hi. 
This  has  been  pronounced  by  high  authority  "  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
books,  if  not  the  most  remarkable  book,  written  by  a  Chinese  during  the 
past  six  hundred  years."  Okakura-Kakuzo,  The  Awakening  of  Japan. 
KsKYiK^K,   The  Russo-Japanese  Conflict.     CURZON,  Problems  of  the  Far 


696  EUROPEAN   EXPANSION 

East.  M.A.llA'i'i,  The  Problem  of  Asia.  L-kroy-Beavlieu,  The  Awakening 
of  the  East.  Colquhoun,  China  in  Transformation  and  The  Mastery  of 
the  Pacific.  Reinsch,  World  Politics  at  the  End  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
as  influenced  by  the  Oriental  Situation. 

Topics  for  Class  Reports.  —  i.  Resume  of  the  history  of  the  lost 
colonial  empires  of  the  earlier  Modern  Age.  2.  Livingstone  and  Stanley. 
3.  Founding  of  the  Congo  Free  State.  4.  The  Establishment  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia.  5.  The  storage  dam  at  the  First  Cataract  of  the 
Nile.  6.  The  Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad.  7.  France  in  Algeria.  8.  Ger- 
many in  Western  Asia.  9.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  10.  Asia  for 
the  Asiatics. 


CHAPTER   XLIV 
THE  WORLD  STATE 

Unconquerable  time  itself  works  on  unceasingly,  bringing  the  nations  nearer 
to  one  another,  awakening  the  universal  consciousness  of  the  community  of  man- 
kind ;  and  this  is  the  natural  preparation  for  a  common  organization  of  the  world.  — 
Bluntschli. 

For  I  dipt  into  the  future,  far  as  human  eye  could  see, 

Saw  a  Vision  of  the  world,  and  all  the  wonder  that  would  be'; 

Till  the  war-drum  throbb'd  no  longer,  and  the  battle-flags  were  furl'd 
In  the  Parliament  of  Man,  the  Federation  of  the  World.  —  Tennyson. 

754.  Introductory.  —  In  the  opening  paragraph  of  his  suggestive 
work  "The  Expansion  of  England,"  Professor  Seeley  uses  these 
words :  "It  is  a  favorite  maxim  of  mine  that  history,  while  it 
should  be  scientific  in  its  method,  should  pursue  a  practical 
object.  That  is,  it  should  not  merely  gratify  the  reader's  curi- 
osity about  the  past,  but  modify  his  view  of  the  present  and  his 
forecast  of  the  future.  Now  if  this  maxim  be  sound,  the  history 
of  England  ought  to  end  with  something  that  might  be  called 
a  moral.  Some  large  conclusion  ought  to  arise  out  of  it ;  it 
ought  to  exhibit  the  general  tendency  of  English  affairs  in  such 
a  way  as  to  set  us  thinking  about  the  future  and  diWning  the 
destiny  which  is  reserved  for  us." 

The  inspiring  destiny  for  England  which  Professor  Seeley  reads 
in  her  past  and  present  history  is  Imperial  Federation,  that  is, 
a  great  federal  union  embracing  the  motherland  and  her  colonies, 
organized  after  the  model  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

Professor  Seeley's  maxim  must  needs  be  applied  to  universal 
history  if  its  study  is  to  issue  in  anything  really  worthy  and 
practical.  We  must  try  to  discover  the  tendency  of  the  historic 
evolution,  to  discern  the  set  of  the  current  of  world  events,  and 

697 


698  THE  WORLD    STATE 

to  divine  the  destiny  reserved  for  the  human  race.  Only  thus 
shall  we  be  able  to  form  practical  ideals  for  humanity  and  strive 
intelligently  and  hopefully  for  their  realization. 

The  destiny  of  the  human  race,  as  plainly  disclosed  in  its  past 
history,  is  not  disunion  but  union,  not  perpetual  warfare  but  per- 
petual peace.  The  drift  of  history  from  the  beginning  has  been 
toward  a  federated  world,  a  world  organized  for  common  effort 
and  common  accomplishment. 

755.  From  the  Clan  State  to  the  Federal  State. — There  is  no  tend- 
ency in  universal  history,  broadly  viewed,  more  manifest  than  this 
tendency  toward  world  unity.  In  the  beginning  the  largest  inde- 
pendent group  was  the  clan  or  tribe.  Then  came  the  wider  union  of 
the  city-state  as  we  find  it  in  Babylonia  and  Syria,  and  in  Greece  and 
Italy,  at  the  dawn  of  history.  For  upwards  of  two  thousand  years 
the  city-state  was  the  ultimate  pohtical  unit  in  the  civilized  world 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Then, — if  we  disregard  purely  artificial 
unions,  unions  created  and  maintained  by  force,  such  as  the  Roman 
Empire,  —  then  came  the  nation  states  of  modern  times,  which, 
since  the  break-up  of  the  Roman  Empire,  have  been  slowly  created 
through  the  consolidation  of  tribes,  cities,  and  petty  principalities. 

And  just  now  among  these  great  nation  states  a  state  of  a  new 
type  has  arisen,  —  the  federal  state,  of  which  our  Union,  consist- 
ing of  forty-five  states,  is  the  model.  Constituted  "  in  the  image 
and  likeness  "  of  this  are  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia,  the  Swiss  Confederation,  and  the  new  German 
Empire.  So  characteristic  a  feature,  indeed,  of  the  political  life 
of  the  present  is  this  federation  movement,  that  ours  has  been 
called  the  Federal  Age.  "  One  of  the  most  striking  tendencies  of 
the  last  century,"  writes  Professor  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  "has 
been  the  development  of  federal  government  in  Europe  and 
America."  "The  aspect  of  the  whole  world,"  writes  Parkin,  the 
author  of  Imperial  Federation^  "  irresistibly  suggests  the  thought 
that  we  are  passing  from  a  nation  epoch  to  a  federation  epoch." 

The  significant  thing  about  this  federal  movement  is  that  the 
natural  and  logical  issue  of  national  federahsm  is  international 
federalism.    The    United    States    of   America    foreshadows   the 


PREREQUISITE   OF   THE   WORLD   UNION        699 

United  States  of  Europe.  The  obstacles  in  the  way  of  such  a 
federation  of  the  European  nations  are  not  so  great  as  those 
which,  scarcely  more  than  a  generation  ago,  seemed  to  render 
chimerical  all  attempts  to  build  up  unified  nations  out  of  the 
discordant  elements  existing  in  Italy  and  in  (Germany.  The  crea- 
tion of  the  United  States  of  Europe  is  a  light  task  compared  with 
the  creation  of  the  modem  European  nations  out  of  the  mediaeval 
chaos  of  warring  tribes,  cities,  and  feudal  principalities.  To  doubt 
that  the  work  of  organization,  so  far  advanced,  will  stop  short  of 
full  accomplishment  in  the  formation  of  the  larger  European  union, 
which  alone  can  give  real  worth  and  meaning  to  the  narrower 
national  unions,  is  to  doubt  that  the  great  tendencies  in  history 
are  toward  any  ascertainable  and  reasonable  goal. 

756.  Preparations  in  Different  Domains  for  the  World  State.  — 
The  success  which  has  attended  the  application  of  the  federal 
principle  to  wide  unions  of  states,  like  that  of  the  United  States, 
creates  a  reasonable  hope  that  the  same  principle  will  be  found 
capable  of  uniting  in  a  great  federation  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  And,  in  truth,  during  the  last  century,  in  different  realms, 
the  prerequisites  of  such  a  world  union  have  been  supplied  by 
humanity's  advance  and  achievements. 

In  the  political  realm  all  that  the  age-spirit  has  accomplished 
would  seem  to  have  for  its  ultimate  aim  the  preparing  of  the  way 
for  international  federation.  More  than  a  century  ago  Immanuel 
Kant,  in  his  essay  on  Perpetual  Peacc^  affirmed  that  a  prerequisite 
for  the  federation  of  the  world  was  the  establishment  by  all  the 
nations  of  representative  government.  If  we  recall  what  the  union 
of  the  autocratic  governments  of  Europe  in  the  Holy  Alliance 
meant  (sec.  647),  we  shall  understand  why  Kant  made  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  popular  institutions  within  the  different  nations 
an  indispensable  prerequisite  of  the  world  union.  A  world  union 
of  despotic  governments  would  be  the  tomb  of  liberty,  individual 
and  national,  —  a  world-wide  Russian  despotism. 

When  Kant  wrote  his  plea  for  peace,  autocratic  government 
prevailed  almost  everywhere  in  Europe ;  in  England  alone  was 
there  the  semblance  of  a  representative  constitution.    We  have 


700  THE   WORLD   STATE 

seen  how,  during  the  century  which  has  passed  since  then,  the 
PoHtical  Revolution  has  estabhshed  representative  government  in 
all  the  Christian  states  of  Europe  save  Russia.  Furthermore,  in 
all  the  really  vital  nations  and  communities  outside  of  Europe,  — 
in  the  United  States,  in  Canada,  in  Australia,  in  Japan,  —  the 
management  of  public  affairs  is  in  the  hands  of  the  people.  Thus 
has  the  first  prerequisite  of  the  formation  of  the  universal  state 
been  supplied  in  the  case  of  almost  all  the  great  nations  and 
communities  of  the  civilized  world. 

A  second  significant  preparation  in  the  political  realm  for  the 
world  union  is  federalism.  This  supplies  the  principle  which 
may  be  applied  to  the  organization  of  the  world  without  danger 
to  the  principle  of  local  autonomy  and  legitimate  national  free- 
dom ;  for  it  deprives  the  uniting  states,  as  exemplified  in  our  own 
Union,  of  nothing  save  that  "  lawless  freedom  "  which  they  now 
use  to  do  one  another  hurt  and  harm. 

While  the  basis  of  a  world  state  has  thus  been  laid  in  the 
political  domain  through  the  incoming  of  democracy  and  feder- 
alism, an  equally  important  preparation  for  the  permanent  organ- 
ization of  the  world  has  been  made  in  the  moral  realm.  Throughout 
the  last  century  the  sentiment  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  has  been 
vastly  deepened  and  strengthened.  There  has  been  growing  up, 
too,  a  new  social  conscience  which  recognizes  the  universality  of 
the  moral  law,  which  recognizes  that  it  is  a  law  as  binding  upon 
nations  as  upon  individuals.  These  new  moral  feelings  constitute 
a  force  which  is  working  irresistibly  in  the  interest  of  a  world 
union  based  on  international  amity  and  good  will. 

It  is  most  significant  that  at  the  same  time  that  these  move- 
ments towards  world  unity  have  characterized  progress  in  the 
political  and  moral  realms,  wonderful  discoveries,  inventions,  and 
developments  in  the  physical  domain,  —  the  steam  railway,  the 
steamship,  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  wireless  telegraphy,  and  a 
hundred  others,  —  through  the  practical  annihilation  of  time  and 
space,  have  brought  the  once  isolated  nations  close  alongside  one 
another  and  have  made  easily  possible,  in  truth,  made  necessary 
and  inevitable,  the  formation  of  the  world  union. 


PEACE   CONFERENCE   AT   THE   HAGUE  701 

757.  The  Interparliamentary  Union.  —  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  agencies  at  work  for  international  organization  is  what 
is  known  as  the  Interparliamentary  Union.  This  is  an  association 
made  up  exclusively  of  members  of  national  legislatures  or  parlia- 
ments. Its  membership  now  numbers  more  than  two  thousand. 
Because  of  the  noble  character  of  the  men  composing  this  inter- 
national society,  as  well  as  because  of  their  connection  with  the 
practical  work  of  legislation  in  the  different  states,  this  body  is 
the  most  influential  of  the  agencies  now  working  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  world. 

758.  The  International  Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague  and  the 
Establishment  of  the  International  Court  of  Arbitration  (1899). — 
Already  more  has  been  accomplished  in  the  way  of  the  actual 
creation  of  the  machinery  of  a  world  state  than  is  generally 
realized.  Just  as  the  nineteenth  century  was  closing  the  Tsar 
Nicholas  surprised  the  world  by  proposing  to  all  the  governments 
having  representatives  at  the  Russian  court  the  meeting  of  a  con- 
ference **  to  consider  means  of  insuring  the  general  peace  of  the 
world  and  of  putting  a  limit  to  the  progressive  increase  of  arma- 
ments which  weigh  upon  all  nations." 

All  the  governments  addressed  accepted  the  proposal,  and  in 
1899  the  Convention  met  at  The  Hague  in  the  Netherlands.  The 
most  important  outcome  of  the  deliberations  of  the  body  was  the 
establishment  of  a  permanent  International  Court  of  Arbitration 
to  which  all  nations  may  have  recourse  for  the  settlement  of 
interstate  disputes. 

The  formation  of  this  International  Court  is  a  most  noteworthy 
event.  In  the  words  of  a  recent  writer,  "  It  may  be  possible  that 
looking  back  a  hundred  years  from  now  it  will  be  seen  that  its 
establishment  was  the  most  important  single  event  of  modem 
times."  Andrew  Carnegie,  recognizing  the  import  of  the  work 
of  the  Convention  for  the  peace  of  the  world,  has  made  a  gift  of 
$1,500,000  for  the  erection  at  The  Hague  of  a  permanent  home 
for  the  Court,  —  what  is  to  be  known  as  "  The  Temple  of  Peace." 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  Court  two  cases,  known  respec- 
tively as  the  Pious  Fund  case  between  the  United  States  and 


702 


THE   WORLD    STATE 


Mexico,  and  the  Venezuela  case,  which  concerned  thirteen 
nations,  have  been  referred  to  it  and  amicably  settled.^  Refer- 
ring in  an  official  message  to  the  decision  of  the  Court  in  the 
latter  case,  President  Roosevelt  used  these  words  :  ''  This  triumph 
of  the  principle  of  international  arbitration  is  a  subject  of  warm 
congratulation,  and  offers  a  happy  augury  for  the  peace  of  the' 
world."  Many  of  the  leading  nations  have  already  bound  them- 
selves by  treaties  to  refer  to  the  Court  all  controversies  of  a 
specified  character  arising  between  them. 


Fig.  113.  —  The  Proposed  Temple  of  Peace  at  the  Hague 
(From  a  photograph  of  the  Palace  of  Justice  at  Brussels,  of  which 
the  Temple  of  Peace  is  to  be  an  exact  copy) 

The  creation  of  this  International  Court  of  Arbitration  brings 
measurably  nearer  the  time  when  the  barbarous  wager  of  battle 
between  nations  shall  have  become  such  a  tradition  of  an  out- 
grown past  as  is  now  the  old  wager  of  battle  between  individuals 
(sec.  47). 

759.  The  Call  for  a  Second  International  Conference  and  the 
Proposed  Creation  of  a  Stated  World  Congress  or  Parliament. — 
A  Supreme  Court  of  the  nations  having  been  established,  the  next 

1  A  third  case  to  which  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  Japan  are  parties 
is  now  (1905)  pending  before  the  Court. 


PROPOSED   INTERNATIONAL  PARLIAMENT     703 

step  in  the  organization  of  the  world  is  the  formation  of  an  Inter- 
national Legislature.  This  step  is  already  being  taken.  The 
Interparliamentary  Union,  at  its  meeting  held  at  St.  Louis  in  the 
fall  of  1904,  passed  a  resolution  requesting  the  governments  of 
the  different  nations  to  send  representatives  to  a  second  interna- 
tional conference,  and  asking  that  at  such  conference  there  be 
considered  among  other  matters  "  the  advisability  of  establishing 
an  International  Congress  to  convene  periodically  for  the  discus- 
sion of  international  questions." 

The  President  of  the  United  States  was  requested  by  the  Union 
to  invite  the  governments  of  the  world  to  send  delegates  to  such 
a  conference.  He  at  once  complied  with  the  request  (October, 
1904).  The  invitations  met  with  cordial  responses  from  all  the 
governments  addressed.  The  assembling  of  the  convention  awaits 
the  termination  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  Japan. 

It  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped  that  the  deliberations  of  the  proposed 
meeting  may  result  in  the  establishment  of  an  International  Con- 
gress, necessarily  with  only  advisory  powers  at  first,  but  which, 
like  the  Congress  of  our  Confederation  of  1781,  may  in  due  time 
grow  into  a  true  International  Legislature  or  Parliament,  compe- 
tent to  deal  with  all  affairs  of  international  concern.  If  such 
should  be  the  outcome  of  this  projected  conference,  then  will  the 
second  great  step  have  been  taken  in  the  formation  of  the  World 
State,  and  hopeful  advance  made  in  the  establishment  among  the 
nations  of  the  conditions  of  permanent  peace.  And  only  thus 
can  these  conditions  be  established,  because  "  For  states  in  their 
relations  to  one  another  there  can  be,  according  to  reason,  no 
other  way  out  of  the  lawless  condition  which  inevitably  results 
in  war  than  that  they  give  up  their  lawless  freedom,  just  as  indi- 
vidual men  do,  accommodate  themselves  to  public  constraining 
laws,  and  so  form  an  international  state  {civ Has  gentium)  which 
will  grow  and  at  last  embrace  all  the  peoples  of  the  earth."  * 

2  Immanuel  Kant,  Perpetual  Peact. 


704  THE   WORLD    STATE 

References.  —  Bluntschli,  The  Theory  of  the  State,  bk.  i,  chap.  ii. 
^Y.^i.YN,  The  Expansion  of  England.  Yii^nT,  Perpetual  Peace.  Jean  DE 
Bloch,  The  Futicre  of  War,  being  the  sixth  volume  of  the  author's 
extended  work  under  this  same  title.  Parkin,  Imperial  Federation. 
Trueblood,  The  Federation  of  the  World.  Mead,  A  Primer  of  the 
Peace  Movement.  Hart,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Federal  Govern- 
ment. FiSKE,  American  Political  Ideas.  SuMNER,  Addresses  on  War. 
Foster,  Arbitration  and  The  Hague  Court.  Holls,  The  Peace  Conference 
at  The  Hague.  Tolstoi,  War  and  Peace,  and  Letter  on  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,     Baroness  von  Suttner,  Lay  Down  Your  Arms. 


CONCLUSION 
THE  NEW  AGE:    INDUSTRIAL  DEMOCRACY 

760.  The  Age  of  Material  Progress  or  the  Industrial  Age.  — 
History  has  been  well  likened  to  a  grand  dissolving  view.  While 
one  age  is  passing  away  another  is  coming  into  prominence. 
Before  the  movement  in  the  political  realm  which  we  have  been 
following,  and  which  is  creating  free  self-directing  nations  and 
organizing  them  in  a  world-wide  union,  has  yet  reached  its  con- 
summation, the  scene  is  already  shifting.  During  the  last  hundred 
years  the  features  of  a  new  age  have  distinctly  appeared.  A  new 
movement  of  human  society  has  begun.  Civihzation  has  fairly 
entered  upon  what  may  be  called  the  Industrial  Age  or  the  Age 
of  Material  Progress. 

We  have  already  noted  the  beginnings  of  this  new  age  in  the 
industrial  revolution  effected  by  the  great  inventions  which  marked 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  (sec.  544).  In  thedecade 
between  1830  and  1840  the  industrial  development  thus  initiated 
received  a  great  impulse  through  the  bringing  to  practical  perfec- 
tion of  several  of  the  earlier  inventions  and  by  new  discoveries 
and  fresh  inventions.  Prominent  among  these  were  the  steam 
railway,  the  electric  telegraph,  and  the  ocean  steamship.  In  the 
year  1830  Stephenson  exhibited  the  first  really  successful  loco- 
motive. In  1836  Morse  perfected  the  telegraph.  In  1838  ocean 
steamship  navigation  was  first  practically  solved.* 

These  and  other  inventions  which  have  grown  out  of  them  have 
brought  about  momentous  changes  in  the  social  and  the  political 

1  These  inventions  may  be  compared,  in  their  relations  to  the  new  industrial  age, 
to  tlie  three  great  inventions  or  discoveries,  namely,  printing,  gunpowder,  and  the 
mariner's  compass,  which  ushered  in  the  Modern  Age  (see  p.  290). 

705 


7o6  CONCLUSION 

world.^  But  it  is  only  the  revolution  which  they  have  wrought  in  the 
industrial  domain  to  which  we  would  now  direct  attention.  And  the 
significant  fact  for  us  here  to  note  is  that  through  the  apphcation 
of  these  inventions  to  the  processes  of  manufacture  and  to  the 
thousand  other  industries  and  activities  of  mankind  the  productive 
forces  of  society  have  been  almost  incalculably  increased.  Prob- 
ably more  things  contributive  to  human  well-being  can  now  be 
produced  in  a  single  day  than  were  produced  in  ten  or  twenty 
days  at  the  opening  of  the  century.  In  some  important  branches 
of  manufacture  the  productive  power  of  the  workman,  aided  by 
machinery,  has  been  increased  a  hundred  and  even  a  thousand 
fold. 

The  history  of  this  age  of  industry,  so  different  from  any  pre- 
ceding age,  cannot  yet  be  written,  for  no  one  can  tell  whether 
the  epoch  is  just  opening  or  is  already  well  advanced.*  We  shall 
have  finished  the  task  set  ourselves  when  we  have  merely  stated 
the  leading  problem  which  this  remarkable  industrial  develop- 
ment has  created,  and  indicated  the  solution  of  that  problem 
which  the  Socialists  have  proposed. 

761.  The  Labor  Problem.  —  Beyond  controversy  the  great  prob- 
lem of  the  epoch,  one  involving  many  others,  is  the  so-called 
Labor  Problem.  This,  plainly  stated,  is,  How  are  the  products 
of  the  world's  industry  to  be  equitably  distributed? 

The  condition  of  things  is  this.  Through  the  employment 
of  the  forces  of  nature  and  the  use  of  improved  machinery, 


2  Thus,  for  illustration,  the  increased  facilities  for  travel,  by  bringing  men  together 
and  familiarizing  them  with  new  scenes  and  different  forms  of  society  and  belief,  are 
making  them  more  liberal  and  tolerant.  Still  again,  by  the  virtual  annihilation  of 
time  and  space,  governmental  problems  are  being  solved.  As  we  have  just  seen,  a 
chief  difficulty  in  maintaining  a  federation  of  states  widely  separated  has  already 
been  removed  and  such  extended  territories  as  those  of  the  United  States  have  been 
made  practically  as  compact  as  the  most  closely  consolidated  European  state. 

8  It  may  well  be  that  we  have  already  seen  the  greatest  surprises  of  the  age,  so  far 
as  great  inventions  and  discoveries  are  concerned,  and  that  the  epoch  is  nearing  its 
culmination.  "  It  is  probable,"  says  Professor  Richard  T.  Ely,  "  that  as  we,  after  more 
than  two  thousand  years,  look  back  upon  the  time  of  Pericles  with  wonder  and  aston- 
ishment, as  an  epoch  great  in  art  and  literature,  posterity  two  thousand  years  hence 
will  regard  our  era  as  forming  an  admirable  and  unparalleled  epoch  in  the  history  of 
industrial  invention."  —  French  and  German  Socialism  in  Modern  Times. 


SOCIALISM   OK   SOCIAL  DEMOCRACY  707 

economic  goods,  that  is,  products  adapted  to  meet  the  physical 
wants  of  men,  can  be  produced  in  almost  unlimited  quantities. 
But  this  increase  in  society's  productive  power  has  brought  little 
or  no  corresponding  augmentation  of  material  well-being  to  the 
laboring  classes.  Owing  to  some  defect  in  our  industrial  system 
a  few  secure  a  disproportionate  share  of  its  benefits.*  Great 
monopolies  or  trusts  are  created  and  fabulous  fortunes  are  amassed 
by  a  few  fortunate  individuals,  while  perhaps  the  majority  of  the 
laborers  for  wages,  with  their  toil  lightened  comparatively  little 
or  not  at  all,  receive  almost  nothing  beyond  the  means  of  narrow 
and  bare  subsistence. 

This  inequitable  distribution  of  wealth,  of  material  well-being, 
this  practical  exclusion  of  the  masses  from  the  greater  part  of 
the  benefits  and  enjoyments  of  modern  civilization,  is  creating 
everywhere  the  most  dangerous  discontent  among  the  laboring 
classes  and  is  awakening  among  philanthropists  and  statesmen 
the  greatest  solicitude  and  apprehension. 

762.  Socialism  or  Social  Democracy. — The  proposed  solution 
of  the  problem  which  has  awakened  most  thought  and  created 
most  debate  is  that  offered  by  the  Socialists,  or  Social  Democrats. 
Just  as  our  own  government  —  state,  city,  or  national  —  now  owns 
schoolhouses  and  controls  education,  owns  and  conducts  the  post 
office,  municipal  water  works,  and  other  public  utilities,  so  would 
the  Socialists  have  the  government  by  the  gradual  extension  of 
its  functions  come  into  possession  of  the  railways,  the  telegraph,* 
the  mines,  mills,  factories,  the  land,  —  in  a  word,  of  all  the  means 
of  production,  of  all  those  things  upon  which  or  in  connection 
with  which  human  labor  is  spent  in  order  to  satisfy  human  wants 
and  to  meet  human  desires. 

*  According  to  a  recent  estimate  125,000  families  of  the  wealthy  class  In  the  United 
States  hold  $33,000,000,000  of  the  total  wealth  of  the  nation,  while  5,500,000  families 
of  the  poorer  class  possess  only  J8oo,ooo,ooo.  To  put  it  in  another  way,  in  every  one 
hundred  families  of  the  nation  one  family  holds  more  than  the  remaining  ninety-nine. 
Nearly  half  the  families  of  the  nation  are  classed  as  "  property  less,"  that  is,  as  having 
nothing  save  clothing  and  household  furniture.  See  Spahr,  Am  Essay  oh  tk*  PrtstHi 
Distribution  of  Wealth  in  the  United  States  (18^),  p.  69. 

B  In  many  of  the  countries  of  Europe  the  railways  and  the  telegraph  are  already 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  government. 


708  CONCLUSION 

The  Socialists  maintain  that  only  under  such  a  system  as  this 
—  which  would  do  away  with  the  wage  system  and  with  private 
capital,  though  not  with  private  property  —  can  the  present 
exploitation  of  labor  by  capital  be  made  impossible  and  every 
man  secured  reasonable  participation  in  the  benefits  of  the  gifts 
of  nature  and  of  the  new  inventions  and  discoveries  which  are 
rendering  nature  with  all  her  mighty  forces  man's  willing  servant. 

Socialists  lay  great  emphasis  on  this,  namely,  that  what  they 
propose  is  in  line  and  harmony  with  the  great  historic  move- 
ments of  the  past  centuries.  They  maintain  that  the  democra- 
tization of  wealth  ®  is  the  logical  issue  of  the  democratization  of 
knowledge,  of  religion,  and  of  government  by  the  Renaissance, 
the  Reformation,  and  the  Political  Revolution.  For  them  the 
coming  Industrial  Revolution"^  is  the  next  and  necessary  phase 
of  the  progressive  course  of  civilization. 

6  It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  democracy  in  wealth  does  not  mean  communism, 
which  denies  individual  rights  in  property,  any  more  than  democracy  in  religion 
means  atheism,  or  democracy  in  politics,  anarchy.  It  simply  looks  to  such  a  reform 
of  the  present  economic  system  as  shall  secure  to  every  man  an  equitable  proportion 
of  the  material  goods  which  his  labor  helps  to  create,  or  "an  apportionment  of  well 
being  according  to  labor  performed." 

7  It  will  be  noted  that  to  the  term  "  Industrial  Revolution  "  as  used  by  the  Social- 
ists there  attaches  a  wholly  different  meaning  from  that  which  it  carries  when  used 
by  the  political  economists  (sec.  544).  What  the  latter  call  the  "  Industrial  Revolu- 
tion" is  to  the  Socialist  only  an  antecedent  of  the  real  Revolution,  which  is  still 
to  come. 


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The  second  volume  has  not  yet  (February,  1905)  appeared. 
Robinson,  J.  H.,  and  Rolfe,  H.  W.,  Petrarch.     N.Y.,  Putnam.     1898. 
Saint-Simon,  Duke  of,  Memoirs,  4  vols.     Trans,  by  Bayle  St.  John.     N.Y., 

Pott.     1901. 
S^vigne,  Madame  de.  Letters  (selection).     Chicago,  McClurg.     1890. 
Speeches  and  Table-Talk  of  the  Prophet  Mohammed.     Trans,   by  Stanley 

Lane-Poole.     London,  Macmillan.     1882. 
Stanley,  H.  M.,   The  Congo  and  the  Founding  of  its  Free  SttUe^  2  vols. 

N.Y.,  Harper.     1885. 
Story  of  Burnt  Njal,  The.     Trans,  by  George  W.  Dasent.     N.Y.,  Dutton. 

1900. 
Sully,  Duke  of,  Memoirs,  4  vols.     London,  Bell.     1877. 
Tarbell,  I.  M.,  The  Words  of  Napoleon  (Day's  Work  Series).    Boston.    1900. 
Translations  and  Reprints.    Department  of  History  of  the  University  of  Penn. 
Whitcomb,  M.,  A  Literary  Source- Rook  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.    Part  I, 

The  Italian  Renaissance ;  Part  II,  The  German  Renaissance.     Depart- 
ment of  History  of  the  University  of  Penn.     1900. 
Wilhelmina,  Frederica  Sophia.  Memoirs,  2  vols.     Boston,  Osgood.     1877. 
Young,  Arthur,  Travels  in  France.     London,  Bell.     1890. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Note,  —  In  the  case  of  words  whose  correct  pronunciation  has  not 
seemed  to  be  clearly  indicated  by  their  accentuation  and  syllabication,  the 
sounds  of  the  letters  have  been  denoted  thus:  a,  like  a  \v\  j^rdy  ;  i,  like  d, 
only  less  prolonged;  a,  like  a  in  hd7>e ;  a,  like  a  \x\  far ;  a,  like  a  in  all ;  e, 
like  ee  in  meet ;  e,  like  ^,  only  less  prolonged ;  e,  like  e  in  Ind ;  e,  like  e  in 
there ;  e,  like  e  in  err  ;  T,  like  /  in  pine ;  i,  like  /'  in  ptn  ;  6,  like  o  in  twte ; 
6,  like  d,  only  less  prolonged ;  6,  like  o  in  nSt ;  6,  like  o  in  6rb ;  6o,  like  oo 
in  moon  ;  u,  like  u  in  Use  ;  ii,  like  the  French  u  ;  c  and  ch,  like  k ;  9,  like  j  ; 
g,  like  ^  in  get ;  g,  like  y;  §,  like  z  ;  ch,  as  in  German  ach  ;  G,  small  capi- 
tal, as  in  German  Hamburg;  n,  like  ni  in  minion;  i\  denotes  the  nasal 
sound  in  French,  being  similar  to  ng  in  song. 


Aachen  (a'ken),  67. 

Abbassides  (ab-basldz),  dynasty  of 

the,  55. 
Ab'e-lard,  Peter,  193,  194. 
Abu  Bekr  (a'boo  bek'r),  first  caliph, 

52  n.  6. 
Abukir  Bay  (a-boo-ker'),  battle  of, 

540. 
Ab-ys-sin'i-a,  679  n.  19. 
Acre  (a'ker),  siege  of,  by  crusaders, 

135  ;  by  Bonaparte,  540. 
Addison,  Joseph,  483. 
Ad-ri-an-6'ple,  Treaty  of,  655. 
Afghan  War,  first,  672  ;  second,  672 

n.  II.        * 
Afghanis-tan',  672  n.  11. 
A-fra-si-ab',  Persian  legendary  hero, 

167  n.  5. 
Africa,   Portuguese  exploration  of, 

278  ;  Stanley  in,  667  ;  partition  of, 

669 ;  English  in,  674--678 ;  French 

in,  678,  679;  Germans  in,  681. 
Africa,  North,  recovery  of,  by  Jus- 
tinian,  9;    conquest   of,   by   the 

Arabs,  52,  53. 
Agincourt  (a'zhan-koor"),  battle  of, 
..  212,  213. 
A'gra,  162. 
Aids,  feudal,  83. 
Aix-la-Chapelle         (aks-la-sha-pelO 

(Ger.  Aachen),  Treaty  of  (1668), 

407;  (1748),  474- 


Albert,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  301. 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  307. 
Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  240. 
Albert  the  Great,  Schoolman,  194. 
Albi  (al-be'),  142  n.  11. 
Xrbi-gen''se§,  crusades  against,  142, 

143- 
Al^boin,  king  of  Lombards,  10  n.  5. 
Albuquerque  (al-boo-kerTci),  281  n, 

3- 

Alcuin  (al'kwin),  67. 

Aldine  Press,  at  Venice,  264, 

Xrdus  Ma-nu'ti-us,  264. 

Alembert,  d'  (a-16n-bS.r^,  507. 

Alexander  I,  Tsar,  at  Tilsit,  558- 
560;  at  Erfurt,  565;  war  with 
Napoleon,  573-575  ;  in  Holy  Alli- 
ance, 586 ;  as  liberal  and  as  reac- 
tionist, 654  ;  II,  emancipates  serfs, 
657,  658;  assassinated,  662;  III, 
662. 

Alexius  Com-ne'nus  I,  Greek  em- 
peror, asks  aid  of  the  Latins 
against  the  Turks,  130. 

Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  England, 
74  n.  2. 

Algeria,  678,  679. 

Ali  (a'le),  caliph,  52  n.  6. 

Almansur      (al-man-«ddrO.    caliph, 

55- 
Alphonso,  king  of  Castile,  emperor- 
elect  H.  R.  E^  237. 


725 


726      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Al-sace'  (Ger.  Elsass),  ceded  to 
France,  392  ;  to  Germany,  595 ; 
question  of,  in  France,  596,  646, 

^647. 

Al'va,  duke  of,  in  Netherlands, 
366,  367. 

Amalfi  (a-marfe),  103. 

America,  discovered  by  Northmen, 

13- 

Amiens  (a-me-an'),  Treaty  of,  545, 
546;  broken,  j^53. 

Amurath  (a-moo-rat')  I,  Turkish 
sultan,  165. 

Anabaptists,  307  n.  10. 

Anagni  (a-nan'ye),  154. 

An-a-to'li-a,  164. 

An-a-to'li-an  Railway,  681. 

Anchorites.     See  Hermits. 

Anglo-Saxons,  conquest  of  Britain, 
12.     See  England. 

An-go'ra,  battle  of,  166. 

Anjou  (on'zhoo),  French  province, 
202. 

Annates,  303  n.  5;  Act  of,  341. 

Anne  of  Austria,  404. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  345. 

Anne,  queen  of  England,  480-483. 

Antioch,  taken  by  crusaders,  132. 

Antony  of  Bourbon,  king  of  Na- 
varre, 377. 

Antwerp,  Spanish  fury  at,  369. 

Appeals,  Act  in  Restraint  of,  341. 

A-quI'nas,  Thomas,  194,  195. 

Arabian  Nights,  57. 

Arabic  system  of  notation,  58. 

Arabs,  origin  and  character,  46; 
religious  condition  before  Mo- 
hammed, 46-48.  See  Saracens 
and  Moors. 

Aragon,  union  with  Castile,  230, 

Archaeology,  science  of,  created  by 
classical  revival,  272. 

Architecture,  mediaeval,  183. 

Ar-€o'la,  battle  of,  538  n.  2. 

Aristotle,  quoted,  183  n.  11. 

Arkwright,  494  n.  19. 

Ar-ma'da,  Invincible,  356-359. 

Amdt,  571. 

Arthur,  King,  12. 

Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales,  336. 

Articles  of  Religion,  Anglican,  348. 

Artois   (ar-twa'),  ceded  to   France, 

..  404- 

As'pern,  battle  of,  566. 


Assassination,  political,  341  n.  5. 
"Assiento  "  (as-e-en'to),  the,  481. 
Assignats     (as'ig-nats ;     Fr.     pron. 

a-se-na'),  518  n.  11. 
Assisi  (a-se'se),  151. 
Assizes  of  Jerusalem,  133. 
Assuan  (as-swan'),  678. 
As-tra-khan',  454. 
As-tu'rT-as,  the,  229. 
Atahualpa  (a-ta-waFpa),  288. 
Athanasius  (ath-a-na'shi-us),  23. 
Athens,  dukedom  of,  137. 
Attainder,  bill  of,  345  n.  5. 
Attila,  legend  of,  29  n.  12. 
Auerstadt    (ou'er-stet),    battle     of, 

558. 
Augsburg,  Diet  of,  308  ;  Confession 

of,  308 ;  Religious  Peace  of,  324 ; 

League  of,  410,  411. 
Au'gus-tlne,  his  mission  to  Britain, 

16. 
Augustus  the  Strong,  463. 
Ausgleich  (ous'gllch),  650. 
Austerlitz    (ous'ter-lits),   battle    of, 

555- 

Australasia,  671  n.  8. 

Australia,  671;  Commonwealth  of, 
671. 

Austria  (Ger.  CEsterreich),  House 
of,  238  n.  19;  imperial  crown  be- 
comes hereditary  in,  240;  under 
Charles  V,  318;  under  Maria  The- 
resa, 473-476;  under  Joseph  II, 
497-499 ;  wars  against  French 
Revolution,  520,  537-539 ;  wars 
against  Napoleon,  545,  554,  555, 
566,  576;  empire  of,  556;  gains 
at  Congress  of  Vienna,  583 ;  in 
Holy  AlUance,  586;  Italian  in- 
terests of,  619-629;  German  in- 
terests of,  634-642 ;  in  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy,  650-653. 

Austria-Hungary   since    1866,  650- 

653- 
Austrian  Succession,  War  of,  472- 

474  ;  England  in,  486. 
Austro-Prussian  War,  641,  642. 
Austro-Sardinian  War,  626,  627. 
Auto  de  fe  (a'to-da-fa''),  the,   232 ; 

at  Valladoli'd,  365. 
A'vars,   subdued   by   Charlemagne, 

63. 
Avignon   (a'ven'yoh''),    removal   of 

papal  seat  to,  155. 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY      727 


A'von,  river,  219. 

A'zov,  Russians  capture,  458. 

Aztecs,  287. 

Ba'ber,  founder  of  Mongol  state  in 

India,  162. 
Bacon,  Roger,  195,  196. 
Bagdad,  founded,  55. 
Baj-a-zet'  or  Baj'a-zet  I,  165,  166. 
Bal-t^o'a,  Vasco  de,  286  n.  1 1. 
Baldwin  of  Flanders,  Latin  emperor 

of  the  East,  137. 
Balliol    (ball-ol),     John,     Scottish 

king,  206,  207. 
Ban'nock-bum",  battle  of,  208. 
Bar-ba-ross'a,   bey  of   Algiers,   322 

n.  5. 
Barebone,  Praise-God,  437. 
Bar'ne-veld,  John  of,  374  n.  8. 
Barras  (ba-ras'),  536  n.  25. 
Ba'§el,  Church  Council  of,  157. 
Ba'§el  (Fr.  Bale),  treaties  of,  537  n. 

26. 
Bastille  (bas-ter),  storming  of  the, 

515- 

Batavian  Republic  (this  had  been 
created  in  1795),  n^^de  into  king- 
dom of  Holland,  552. 

Batu  (ba'too"),  Mongol  leader,  161, 
162. 

Bautzen  (bout'sen),  battle  of,  576. 

Bavaria  (Ger.  Bayem),  kingdom, 
556;  in  German  Empire,  646, 

Bay'ard  (Fr.  pron.  ba-yar').  Cheva- 
lier, 321. 

Baylen  (b!-len'),  capitulation  of, 
564  n.  21. 

Ba-zaine',  Marshal,  595. 

Becket.     See  Thomas  Becket. 

Bede  (bed),  the  Venerable,  20  n.  5. 

Bedouins  (bed'60-enz),  the,  46. 

"  Beggars,"  origin  of  name,  365 ; 
"water  beggars,"  369. 

Begging  friars.  See  Mendicant 
friars. 

Belgium  (Fr.  Belgique),  war  of 
Louis  X IV  concerning,  407 ; 
ceded  to  Austria,  413  ;  revolution 
in,  498;  ceded  to  France,  538; 
in  kingdom  of  Netherlands,  583 ; 
independent  kingdom,  591. 

Bel-i-sa'rT-us,  general,  9. 

Bel-ler'o-phon,  the,  578. 

Benares  (be-na'rez),  122. 


Ben'der  AbH^as,  683. 

Benedetti  (ba-na-det'te),  644. 

Benedictines,  order  of  the,  25. 

Bett'e-fic'^i-um^  the,  80. 

Benevolences,  335. 

Beowulf  (ba'5-wuif),  Saxon  poem,  19. 

Beresina  (ber-e-ze'na),  575. 

Ber'gen,  174. 

Ber-lin'  (Ger.  pron.  ber-len'),  Decree, 
561  ;  Treaty  of,  660. 

Bernadotte    (ber'na-dot),     king    of 
Sweden,  583  n.  3. 

Bes-sa-ra'bi-a,  ceded  to  Russia,  660. 

Beust  (boist).  Count,  650. 

Bible,  Luther's,  306;  King  James', 
424. 

Bishops'  War,  427,  428. 

Bi§'marck,  Otto  von,  639-649. 

Black    Death,  the,  210;    effect  on 
wages  in  England,  211. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  490  n.  14. 

Black  Prince,  the,  211. 

Blenheim  (blen'im),  battle  of,  412. 

"Bloody  Assizes,"  the,  447  n.  16. 

Bliich'er,  578. 

Blues  and  Greens,  factions  at  Con- 
stantinople, 43. 

Boccaccio  (bok-kat'cho),  his  Decam- 
eron, 259;  as  a  humanist,  259. 

Boers  (boors),  the,  674-676. 

Bo-e'thi-us,  8. 

Bohemia,  in  Thirty  Years'  "War,  387, 
388. 

Bo'he-mond,  prince  of  Otranto,  132. 

Boleyn,  Anne  (booKin),  339,  341  ; 
marriage,  341  ;  death,  345. 

Bolingbroke  (boring-brook),  505  n.5. 

Bologna  (bo-lon'ya).  University  of, 
188. 

Bonaparte.      See  Jerome^  Joseph, 
Louis,  A^apoieon. 

Boniface    (b6n'e-fiss)    VIII     pro- 
claims jubilee,  300. 
Bo'ra,  Catherine  von,  304  n.  6. 
Bordeaux  (bordo'),  533. 
Borodino    (bor-o-de'n5),  battle   of, 

574- 

Borromeo  (bor-r6-ma'6).  Carlo,  311. 

Bo-rus'si,  the,  469. 

Bo^'ni-a,   revolt   in,  659;    adminis- 
tered by  Austria- Hungary,  660. 

Bos'po-rus,  the,  53. 

Bossuet  (bo-sii-a'),  398,  417  n.  14. 

Bosworth  Field,  battle  of,  215. 


728      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Botany  Bay,  671. 

Boulogne  (boo-lon'),  camp  of,  554. 

Bour'bon,  Cardinal,  381. 

Bourbon,  House  of,  accession  in 
France,  381;  in  Spain,  411;  re- 
stored in  France,  576 ;  in  Naples, 
582  ;  heirs  expelled  from  France, 
597  ;  in  Spain,  614. 

Bourgeoisie  (boor-zhwa-ze^),  503. 

Boyne,  battle  of  the,  452. 

Braddock,  489  n,  11. 

Bradshaw,  443. 

Bra-gan'za,  House  of,  in  Portugal, 

563- 
Brandenburg,  electorate    of,   under 

the  Hohenzollerns,  469. 
Brant,  Sebastian,  297  n.  i. 
Brazil,  falls  to   Portugal,   281  n.  5; 

Portuguese  royal  family  flee  to, 

615  n.  2;    empire   of,   615   n.  2; 

republic  of,  615  n.  2. 
Breitenfeld  (bri'ten-felt),  battle   of, 

390. 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  297. 
Bretigny    (bre-ten-yf).    Treaty    of, 

211  n.  9. 
Briel  (brel),  368,  369. 
Bright,  John,  602  n.  i. 
Britain,   Anglo-Saxon  conquest  of, 

12.     See  England. 
British  Empire  in  India,  672,  673. 
Brittany,  origin  of  name,  12  n.  6. 
Bruce,    Robert,   king   of    Scotland, 

207,  208. 
Bru'ge§  (Fr.  pron.  briizh),  174. 
Bru-maire',  Revolution  of,  540,  541. 
Brunelleschi    (broo-nel-les'ke),    267 

n.  10, 
Brunswick,  Duke  of,  521  ;  House  of, 

484  n.  5. 
Budapest,  650. 
Bulgaria,  660  n.  8. 
Bunyan,  John,  443, 
Burghley,  Lord,  352. 
Burgundians,  kingdom  of  the,  9. 
Bur'gun-dy,  origin  of  name,  9, 
Butler,  Samuel,  450. 
Byron,  Lord,  654  n.  i. 
Byzantine    Empire.      See    Eastern 

Empire. 

Cabinet,  English,  485. 
Cab'ot,  John,  337. 
Cabot,  Sebastian,  337. 


Ca'diz,  359. 

Casd'mon,  poet-monk,  20. 
Caen  (kon),  526. 
Cahiers  (ka-ya'),  510. 
Cairo,  58  ;  Bonaparte  in,  399. 
Caj'e-tan,  Cardinal,  303  n.  4. 
Calais  (kallss),  captured   by    Eng- 
lish, 210;  English  lose,  351. 
Calcutta,  Black  Hole  of,  490  n.  14. 
Calendar,     French     Revolutionary, 

529- 
Caliphate    of    Bagdad,   established, 

55  ;  Golden  Age  of,  55  ;  dismem- 
berment of,  55,  56. 
Calmar,  Union  of,  249. 
Calvin,  John,  at  Geneva,  309  n.  13; 

burns  Servetus,  312. 
Calvinists,  309 ;  omitted  from  Peace 

of  Augsburg,  324  n.  7. 
Cam-ba-lu',  Mongol  capital,  162. 
Cam-bo'di-a,  679. 

Cambronne  (koh-bron'),  578  n.  30. 
Campagna  (kam-pan'ya),  632. 
Campo    Formio    (kam-p6-for'me-6), 

Treaty  of,  538. 
Canada,  under  Louis  XIV,  413,  414  ; 

ceded  to  England,  419;    Domin- 
ion of,  670. 
Ca-nos'sa,  Henry  IV's   humiliation 

at,   118. 
Can-ta'bri-a,  229. 
Ca-niite',  king  of  England,  75. 
Cape  Colony,  674. 
Ca'pet,  Hugh,  king  of  France,  220, 

221. 
Capetians.     See  France. 
Cape-to-Cairo  Railway,  676. 
Capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  66. 
Car-b5-na'ri,  620. 
Cardinals,  Sacred    College    of,   113 

n.  4. 
Carloman,  king  of  Franks,  62. 
CarFstadt,  306. 
Car-nar'von,  castle,  205,  206. 
Carnegie  (car-na'gie),  Andrew,  701. 
Car-ni-o'la,  566. 

Carnot  (kar-n5'),  Sadi,  596  n.  10. 
Car-o-lin'gi-an  family,  beginning  of, 

62  ;  its  extinction,  69. 
Carrier  (kar-ya'),  534. 
Carroccio  (car-rot'cho),  the,  177  n.  3. 
Cartwright,  494. 
Casimir-Perier    (kaz-i-mer'  pa-rya'), 

596  n.  ID. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     729 


Cas'si-o-do"rus,  Theodoric's  minis- 
ter, 8  n.  2. 

Castelar  (kas-ta-lar'),  Emilio,  618. 

Castiglione  (kas-tel-yo'ne),  538  n.  27. 

Castile  (kas-tel'),  the  name,  230 ; 
union  with  Aragon,  230. 

Castles,  feudal,  88. 

Cateau  Cambresis  (ka-to'  kori-bra- 
ze'),  Peace  of,  320. 

Cathedral  building,  185. 

Catherine  of  Aragon,  339,  340,  341. 

Catherine  II  the  Great,  reign,  466- 
468. 

Catherine  de'  Medici  (de  ma'de- 
che),  2n>  379- 

Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  607. 

Catholic  League,  in  France,  381 ; 
in  Geimany,  387. 

Catholic  Reaction,  308-314. 

Cavaliers,  430. 

Cavour  (ka-voor').  Count,  625,  626, 
627,  628. 

Cawn-pur',  673  n.  13. 

Caxton,  William,  219. 

Cecil,  Robert,  353. 

Cecil,  William.     See  Burghley. 

Celibacy  of  the  clergy,  115. 

Celtic  Church,  18,  19. 

Celts,  at  opening  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  6;  Christianity  among,  17- 
19;  conversion  of  Irish  Celts  by 
St.  Patrick,  17. 

Cenis  (se-ne'),  Mount,  tunnel,  626. 

Cerdagne  (ser'djin"),  225. 

Cer-van'te§,  99. 

Chambers  of  Reunion,  409  n.  8. 

Champlain  (sham-plan"^,  383. 

Charlemagne  (shar'le-man),  king  of 
Franks,  62-68 ;  his  wars,  62,  63 ; 
restores  the  Empire  in  the  West, 
64,  65 ;  as  a  ruler,  65-67 ;  his 
Palace  School,  67  ;  his  death,  67  ; 
results  of  his  reign,  68 ;  division 
of  his  dominions,  68. 

Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia, 
623,  624. 

Charles  the  Bald,  king  of  the  West- 
em  Franks,  80. 

Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, 225. 

Charles,  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  377. 

Charles  Felix,  king  of  Sardinia,  621. 

Charles  Martel,  at  battle  of  Tours, 
54  ;  creates  a  cavalry  force,  86. 


Charles  the  Simple,  king  of  the 
Western  Franks,  75. 

Charles  I,  king  of  England,  reign, 
425-434;  II,  reign,  443-446. 

Charles  IV,  king  of  France,  209; 
VI,  212;  VII,  213.  214;  VIII, 
225-227  ;  IX,  king  of  France,  377, 
379,  381  ;  X,  590. 

Charles  IV,  Emperor  H.  R.  E., 
237  n.  18;  V,  commissions  Magel- 
lan, 282  ;  at  Diet  of  Worms,  304, 
305;  of  Augsburg,  308;  narrative 
of  reign,  318-325  ;  his  abdication, 
325,326;  VI,  412,  472;  VII,  473 
n.  I. 

Charles  II,  king  of  Spain,  411; 
IV,  431- 

Charles  XII,  king  of  Sweden,  462, 
463,  464  n.  6. 

Chartism,  603. 

Chatham.     See  Pitt. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  217. 

Chev'i-ot  (or  chiv'i-ot)  Hills,  338 
n.  3. 

ChiKde-ric,  last  Merovingian  king, 
62. 

Children's  Crusade,  the,  138-140. 

China,  question  of  partition  of,  687  ; 
war  with  Japan,  688-690 ;  in 
process  of  dismemberment,  690  ; 
Boxer  uprising,  690,  691. 

Chivalry,  origin  of,  93,  94  ;  its  uni- 
versality, 94 ;  training  of  the 
knight,  95 ;  ceremony  of  knight- 
ing, 95,  96;  the  tournament,  96, 
97  ;  character  of  the  knight,  97, 
98;  decline  of  the  system;  ^; 
evil  and  good  in  system,  99. 

Chos'ro-es  II,  king  of  Persia,  44. 

Christian  IV,  king  of  Denmark,  388; 
IX,  640. 

Christianity,  as  factor  in  mediaeval 
history,  4 ;  introduced  among  the 
Teutonic  tribes,  14-2!  ;  progress 
of,  before  the  fall  of  Rome,  15; 
introduced  into  Russia,  21 ;  re- 
acted upon  by  paganism,  22;  in 
French     Revolution,     abolished, 

530- 
Chronicle.  Angl(>-Saxon,  74  n.  2. 
Chrys-615'ras,       Manuel.       Greek 

scholar,  260. 
Church,  early  constitution  of,  27; 

separation  of  the   Eastern  from 


730      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


the  Western  or  Latin  Church, 
32  ;  growth  of  a  martial  spirit  in, 
123,  124.  See  Papacy. 
Church  Councils  :  Council  of  Nicasa, 
15;  of  Pisa,  156;  of  Constance, 
156;  of  Basel,  157  ;  of  Trent,  310, 

3"- 

Church  property,  in  France,  nation- 
alized, 518. 

Cid,  poem  of  the,  233. 

Cimabue  (che-ma-boo'a),  268  n.  14. 

Cisalpine  Republic,  first,  538,  541 ; 
second,  545,  552. 

Civil  Code,  549. 

Civil  Constitution  of  Clergy,  in 
French  Revolution,  518;  ter- 
minated, 547. 

Civil  War  (i  642-1 649),  in  England, 
430-434- 

Clarendon,  Constitutions  of,  200. 

Clermont  (kler-mori').  Council  of, 
130. 

Clive,  Robert,  490. 

Clo'vis,  king  of  the  Franks,  10;  his 
conversion,  15. 

Cluniac  revival,  122,  126. 

Cluny  (klii-ne'),  monastery  of,  26 ; 
center  of  reform,  26,  114. 

Clyde,  river,  483. 

Cobden,  Richard,  602  n.  i. 

Codes  :  Justinian  Code,  43  ;  Assizes 
of  Jerusalem,  133;  Code  Napo- 
leon, 549. 

Colbert  (kol-ber'),  406. 

CoFet,  John,  295. 

Coligny,  Gaspard  de  (ko-len-ye'), 
377>  378,  379.  380. 

Colonization,  European,  664-667. 
See  national  titles  such  as  Eng- 
lish Colonies. 

Colonnas,  Giovanni,  259. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  importance 
of  his  achievement,  275  ;  voyages 
of,  279,  280. 

Cotnitatus,  the,  81. 

Commendation,  Gallic  custom,  8r. 

Commons,  English  House  of,  origin, 
203-205.  See  Parliament,  Eng- 
lish. 

Commonwealth  of  England,  434- 
438. 

Commune,  Revolutionary,  of  Paris, 

Communists,  Paris,  595. 


Compass,  invention  of,  277  n.  2. 

Concordat,  French,  of  1801,  547, 

Condottieri  (k6n'd6t-tya''re),  179. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  556. 

Congo  Free  State,  668  n.  5. 

Conrad  III,  Emperor  H.  R.  E.,  134. 

Constance,  Church  Council  of,  156  ; 
Peace  of  (1183),  ^17- 

Con'stan-tlne  VI,  Eastern  em- 
peror, 64. 

Constantine,  Palaeologus,  last  em- 
peror of  the  East,  166. 

Constantinople,  besieged  by  Sara- 
cens, 53 ;  captured  by  crusaders, 
136-138;  by  Ottoman  Turks,  166. 

Constituent  Assembly,  French,  513- 

519- 

Constitutions:  Austria  (1849),  638; 
(1867),  651 ;  England,  437  ;  France 
(i79i),5i9;  (1795),  535;  (1799),  543; 
(i8i4),577;  (1848),  5925(1851),  593; 
(1875),  596;  Hungary  (1867),  651; 
Norway  (1814),  584;  Netherlands 
(1814),  584;  Poland  (1815),  655; 
Portugal  (1820),  615  n.  2  ;  Prussia 
(1850),  638;  Sardinia  (1848),  623; 
Spain  (1812),  614;  (1837),  618; 
(1875),  618;  Switzerland  (1815), 
584;  Two  Sicilies  (1820),  620. 

Consulate,  French,  543-551. 

Continental  Blockade,  560-562. 

Conventicle  Act,  443. 

Convention,  French  National,  523- 
536. 

Conway,  castle,  206. 

Cook,  James,  Captain,  671. 

Copenhagen  bombarded,  563. 

Co-per'ni-cus,  Nicholas,  276  n.  i. 

Cor-day',  Charlotte,  526. 

Cordeliers  (Eng.  pron.  kor'de-lers''), 
Club,  519. 

Cor'do-va,  54. 

Corn  Laws  repealed,  602  n.  i. 

Corneille  (kor-nay'),  417. 

Cor-d-man'del,  474. 

Corporation  Act  repealed,  606. 

Cor'pus  Ju'ris  Ci-vi'lis,  43. 

Correggio  (kor-red'j5),  268  n.  14. 

Corsica,  ceded  to  France,  419. 

Cortes  (kor'tes),  Spanish,  186  n.  14. 

Cortes  (Span.  pron.  kor-tas'),  Her- 
nando, 286. 

Co-run'na,  battle  of,  566  n.  23. 

Coster  of  Haarlem,  263  n.  8. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     731 


Coulanges    (ko-lonzh'),    Fustel   de, 

187. 
Council,    of    Blood,    367 ;    of    the 

North,  426  n.  6;  of  Trent,  310, 

311;  Vatican,  630  n.  5. 
Counter-Reform,  Catholic,  310,  311. 
Coup   (TJ^tat    (koo-da-ta'),    of   Bru- 

maire,  540,  541  ;  of  December  2, 

1851,  593- 
Court  of  Arbitration,  International, 

701. 
Covenanters,  428;   persecution   of, 

444. 
Cranmer,  Thomas,  340,  341  ;  death, 

350- 

Crecy  (kres'se),  battle  of,  209. 

Crespy  (kra-pe').  Peace  of,  322. 

Crimea,  Russia  conquers,  466;  war 
in,  656,  657. 

Crompton,  494  n.  19. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  parliamentary 
general,  431-436;  seizes  govern- 
ment, 437  ;  Protector,  438-440  ; 
death,  440 ;  treatment  of  body,  443. 

Cromwell,  Richard,  440. 

Cromwell,  Thomas,  340,  341  ;  death, 

345  n.  5- 

Crusades,  enumerated,  121  ;  causes 
of,  122-127;  circumstances  favor- 
ing, 127-129;  legend  of  Peter  the 
Hermit,  129;  Councils  of  Pia 
cenza  and  Clermont,  130;  narra 
tive  of  the  Crusades  in  the  East 
131-140;  Crusades  in  Europe 
141-143;  their  results  for  Euro 
pean  civilization,  143-146.  See 
Table  of  Contents. 

Cul-16'den  Moor,  battle  of,  487. 

Curfew,  the,  107.  ' 

Customs  Union,  German,  637. 

Cuzco  (kooz'ko),  288. 

Cyprus,  ceded  to  England,  660. 

Czechs  (chechs  or  cheks),  652. 

Danelagh  (dan'la),  the,  72. 

Danes.     See  Scafidina7<ians. 

Dante,  Alighieri  (a-le-ge-a're),  pre- 
cursor of  the  Renaissance,  253, 
254;  his  Commedia,  254. 

DSn'ton  (Fr.  pron.  dort-t6A'),  in  Con- 
vention, 523  ;  on  first  Committee 
of  Public  Safety,  525  ;  death,  531. 

Da'ri-en,  Isthmus  of,  Scotch  colony 
at,  482. 


Dark  Ages,  the,  character  of,  i,  2. 

Damley,  Henry  Stuart,  I^rd,  355. 

Declaration,  of  Indulgence,  447  ;  of 
Rights,  448;  of  the  Rights  of 
Man,  516. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  483. 

Delhi  (del'le),  162. 

Demarcation,  Papal  Line  of,  281,282. 

Denmark,  in  Thirty  Years'  War, 
388 ;  Continental  Blockade,  562  ; 
loses  Norway,  583  n.  3 ;  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  War,  640,  641.  See 
Calmar,  Union  of. 

Derby,  Earl  of,  604. 

Descartes  (da-kart'),  417  n.  14. 

Des  i-de'ri-us,  king  of  the  Lom- 
bards, deposed  by  Charlemagne, 

63- 
Despots,  Italian,  178,  179. 
Diane  de    Poitiers   (di-an'  de  pwa- 

tya'),  376. 
Dias  (de'as),  Bartholomew,  278. 
Diderot  (de-dro'),  507. 
Directory,  French,  535-541. 
Disestablishment,  in  Ireland,  607- 

609;   proposed   in    England  and 

Scotland,  609. 
Disraeli  (diz-ra'li),  608. 
Distribution     of     wealth     in      the 

United  States,  707  n.  4. 
Divina   Commedia    (de-ve'na   kom- 

ma'de-a),  254. 
Divine  Right  of  Kings,  the  theory, 

396-398;     its    history,  398,  399; 

opinion  of  James  I  on,  420;   of 

Louis  XIV,  403. 
Doge  (doj),  the  name,  179. 
Domesday  Book  (doomz^daO.  106. 
Dominicans,  order  of  the,  151. 
Don   Quixote   (Sp.  pron.  don  kc- 

ho'te),  99. 
D6n-a-teri6,  267  n.  10. 
Donation  of  Constantine.  320.  15; 

its  unhistorical  character  shown 

by  Valla,  273. 
Dragonnades  (drag-o-nadz'),  409. 
Drake,  Francis,  3^7,  359. 
Dreibund  (dri'btiCnt)',  648. 
Dreyfus  (dri'fus ;  Fr.  pron.  dri-fiis'). 

Alfred,  598  n.  11. 
Drogheda  (droch'e-da),  435. 
Dunbar,  battle  of,  436. 
Dunkirk,  439. 
Duns  Scotus,  195.    * 


732      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Duquesne  (dli-kan^),  Fort,  489. 

Dutch.     See  Netherlajids. 

Dutch  colonies,  444 ;  at  the  Cape, 

674,  675  ;  in  East  Indies,  331,  674 

n,  14. 

East  India  Company,  English,  423, 

Eastern  Empire,  sketch  of  history, 
42-45 ;  becomes  Greek,  44,  45 ; 
services  of,  to  European  civiliza- 
tion, 45 ;  effects  upon,  of  Cru- 
sades, 143. 

Eastern  Rumelia  (roo-me'lia),  660 
n.  8. 

Ebro  (a'bro),  river,  564. 

Ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  200  n.  2. 

Ecclesiastical  Reservation,  324  ;  vio- 
lated, 387. 

Eck,  John,  303  n.  4. 

Edda,  the,  73  n.  i. 

E-des''sa,  134. 

Edgehill,  battle  of,  431  n.  10, 

Edict,  of  Nantes,  382  ;  revoked,  409, 
410 ;  of  Grace,  385  ;  of  restitution, 
388 ;  of  Toleration  in  Austria, 
497  ;  of  Emancipation  in  Prussia, 
572;  in  Russia,  657,  658. 

Education,  English  acts,  602  n.  i, 
604 ;  question  in  France,  597. 

Education,  reformed  by  the  New 
Learning,  271. 

Edward,  the  C6nfessor,  king  of 
England,  75;  his  death,  103;  I, 
205-208;  II,  208;  III,  208,  209, 
210,  211;  VI,  birth,  345;    reign, 

347-349- 
Eg'bert,  king  of  Wessex,  12. 
Egmont,  366. 
Egypt,  conquest  of,  by  Saracens,  52  ; 

England  in,  676-678. 
Einhard      (in'hard),      secretary     of 

Charlemagne,  66. 
Elba,  576. 
Elbe  (elb ;  Ger.  pron.  el'be),  river, 

392. 
Electors,  the    Seven,  of   Germany, 

236,  237. 
Elizabeth,  queen  of  England,  reign, 

351-361- 
Elizabeth,  tsaritsa,  475. 
Emigres   (a-me-gra'),   French,    516; 

return  of,  547. 
Encyclopedists,' 507. 


Enghien  (on-gian^),  duke  of,  550. 

England,  origin  of  name,  12  ;  Anglo- 
Saxon  conquest  of,  12  ;  Christian- 
ity in,  16;  results  of  conversion 
of  Anglo-Saxons,  16;  reign  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  74  n.  2  ;  Danish 
conquest,  75  ;  Saxon  line  restored, 
75 ;  Norman  conquest  and  rule, 
103-109;  under  the  houses  of 
Plantagenet,  Lancaster,  and  York, 
199-216;  loss  of  possessions  in 
France,  201 ;  conquest  of  Wales, 
205,  206;  wars  with  Scotland, 
206-208 ;  Hundred  Years'  War, 
208-2 1 5  ;  Wars  of  the  Roses,  2 1 5, 
216;  under  the  Tudors,  334-361 ; 
in  seventeenth  century,  420-453 ; 
in  eighteenth  century,  480-496; 
since  Waterloo,  599-613.  See 
Table  of  Contents. 

English  colonies,  the  Cabots,  T,y]  ; 
under  Elizabeth,  359,  360;  under 
James  I,  423 ;  under  Anne,  482; 
in  Seven  Years'  War,  488-491 ;  in 
American  Revolution,  491,  492; 
slavery  abolished  in,  493 ;  at  close 
of  nineteenth  century,  669-678. 

Enlightened  despotism,  theory  of, 
400-402 ;  exemplified  by  Cath- 
erine II,  466;  by  Frederick  II, 
477,  478  ;  by  Joseph  II,  497-499  ; 
by  Napoleon,  547-549. 

Equality,  principle  of,  580. 

E-ras'mus,  Desiderius,  295,  296. 

Er'furt,  Congress  of,  565. 

E-rig'e-na,  John  Scotus,  192. 

Eritrea  (a-re-tra'a),  679  n.  19. 

Ertogrul  (er'to-grool),  Ottoman 
chieftain,   164,' 165. 

Eschenbach  (esh'en-bach).  Wolfram 
of,  241  n.  22. 

Es-co'ri-al,  the,  328  n.  10. 

Essenes  (es-senz'),  the,  23  n.  6. 

Essex,  second  earl  of,  360  n.  8  ;  third 
earl  of,  431. 

Essling,  battle  of,  566. 

Estates-General.  See  States-General. 

E-tru'ri-a,  kingdom  of,  546. 

Ettenheim,  550. 

Eugene  of  Savoy,  Prince,  412. 

Eugenie  (e-zha-ne'),  Empress,  594. 

EvVlyn,  John,  459  n.  3. 

Excommunication,  effects  of,  117. 

Eylau  (riou),  battle  of,  558. 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     733 


Fa-bi'o-la,  27  n.  11. 

Factory  Act,  English,  602  n.  i. 

Fairfax,  Sir  Thomas,  432. 

False  Decretals,  the,  32  n.  15. 

Faure  (for),  Felix,  596  n.  10. 

Faust,  printer,  264. 

Faustus,  legend  of,  270  n,  1 5. 

Fawkes,  Guy,  421. 

Federalism,  697-700. 

Fenelon  (fan-Ion'),  417  n.  14. 

Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  marriage  to 
Isabella  of  Castile,  230;  sets  up 
the  Inquisition,  232 ;  his  death, 
232. 

Ferdinand  I,  Emperor  of  Austria, 
638. 

Ferdinand  II,  Emperor  H.R.E.,  388. 

Ferdinand  VII,  king  of  Spain,  ac- 
cession, 614;  reign,  616. 

Ferdinand  IV,  king  of  Naples,  as 
Ferdinand  I,  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  620. 

Feudalism,  defined,  77  ;  subinfeuda- 
tion, 77;  origin  of  fiefs,  80;  ori- 
gin of  feudal  patronage,  81 ;  origin 
of  feudal  sovereignty,  81,  82  ;  cere- 
mony of  homage,  82 ;  relation  of 
lord  and  vassal,  —  reliefs,  fines, 
aids,  etc.,  83 ;  manorial  serfs,  84- 
86 ;  development  of  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, 86-88 ;  castles  of  the  nobles, 
88,  89;  sports  of  the  nobles,  89; 
causes  of  decay,  89-91  ;  extinc- 
tion of,  in  different  countries,  90 
n.  7;  defects  of  the  system,  91  ; 
good  results  of  the  system,  92,  93  ; 
effects  upon,  of  Crusades,  145. 

Feuillants  (fe-yoh'),  520. 

Fich'te,  571. 

Field  of  Cloth  of  Gold,  321  n.  3. 

P'ilmer,  quoted,  397,  398. 

Fine  arts,  revival  of  the,  266-269. 

Finland,  Russia  conquers,  559,  565 ; 
Russianization  of,  662,  663. 

Finns,  the,  22. 

Fire-worshipers,  53  n.  7. 

Fisher,  John,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
342. 

Five  Mile  Act,  444. 

Flag'el-lants,  the,  210  n.  8. 

Flodden  Field,  battle  of,  338  n.  3. 

Florence,  sketch  of  history,  182,  183. 

Forest  laws  of  the  Normans,.  108. 

For-mo'sa,  689. 


Fra  An-gelK-co,  268  n.  14. 

France,  beginnings  of  French  king- 
dom, 220;  the  Capetian  period, 
220-224;  table  of  Capetian  kings 
(direct  line),  220  n.  11;  in  the 
Crusades,  222;  effects  upon,  of 
the  Hundred  Years'  War,  224; 
under  the  mediaeval  Valois,  224- 
227 ;  wars  with  Charles  V,  320- 
323  ;  under  the  later  Valois  kings, 
376-381  ;  under  Henry  IV,  381- 
384  ;  under  Louis  XIII,  384-386; 
gains  in  Treaty  of  Westphalia. 
392  ;  under  Louis  XIV,  403-417  ; 
Louis  XV,  417-419;  condition 
in  eighteenth  century,  500-509; 
under  Louis  XVI,  509-524 ;  the 
Revolution,  524-542;  the  Con- 
sulate, 543-551  ;  the  Empire,  551- 
576;  since  Waterloo,  589-598. 

Franche-Comte(fronsh-kon-ta'),4o8. 

Francis  I,  Emperor  H.R.E.,  473  n. 
I  ;  II,  makes  Treaty  of  Campo 
Formio,  538 ;  of  Luneville,  545 ; 
as  Francis  I,  Emperor  of  Austria, 
556. 

Francis  I,  king  of  France,  rival  of 
Charles  V,  320,  321  ;  wars  with 
Charles  V,  321-323;  persecution 
of  Waldenses,  323 ;  II,  reign  of, 
376,  377- 

Francis  II,  king  of  Two  Sicilies,  627. 

Francis  Joseph,  Emperor  of  Austria, 
accession,  638;  makes  Peace  of 
Villafranca,  627;  of  Prague,  642; 
grants  reforms  to  Hungary,  650; 
popularity  of,  652. 

Franciscans,  order  of  the,  151,  152. 

Franco  -  Prussian  War,  594-596. 
643-646. 

Frankfort  ^Ger.  Frankfurt);  Con- 
stituent Assembly  at,  639  n.  4 ; 
annexed  to  Prussia,  642, 

Franks,  the,  under  the  Merovin- 
gians, 9,  10 ;  their  conversion,  1 5  ; 
importance  of  conversion,  1 5. 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa,  Emperor 
H.  R.  E.,  in  Third  Crusade,  135; 
quarrel  with  Pope  Alexander  III, 
149;  his  struggle  with  the  Lom- 
bard I>eague,  176,  177;  repre- 
sents German  nationality,  235 : 
II,  relations  to  the  Papacy,  152, 
'53- 


734 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Frederick  IV,  king  of  Denmark, 
463 ;  VII,  640. 

Frederick  (III)  I,  king  of  Prussia, 
470;  II,  the  Great,  472-479;  in 
partition  of  Poland,  476. 

Frederick  V,  Elector  Palatine,  king 
of  Bohemia,  388  n.  2. 

Frederick  the  Wise,  elector  of  Sax- 
ony, 305. 

Frederick  William,  Great  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  469. 

Frederick  William  I,  king  of  Prus- 
sia, 470,  471  ;  III,  campaign  of 
Jena,  557,  558;  at  Tilsit,  560;  IV, 
grants  Constitution,  638. 

Free  Imperial  Cities,  237,  238. 

French  and  Indian  War.  See  Seven 
Years'  War. 

French  colonies,  under  Henry  IV, 
383;  under  Louis  XIV,  413,  414; 
under  Louis  XV,  418;  under 
Napoleon  I,  546 ;  at  close  of 
nineteenth  century,  678-680. 

Friedland  (fret'lant),  battle  of,  558. 

Froissart  (frwa-sar^),  229. 

Fronde,  Wars  of  the,  404  n.  5. 

Fulton,  Robert,  554. 

Fusillades  (fus-e-yad'),  534. 

Ga'len,  191. 

Galicia  (ga-lish'i-a),  558. 

Galileo  (gal-i-le'6),  276  n.  i. 

Ga'ma,  Vasco  da,  280,  281. 

Garibaldi   (ga-re-barde),   sketch    of 

life,    625;  in  Sicily  and   Naples, 

627,  628. 
Gas'cons,  the,  63  n.  2. 
Ged'des,  Janet,  428. 
Geiseric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  14. 
Gen'o-a,  181,  182. 

Geography,  knowledge  of,  in  fif- 
teenth   and   sixteenth    centuries, 

277-284. 
George  I,  king  of  England,  484 ;  II, 

484 ;  III,  484. 
Gep'i-dae,  mentioned,  10  n.  5. 
Gerard  (zha-rar'),  Balthasar,  372. 
German  colonies,  680-682. 
German  Confederation,  634-636. 
German  Empire,  New,  formed,  645, 

646  ;  recent  history  of,  647-649. 
German  tribes.     See  Teutons. 
Germany,    conversion    of    German 

tribes,  20,  21 ;  beginnings  of  the 


kingdom  of,  233,  234;  renewal  of 
the  empire  by  Otto  the  Great, 
234;  under  the  Hohenstaufen, 
235,  236;  the  Electors,  236;  the 
Interregnum,  237  ;  the  Free  Im- 
perial Cities,  237,  238 ;  under  the 
Hapsburgs,  240 ;  humanism  in, 
297,  298 ;  reformation  in,  298- 
308;  Thirty  Years'  War  in,  387- 
394;  Peace  of  Westphalia,  391- 
393  ;  effects  of  Thirty  Years'  War 
upon,  393,  394 ;  reorganized  by 
Napoleon,  555,  556;  coast  lands 
annexed  to  France,  568 ;  reorgan- 
ized by  Congress  of  Vienna,  584  ; 
Confederation,  634-636 ;  Cus- 
toms Union,  637  ;  Revolution  of 
1848  in,  637-639;  North  German 
Confederation,  642,  643  ;  German 
Empire  formed,  645,  646.  See 
German  Empire.,  Netv. 

Ghent,  Pacification  of,  369. 

Ghibellines  (gib'el-linz),  the,  178  n.  5. 

Ghiberti  (ge-ber'te),  sculptor,  267  n. 
10. 

Giants,  regiment  of,  471. 

Gibbon,  the  historian,  mentioned,  5. 

Gibraltar,  413. 

Gilds;  the,  172. 

Giotto  (jot'to),  268  n.  14. 

Girondins  (ji-ron'dinz),  in  Legis- 
lative Assembly,  520;  in  Con- 
vention,  523,   526 ;   execution  of, 

529- 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  Reform 
Bill  of  1884,  604;  disestablish- 
ment of  Irish  Church,  608 ;  Irish 
Home  Rule,  610;  death,  610. 

Go-ber,  382.  _ 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (god'fri  boo- 
yon'),  132;  made  head  of  Latin 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  133. 

Goethe  (ge'te),  at  Erfurt,  565 ; 
cosmopolitanism  of,  572  n.  26. 

Golden  Bull,  the,  237  n.  18. 

Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  discovered,  7. 

Gordon,  Charles  George,  general, 
677. 

Goths,  See  Ostrogoths  and  Visi- 
goths. 

Gournay  (goor-na'),  Vincent  de, 
508  n.  7. 

Granada,  conquest  of,  230,  231 ; 
Moriscos  expelled  from,  329. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY      735 


Grand  Alliance,  of  1689,  411;  of 
1701,  412. 

Grand  Design  of  Henry  IV,  383 
n.  8. 

Grand  Remonstrance,  the,  429  n.  9. 

Gravelines  (grav-len'),  battle  of, 
328  n.  10. 

Gravelotte  (grav-lof),  battle  of,  595. 

Great  Britain,  the  name,  315.  See 
England. 

Great  Fire,  the,  at  London,  445. 

Great  Moguls,  the,  162. 

Great  Schism,  the,  155,  156. 

Greece,  since  1864,  655  n.  2. 

Greek  Church,  the,  32. 

Greek  Empire.  See  Eastern  Em- 
pire. 

Greek  fire,  53. 

Greek  Independence,  War  of,  654 
n.  I. 

Greenland,  discovered  by  the  North- 
men, 73. 

Grevy  (gra-ve'),  596  n.  10. 

Grey,  Jane,  349. 

Grotius  (gro'shi-us),  Hu^o,  282  n.  7. 

Guadalquivir  (gua-dal-ke-ver'),  river, 

56. 
Guebers      (ge'bers).        See      Ftre- 

worshipers. 
Guelphs  (gwelfs),  the,  178  n.  5. 
Guicciardini  (gwe-char-de'ne),  Fran- 
cesco, 178. 
Guillotine,  the,  533. 
Guinea,  gulf  of,  discovered,  278. 
Guiscard    (ges-kar'),    Robert,    102, 

103. 
Guise  (giiez),  Francis,  second  duke 

of,  377»  378. 
Guizot  (ge-zo'),  592. 
Gunpowder,  effects  of  use  in  war, 

90. 
Gunpowder  Plot,  421. 
Gustavus  I,  Vasa,  king  of  Sweden, 

307 ;    II,    Adolphus,    in     Thirty 

Years'  War,  389-390. 
Gutenberg     (goo'ten-b€rG),     John, 

263,  264. 

Haarlem  (har'lem),  369,  n.  4. 
Habeas  Corpus  Act,  446. 
Hague  (hag).  The,  701. 
Haiti  (ha'tl),  in  French  Revolution, 

546. 
Hamburg,  173. 


Hampden,  John,  427. 

Hanover,    House    of,   in   England, 

484  n.  5. 
Hanover,  Prussia  annexes,  642. 
Hanseatic  League,  173-175. 
Hapsburg,  House  of.     See  Austria^ 

House  of. 
Hardenburg,  Prussian  minister,  572 

n.  27, 
Hargreaves  (har'grevz),  494. 
Harold,  king  of  England,  104,  105. 
Harun-al-Raschid      (ha-roon'al- 

rash"-id),  caliph,  55. 
Hassan  (ha'sen),  55  n.  9. 
Hastings,  battle  of,  104. 
Hav'e-lock,  Henry,  673  n.  13. 
Hebert  (a-ber'),  530. 
Hegira  (he-ji'ra  or  hej'i-ra),  the,  48. 
Heidelberg  (hi'del-berc),  411. 
Heloise  (a-16-ez'),  pupil  of  Abelard, 

194. 
Helvetic  Republic,  formed,  540. 
Heng'ist,  Jutish  chief,  16. 
Henry  I,  king  of  England,  108;  II, 

200;   III,  203;  V,  212;  VII,  at 

Bosworth  Field,  215. 
Henry  III,  Emperor  H.  R.  E.,  114; 

IV,  117-119;  VI,  136. 
Henry  VII,  king  of  England,  reign, 

335-337;  VIII,  reign,  337-^47- 
Henry  II,  king  of  France,  376 ;  III, 

380,    381;     IV,    marriage,    379; 

reign,  381-384. 
Henry  of  Bourbon,  king  of  Navarre, 

379. 

Henry  the  Cardinal,  king  of  Portu- 
gal, 330. 

Henry,  Prince,  the  Navigator,  278. 

Hep'tar-chy,  Saxon,  12. 

Her'a-cll"us,  Eastern  Emperor, 
reign,  44. 

Her'i-ot,  the,  85. 

Hermits,  22,  23. 

Herzegovina  (hert-segS-ve'na),  re- 
volt in,  659;  administered  by 
Austria-Hungary,  660. 

Hesse-Cassel  (hesicas'el),  annexed 
to  Prussia,  642. 

Hesse- Darmstadt      (hes'darm'stat), 

643. 
High  Commission  Court,  426  n.  6. 
Hil'de-brand.      See    Pope    Gregory 

VII. 
Hip-poc'rate;,  191. 


736      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Hohenlinden,  battle  of,  545. 

Hohenstaufen  (h6"en-stow'fen), 
House  of,  Germany  under,  235, 
236. 

Hohenzollern  (ho'en-tsol-lern). 
House  of,  in  Brandenburg,  469; 
in  Prussia,  470. 

Holland,  kingdom  of,  created,  552 ; 
annexed,  to  France,  568.  See 
Netherlands. 

Holstein  (hols'stin),  duchy  of,  649 ; 
annexed  to  Prussia,  642. 

Holy  Alliance,  586. 

Holy  League  of  1609,  387. 

Holy  Office.     See  Inquisition. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  name  attaches 
to  Western  Empire,  70  ;  relations 
of,  to  the  Papacy,  111-113; 
under  Henry  IV,  117-119;  Con- 
cordat of  Worms,  119;  brought 
to  ruin  by  the  Papacy,  152,  153  ; 
results  for  Germany  of  the  re- 
newal of  the  imperial  authority, 
234;  election  of  Charles  V,  318; 
end  of,  555,  556. 

Holy  Synod,  established  in  Russia, 
462. 

Holy  Wars.     See  Crusades. 

Homage,  ceremony  of,  82. 

Home  Rule,  Irish,  610,  611. 

Hoorn  (horn),  count  of,  366. 

Ho-sain',  55  n.  9. 

Hos'pi-tal-ers,  order  of  the,  origin 
of,  133  n.  5  ;  incident  in  history, 
167  ;  lose  Rhodes,  322. 

Howard,  Catherine,  345. 

Howard,  John,  493  n.  18. 

Howard  of  Effingham,  357. 

Hubertsburg,  Treaty  of,  476, 

Hudson  Bay  territory,  413. 

Huguenots  (hu'ge-nots),  name,  377 
n.  2 ;  wars,  377-385 ;  struggle 
with  Richelieu,  385  ;  after  Revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  410  ; 
Cromwell  protects,  439. 

Humanism,  defined,  256;  Petrarch, 
first  of  the  humanists,  256-258; 
Boccaccio,  as  a  humanist,  259; 
Chrysoloras,  Greek  teacher,  260 ; 
search  for  ancient  manuscripts, 
260 ;  patrons  of  the  New  Learn- 
ing, 261 ;  fall  of  Constantinople 
gives  impulse  to,  262  ;  translation 
and  criticism  of  the  classics,  262  ; 


invention  of  printing  in  relation 
to  the  revival,  263 ;  humanism  in 
the  North,  265,  266;  effects  of 
the  classical  revival  upon  vernac- 
ular literatures,  272 ;  at  Oxford, 
295 ;  in  Germany,  297,  298.  See 
Renaissance. 

Hum'ber,  river,  105. 

Humbert  I,  king  of  Italy,  629. 

Hundred  Days,  the,  576-579. 

Hundred  Years'  War,  208-215; 
results  for  France,  224. 

Hungarians,  conversion  of,  128. 

Hungary,  overrun  by  Turks,  322  ; 
under  Maria  Theresa,  473  ;  under 
Joseph  II,  498 ;  Revolution  of 
1848  in,  638  n.  2 ;  in  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy,  650-653. 

Huss,  John,  239. 

Hussites,  the,  239. 

Hutten  (hoot'ten),  Ulrich  von,  298. 

Iceland,  settled  from  Norw^ay,  73. 

Iconoclastic  controversy,  31,  32. 

Iconoclasts,  in  Netherlands,  366. 

Illyrian  Provinces,  566,  567. 

Immunity,  grants  of,  82. 

Incas,  287,  288.  • 

Independents,  English  religious 
party  (known  at  first  as  Separa- 
tists), in  Civil  War,  431,  432. 

India,  Portuguese  in,  281  ;  English 
in,  423,  476,  490,  491  ;  French  in, 
413  n.  13,  419,  490,  491. 

Indians,  American,  origin  of  name, 
280. 

Indulgences,  defined,  299  n.  2 ;  his- 
tory of,  299,  300 ;  granting  of,  by 
Tetzel,  301 ;  Luther's  theses  on, 
302,  303.  • 

Industrial  Democracy,  705-708. 

Inquisition,  the,  in  Languedoc,  143  ; 
in  Spain,  232;  procedure,  311, 
312  ;  in  Netherlands,  364,  2)^']  ;  in 
Spain,  326,  327 ;  in  Spanish  col- 
onies, 616. 

Instrument  of  Government,  437. 

Interdict,  effects  of,  117. 

Interregnum,  the,  in  German  his- 
tory, 237. 

Investiture,  contest  respecting,  116- 
120. 

lona  (1-6'na  or  e-5'na),  monastery 
of,  17. 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     737 


Ionian  Islands,  annexed  to  France, 
539 ;  indejjendent,  546 ;  ceded  to 
France,  559;  ceded  to  Greece, 
655  n.  2. 

Ireland,  conversion  of,  17;  under 
Elizabeth,  359 ;  under  James  I, 
423,  424;  insurrection  of  1641, 
429;  Cromwell  in,  435;  William 
III  in,  452  ;  legislative  independ- 
ence, 492 ;  disestablishment  of 
Church  in,  607,  608 ;  the  Union, 
609;  in  nineteenth  century,  609- 
613. 

Irene  (i-re'ne  or  I-ren'),  Eastern 
empress,  64. 

Ire'ton,  443. 

Iron  Crown  of  Lombards,  ii. 

"  Ironsides,"  Cromwell's,  431. 

Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  marriage 
to  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  230 ;  sets 
upthe  Inquisition,  232;  death,  232. 

Islam.     See  Mohammedanism. 

Istria,  566. 

Italian  city-republics,  general  ac- 
count of,  175-179;  causes  of 
their  early  growth,  175,  176;  the 
Lombard  League,  176,  177;  dis- 
sensions among,  178 ;  despots 
in,  178,  179  ;  Venice,  179-181  ; 
Genoa,  181,  182;  Florence,  182, 
183. 

Italian  colonies,  679  n.  19. 

Italian  Renaissance.  See  Renais- 
sance. 

Italy,  results  of  Lombard  conquest, 
II  ;  recovery  of,  by  Justinian,  42  ; 
Renaissance  in,  247 ;  invaded  by 
Charles  VIII,  226;  no  national 
government  during  Middle  Ages, 
244;  the  Five  Great  States,  246, 
247  ;  at  Congress  of  Vienna,  584, 
619;  since  Congress  of  Vienna, 
619-633  ;  kingdom  of,  formed, 
627,  628 ;  Italia  irredenta,  629  n. 
2 ;  relations  of  kingdom  of,  with 
Papacy,  630-632.  See  Italian 
City-Repitblics  and  Renaissance. 

Ivan  (e-van')  III,  the  (Jreat,  tsar, 
243,  455  n.  I  ;  IV,  the  Terrible, 
454.  455- 

Jacobin  Club,  origin,  519  ;   closed, 

535- 
Jacobites,  support  James  II,  452. 


Jaffa,  540. 

Jamaica,  439. 

James  1,  king  of  England,  reign, 
420-425 ;  II,  as  Duke  of  York, 
445 ;  reign,  447,  448  ;  attempt  to 
recover  throne,  452. 

James  IV,  king  of  Scotland,  mar- 
riage, 337;  death,  338   n.  3;    V, 

354. 

Jamestown,  423. 

Jan'i-za-ries,  the,  165. 

Japan,  awakening  of,  687,  688; 
war  with  China,  688-690;  the 
Imperial  Regalia,  688  n.  27 ;  war 
with  Russia,  693-695. 

Java,  674  n.  14. 

Jeffreys,  Chief  Justice,  447  n.  16. 

Jena  (ya'na),  battle  of,  558. 

Jenghiz  Khan  (jen'gis-khan),  160. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  239. 

Jerome  Bonaparte,  king  of  West- 
phalia, 560. 

Jerusalem,  captured  by  crusaders, 
133  ;  Latin  Kingdom  of,  133 ;  cap- 
tured by  Saladin,  135. 

Jesuits,  Society  of  the,  312-314; 
expelled  from  France,  597. 

Jews,  expelled  from  Spain,  232 ; 
political  disabilities  removed  in 
England,  607. 

Joan  of  Arc,  213,  214. 

Joanna,  queen  of  Castile,  318. 

John,  king  of  England,  quarrel  with 
Pope  Innocent  III,  150;  becomes 
vassal  of  the  papal  see,  1 50 ;  for- 
feits lands  in  France,  202  ;  grants 
Magna  Carta,  202. 

John  the  Good,  king  of  France,  211. 

John  VI,  king  of  Portugal,  615  n.  2. 

John  of  Austria,  Don,  at  Lepanto, 
330 ;  in  Netherlands,  370. 

John  of  Leyden,  307  n.  10. 

John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  409. 

Joseph  II,  Emperor  H.  R.  E.,  497- 
499. 

Joseph   Bonaparte,  king  of   Spain, 

563.  564. 

Josephine,  567. 

Jourdan  (zhoor-doi\'),  campaign  of 
1796,  537.  538. 

Juan  Ponce  de  I^on  (pon-tha  di  li- 
on'), 2S6  n.  1 1. 

Jubilees,  papal,  300. 

Junot  (zhii-no'),  563. 


738      INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Justinian,  Era  of,  42  ;  his  reign,  42- 

44;  his  code,  43. 
Jutes,  the,  12. 

Kaaba  (ka'ba,  or  ka-a'ba),  the,  46. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  quoted,  699. 

Ka-zan',  454. 

Ker-man',  53  n.  7. 

Khar-tum',  677. 

Khedive  (ka'dev^'),  677. 

Kiau-chau  (kyow-chow),  682,  690. 

Kiel  (kel),  Treaty  of,  583  n.  3. 

Kiev  (ke'ev),  161. 

Kitchener,  Lord,  677. 

Kleber  (kla-ber^),  in  Egypt,  540,  541 ; 

death,  545. 
Knighthood.     See  Chivalry. 
Knox,  John,  354. 
Konieh  (ko'ne-e),  681. 
Koniggratz  (ke'nig-grets),  battle  of, 

642. 
Konigsberg  (ke'nigs-berc),  142. 
Ko'ran,  the,  origin  of,  51  ;  contents 

of,  51,  52. 
K6-re'a,  688,  689,  693. 
Koreish  (ko-rlsh'),  Arab  clan,  48. 
Korner  (ker'ner),  571. 
Kosciuszko  (kos-i-us'ko),  468. 
Kossuth  (kosh'oot),  Louis,  638  n.  2. 
Kremlin,  the,  574. 
Kriig'er,  Paul,  675. 
Kublai  Khan  (koob'll-khan),  162. 
Kuliurkampf        (ko61-toor''kampf), 

647. 
Ku-ro-patOcin,  Russian  general,  694. 
Kwang-chau-wan(kwang-chow-wan), 

690. 

Labor  Problem,  the,  706,  707. 

La  Bruyere  (la  brii-yer'),  417  n.  14. 

Lafayette  (la-fa-yet'),  in  America, 
508 ;  in  Constituent  Assembly, 
513  ;  commands  National  Guard, 

517- 
Laibach     (Ifbach),     Congress     of, 

615  n.  I. 
Lamartine  (la-mar-ten'),  592. 
Lancaster,  House  of,  199  n.  i.     See 

Roses,  Wars  of  the. 
Langland,  William,  218. 
Langton,  Stephen,  150. 
Languedoc  (lang'gwe-dok),  143. 
Langue  d'Oc  (lang'dok"),    French 

dialect,  227. 


Langue  d^O'il  (larig^dwer'),  French 

dialect,  227. 
Lapps,  the,  22, 
La  Rochelle  (la  ro-shel').  Huguenot 

stronghold,  382  ;  siege  of,  385. 
La  Salle  (la  sal'),  418. 
Las  Ca'sas,  289  n.  14. 
Latimer,  bishop,  350. 
Latin    Empire    of    Constantinople, 

136-138. 
Latin      Kingdom      of      Jerusalem, 

founded,  133;  end  of,  140. 
Laud,  William,  426,  428  n.  8. 
Lawr,  John,  418. 

Legion  of  Honor,  established,  550. 
Legislative  Assembly,  French,  519- 

523- 

Legnano  (lan-ya'no),  battle  of,  177. 

Leicester  (les'ter)  Abbey,  340. 

Leipzig  (llp'tsic),  battle  of  (1631), 
390;  (1813),  575' 576. 

Leo  the  Isaurian,  31,  32. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  (la-o-nar'do  da 
vin'che),  268. 

Leopold  I,  Emperor  H.  R.  E.,  412. 

Leopold  I,  king  of  the  Belgians, 
591 ;  II,  668. 

Leopold  of  Hohenzollern,  offered 
Spanish  crown,  644. 

Le-pan'to,  battle  of,  329,  330. 

Les'seps,  Ferdinand  de,  597,  598. 

Lessing,  572  n.  26. 

Letires  de  cachet  (let'r-de-ka-sha"), 
501. 

Leuthen  (loi'ten),  battle  of,  474. 

Lew'es,  battle  of,  204. 

Lewis  I,  the  Pious,  king  of  the 
Franks,  68. 

Leyden  (ll'den),  369  n.  4. 

Libertim  veto,  467  n.  7. 

Libraries,  founding  of,  261. 

"Light  Brigade,"  the,  657. 

Ligurian  Republic,  formed,  538 ; 
annexed  to  France,  552. 

Literature,  English,  Old  English 
period,  19,  20 ;  later  mediaeval 
period,  217-220;  under  Henry 
VIII,  346,  347  ;  under  Elizabeth, 
360,  361  ;  of  the  Puritan  period, 
442,  443  ;  of  the  Restoration,  449, 
450  ;  of  Queen  Anne's  Age,  483. 

Literature,  French,  beginnings  of, 
227-229;  under  Louis  XIV,  416, 
417;  in  eighteenthcentury,  505-508. 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


739 


Literature,  German,  beginnings  of, 

241,  242. 
Literature,  Spanish,  beginnings  of, 

233- 
Literatures,  vernacular,  beginnings 

of,  252;  development  fostered  by 

classical  revival,  272. 
Liveries,  Statute  of,  336. 
Livingstone,  David,  667. 
Llewellyn     (loo-erin)    III,     Welsh 

prince,  205. 
Local  Government   Act,    England, 

605  n.  2  ;  Scotland,  605  n.  2 ;  Ire- 
land, 605  n.  2. 
Locke,  John,  505  n.  5. 
Lodi  (lo'de),  battle  of,  538  n,  27. 
LoHards,  the,  219. 
Lombard  League,  176,  177. 
Lombards,  kingdom  of  the,  10,  ii  ; 

destroyed  by  Charles  the  Great, 

63- 
Lombardy,  ceded  to  Austria,  583  ; 

to  Sardinia,  627. 
Loom,  power,  invented,  494. 
Lorraine,  part  of,  ceded  to  German 

Empire,  595,  646,  647. 
Lo-thair',  Emperor  H.  R.  E.,  68,  69. 
Loubet  (loo-ba'),  596  n.  10. 
Louis  I,  Prince  of  Conde  (kon-da'), 

377. 
Louis  VII,  king  of  France,  134 ;  IX, 
140  n,  9;  XI,  225;  XIII,  384- 
386;  XIV,  reign,  403-417;  rela- 
tions with  Charles  II,  445;  with 
James  II,  447  ;  with  "William  III, 
452,  453;  XV,  reign,  417-419; 
death,  509;  XVI,  509-524;  XVII 
(dauphin),  528  n.  19;  XVIII, 
accession,   576,  577  ;  reign,  577- 

579'  589- 
Louis  Bonaparte,  king  of  Holland, 

552  ;  abdication  of,  568. 
Louis   Napoleon   Bonaparte.      See 

Napoleon  III. 
Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French, 

590-592. 
Louisa,  queen  of  Prussia,  500. 
Louisburg,  486  n.  8. 
Louisiana,   granted    to    Mississippi 

Company,  418;  ceded  to  France, 

546;  to  United  States,  553. 
Low   countries.     See    Netherlands^ 

Belf^ium, 
Lo-yo'la,  Ignatius  of,  312,  313. 


Lii'beck,  143;  Peace  of,  388;  an- 
nexed to  France,  568. 

Lucerne,  Lion  of,  522  n.  14. 

Luneville  (lii-na-ver).  Peace  of,  545. 

Luther,  Martin,  his  pilgrimage  to 
Rome,  30  r,  302;  his  ninety-five 
theses,  302,  303 ;  his  address  to 
the  Christian  nobility  of  the  Ger- 
man nation,  303,  304;  bums  the 
papal  bull,  304 ;  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms,  304,  305 ;  at  the  Wart- 
burg,  305,  306 ;  his  death,  308. 

Lutherans,  309. 

Lutter  (loot'ter),  battle  of,  388  n.  3. 

LUtzen  (lUt'sen),  battle  of  (1632), 
390;  (1813),  576. 

Lyons,  terror  at,  534. 

Macedonia,  660  n.  9. 

Machiavelli  (mak-e-a-vel'Ie),  Nicho- 
las, 247  ;  his  Prince^  247,  248. 

MacMahon  (mak-ma-6h').  Marshal, 
596  n.  10. 

Madagascar,  French  in,  679. 

Madrid',  Treaty  of,  321. 

Magdeburg  (mag'de-bobrc),  sack  of, 
by  Tilly,  389,  390. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand,  his  circum- 
navigation of  the  globe,  282,  283 ; 
results  of  the  achievement,  283, 
284. 

Ma-gen'ta,  battle  of,  626. 

Magna  Carta,  202,  203. 

Magyars  (m6d''y6rz").  See  Hun- 
gary. 

Mahdi  (ma'de),  the,  677. 

Mainz  (mints),  263. 

Mal-a-bar'  coast,  281. 

Malplaquet  (mal-pla-ka'),  battle  of, 
412. 

Mam'e-luke,  539. 

Man-chu'ria,  Chinese  province,  oc- 
cupied by  Russia,  684,  693. 

Manorial  system,  the,  84-86. 

Man'tu-a,  siege  of.  538  n.  27. 

Manuscripts,  search  for,  by  human- 
ists, 260. 

Marat  (mara'),  525 ;  death,  S26,  527. 

Marches,  the,  union  with  Sardinia, 
628. 

Marco  P6l6,  mentioned,  146;  at 
Mongol  court,  162. 

Ma-ren'go,  battle  of,  545. 

Margaret  of  Denmark,  249. 


740      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Margaret,  Duchess  of  Parma,  365, 

367. 

Margaret  of  Valois,  379. 

Margaret  Tudor,  337. 

Maria  Theresa  (ma-re'a  te-re'sa), 
wife  of  Louis  XIV,  407  n.  7. 

Maria  Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary, 
accession,  473 ;  in  partition  of 
Poland,  467  ;  in  War  of  Austrian 
Succession,  473;  in  Seven  Years' 
War,  474. 

Marie  Antoinette  (marl  an-toi-net'), 
marriage,  509 ;  death,  528. 

Marie  Louise,  567. 

Marienburg  (ma-re'en-boorc),  142. 

Marlborough,  Duke  of,  412. 

Marseillais  (mar-se-lya'),  the  six 
hundred,  522. 

Marseillaise  (mar-se-lyaz'),  the,  522 
n.  13. 

Marseilles  (mar-salz'),  139. 

Marston  Moor,  battle  of,  431  n.  10. 

Mary  I,  queen  of  England,  birth, 
339  ;  persecuted  by  Edward  VI, 
349;  reign,  349-351 5  marriage 
to  Philip  II,  349;  II,  448-453. 

Mary  de'  Medici  (da-ma'de-che),  384. 

Mary  Stuart,  queen  of  Scots,  354- 

356. 
Matilda,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  118. 
Matilda,  Empress,  108. 
Matthias       (ma-thl'as),       Emperor 

H.  R.  E.,  387. 
Maurice,  stadtholder,  373. 
Max-i-mirian  I,  Emperor  H.  R.  E., 

240. 
Mayors  of  the  Palace,  10. 
MazVrin,  French  minister,  404,  405. 
Mazzini    (mat-se'ne),    Joseph,    622, 

623. 
Mec'ca,  46. 
Medici    (med'e-che),    Cos'i-mo    de', 

183  n.  8;  Lorenzo  de',  183  n.  8. 
Medici,    the,  patrons    of   the    New 

Learning,  261. 
Medina  (me-de'na),  48,  49. 
Melanchthon   (me-langk'thon),    308 

n.  12. 
Mendicant  friars.     See  Dominicans 

and  Franciscans. 
Menelik,    king    of    Abyssinia,    679 

n.  19. 
Merovingians,    Franks,    under    the, 

9,  10. 


Mer^o-wig,  10  n.  4, 

Methodists,  rise  of,  487, 488 ;  demand 
religious  equality,  606. 

Metric  system,  529. 

Met'ter-nich,  Prince,  at  Congress  of 
Vienna,  585 ;  policy  of,  585 ;  in- 
tervention in  Two  Sicilies,  620, 
621  ;  influence  in  Germany,  636; 
overthrow  of,  638. 

Metz,  ceded  to  France,  392  ;  siege 

of.  595- 

Meuse  (muz),  river,  68. 

Mexico,  conquest  by  Spain,  285-287. 

Michael  Angelo,  268. 

Michael  Romanov,  455. 

Mi-lan'  Decree,  561. 

Milan  destroyed  by  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  177. 

Military  and  Religious  Orders.  See 
Hospitalef's  and  Templars. 

Milton,  John,  442. 

Min'lie-sing'ers,  241. 

Mir,  the  Russian,  657  n.  5. 

Mirabeau  (me-ra-bo'),  512,  513,  514. 

Mirandola,  Pico  della  (me-ran'do-la, 
pe'k5),  262  n.  7. 

Mississippi  Bubble,  the,  418. 

Missolonghi(mis-so-long'ge),654n.  I. 

Moawiyah  (mo-a-we'yeh),  caliph,  55. 

Mo'de-na,  restoration  in,  619;  union 
with  Sardinia,  627. 

Mohammed,  48-51. 

Mohammed  II,  sultan  of  the  Otto- 
mans, 166. 

Mohammedanism,  rise  of,  46-51; 
doctrines,  51,  52;  under  earlier 
caliphs,  52-56;  its  law  system,  56; 
polygamy  under,  59  ;  slavery,  59. 

Mol-da'vi-a,  partial  independence  of, 
655  ;  in  Rumania,  666  n.  8. 

Moliere  (m5-lyer'),  417. 

Molt'ke,  Von,  641. 

Mo-luc'cas,  the,  282. 

Monasteries,  suppression  of,  in  Eng- 
land, 342-344- 

Monasticism,  defined,  22  ;  its  origin, 
23  ;  in  the  East,  23 ;  in  the  West, 
23,  24 ;  the  Benedictine  monks, 
25  ;  monastic  reform,  25,  26 ;  serv- 
ices rendered  by,  to  civilization, 
26,  27. 

Mongols,  general  account  of  their 
conquests,  160-164;  their  inva- 
sion of  Russia,  161,  242. 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY      741 


Monk,  George,  440. 

Monks.     See  Monasticism. 

Monmouth,  Duke  of,  447  n.  16. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  616,  617. 

Montcalm  (mont-kam'),  490. 

Monte  Cassino  (mon'ta  kas-se''no), 
monastery,  24,  25. 

Montenegro  (mon-te-na'gro),  659, 
660  n.  8. 

Montesquieu  (moh-tes-kye'),  505. 

Mon-te-zu'ma,  286. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  leader  of  the 
Albigensian  crusade,  143;  the 
English  earl,  204, 

Moore,  Sir  John,  566  n.  23. 

Moors,  the,  231. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  humanist,  296; 
death,  342;  his  L/topia,  346,  347. 

Moreau  (m5-r6'),  campaign  of  1796, 
537.  538;  of  i8go,  545. 

Mor-gar'ten,  battle  of,  239  n.  20. 

Moriscos,  the,  231  ;  under  Charles  V, 
329;  under  Philip  II,  329;  expul- 
sion of,  331,  332. 

Morocco,  669  n.  6. 

Morton,  Cardinal,  336. 

Moscow  (mos'ko  or  mosTcow),  Napo- 
leon in,  574,  575. 

Mountainists,  the,  523. 

Municipal  Reform  Act,  603. 

Miin'ster,  Anabaptists  at,  307  n.  10 ; 
congress  at,  391. 

Miinzer  (miint'ser),  306. 

Murat  (mii-ra'),  Joachim,  564. 

Mus'cd-vy,  243. 

Mutiny  Act,  452  n.  19. 

Nafels  (na'fels),  battle  of,  239  n.  20. 

Na'na  Sa'hib,  673  n.  13. 

Nantes  (nants ;  Fr.  pron.  noht),  Edict 
of,  382;  revocation  of,  409,  410, 
terror  at,  534. 

Naples,  kingdom  of,  founded  by 
Normans,  102,  103;  laid  claim  to, 
by  Charles  VIII,  226;  vicissi- 
tudes of  its  history,  235  n.  17; 
Murat,  king  of,  564  n.  19 ;  becomes 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  627, 
628. 

Napoleon  I,  Bonaparte,  guards  Con- 
vention, 536;  campaign  in  Italy, 
537.  538 ;  campaign  in  Egypt,  539, 
540;  overthrows  Directory,  541; 
First  Consul,  543-551;  Emperor, 


551-576;  at  Elba,  576;  the  Hun- 
dred Days,  576-579 ;  at  St.  Hel- 
ena, 579;  II  (King  of  Rome), 
bom,  568 ;  proclaimed,  578  n.  31  ; 
III,  592  n.  3;  reign,  593-596. 

Nar'va,  battle  of,  463. 

Naseby  (naz'bi),  battle  of,  432. 

Nassau,  366  n.  2  ;  annexed  to  Prussia, 
642. 

Na-tal',  676. 

National  Guards,  French,  organized, 

514. 

Nationality,  principle  of,  581. 

Navarino  (na-va-re'no),  battle  of, 
654  n.  I. 

Navarre,  king  of.  See  Antony  of 
Bourbon.,  Henry  IV. 

Navigation  Act  (English)  of  1651, 
436. 

Neck'er,  French  minister,  509;  dis- 
missed, 515. 

Nelson,  Horatio,  at  Abukir  Bay, 
540;  at  Trafalgar,  557. 

Netherlands,  the,  the  country,  363 ; 
the  people,  363,  364 ;  condition 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  364; 
under  Charles  V,  364;  under 
Philip  II,  365-373  ;  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, 366-374 ;  submission  of 
Catholic  provinces  (see  Belgium)^ 
370  ;  independent  union  of  seven 
Protestant  provinces,  370;  their 
Declaration  of  Independence, 371 ; 
Truce  of  1609  with,  37  2-374  ;  inde- 
pendent of  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
392 ;  wars  with  Louis  XIV,  407- 
413;  war  with  England,  436; 
Batavian  Republic  (created  in 
1795),  552;  kingdom  of  Holland, 
552;  annexed  to  France,  568; 
kingdom  of,  formed,  583. 

Netherlands,  Austrian,  Catholic, 
Spanish.     See  Belgium. 

Netherlands,  Protestant,  United. 
See  Netherlands. 

New  Amsterdam,  444. 

Newfoundland,  Cabot*9  landfall, 
337 ;  England's  title  to,  confirmed. 

413- 
New  France.     See  Canada. 
New  Holland,  671  n.  9. 
New  learning.     Sec  ffumanism. 
"New  Modr'  formed,  431, 

432- 


742      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


New  South  Wales,  671. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  483. 

New  Zealand,  671. 

Ney  (na).  Marshal,  577. 

Nibelungenlied  (ne^'bel-ung'en-let'), 
241. 

Ni-9ae'a,  Church  Council  of,  15; 
captured  by  crusaders,  132. 

Nice  (nes),  ceded  to  France,  626. 

Nicholas  I,  Tsar,  654-656;  II,  662  ; 
calls  the  Peace  Conference,  701. 

Ni-cop'o-lis,  battle  of,  165. 

Niemen  (ne'men),  river,  558. 

Nihilists,  661,  662. 

Nika  (ne'ka)  riot,  the,  43. 

Nimeguen  (nim'a-gen),  Treaty  of, 
408. 

Nineteenth  century,  character  of  its 
history,  290,  580,  581,  586,  587. 

Nineveh,  battle  of,  44. 

No'gi,  Japanese  general,  694  n.  29. 

Norman  Conquest  of  England,  103- 
109  ;  political  and  social  results  for 
England,  109;  effects  upon  English 
language  and  litemture,  216,  217. 

Normandy,  origin  of  name,  72;  in 
French  history,  75,  76;  dukes  of, 
102. 

Normans,  at  home,  loi,  102;  in 
Italy  and  Sicily,  102,  103;  in  Eng- 
land, 103-109;  as  crusaders,  126, 
127.     See  Northmen. 

North  German  Confederation,  642, 

643- 

Northern  countries,  the.  See  Scan- 
dutavians  and  Calmar,  Union  of. 

Northmen,  71-76.  See  Scandina- 
vians. 

Norway,  583  ;  See  Calmar,  Union  of. 

Notables,  Assembly  of,  510. 

Notre  Dame  (no'tr  dam),  Paris, 
worship  of  Reason  in,  530. 

No-va'ra,  battle  of,  624. 

Nova  Scotia  ceded  to  England,  413. 

Nov'go-rod,  174. 

Noyades  (nwa-yad'),  534. 

Nystad  (nli'stad).  Peace  of,  465. 

Gates  (ots),  Titus,  446. 
Ocean  Epoch,  285. 
O'Connell,  Daniel,  610. 
Odoacer,  7. 

Oktai  (ok'tl),  Mongol  conqueror, 
161,  162. 


Old  Sa'rum,  601. 
O'mar,  caliph,  52  n.  6. 
Omeyyah  (o-mi'yeh),  55  n.  9. 
Ommeiades   (om-ma'yadz),  dynasty 

of  the,  55. 
O'Neill,  Hugh,  Earl  of  Tyrone,  359, 
Opium  War,  672  n.  12. 
Orange  Free  State,  674,  675. 
Orange  River  Colony,  675. 
Orangemen,  452. 

Ordeals,  among  the  Teutons,  37-39. 
Orders   in    Council    (English),    561 

n.  17. 
Orellana  (5-ral-ya'na),  Francisco  de, 

286  n.  II. 
Or'le-ans  (Fr.  pron.  or-la-oh'),  relief 

of,  by  Joan  of  Arc,  214. 
Orleans,  Philippe,  Duke  of,  regent, 

418. 
Osnabriick,  391. 
Os-tend',  374  n.  7, 
Ostrogoths,  kingdom  of  the,  7,  8 ; 

destroyed  by  generals  of  Justin- 
ian, 8. 
Oswy,  king  of  Northumbria,  18,  19. 
Oth-man',  caliph,  52  n.  6. 
Othman  I,  Ottoman  prince,  165. 
O-tran'td,  132. 
Otto    I,    the    Great,    restores    the 

Empire,  69,  70. 
Otto,  king  of  Greece,  655. 
Ottomans.     See  Turks. 
Ou^'den-ar^de,  battle  of,  412. 
Oxenstiern  (oks'en-stern),  391. 
O-ya'ma,  Field  Marshal,  694. 

Paine,  Thomas,  523. 

Palatinate,  War  of  the,  410,  411; 
devastation  of,  411. 

PaHmp-sests,  261  n.  6. 

Pamirs  (pa-merz'),  684. 

Pa-na-ma',  Scotch  colony  on  isthmus 
of,  482  ;  canal,  598. 

Papacy,  origin  of  its  temporal 
authority,  62  ;  claims  of  primacy 
by  the  Roman  bishops,  27,  28; 
circumstances  that  favored 
growth,  28-33 !  Concordat  of 
Worms,  119;  relations  of,  to  the 
H.  R.  E.,  111-113;  revival  of 
power  in  eleventh  century,  113; 
under  Gregory  VII,  114-119; 
under  Alexander  III,  149  ;  under 
Innocent    III,    149,    150;    effects 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     743 


the  ruin  of  the  Empire,  152,  153; 
under  Boniface  VIII,  153,  154; 
removal  of  papal  seat  to  Avignon, 
155;  the  Great  Schism,  155,  156; 
reforming  Church  Councils,  156; 
is  still  a  spiritual  theocracy,  157, 
158;  end  of  temporal  power  of, 
630 ;  relations  with  Italian  gov- 
ernment, 630-632 ;  with  German, 
647  ;  infallibility  of,  630  n.  5.  See 
Popes, 

Papal  States,  annexed  to  France, 
567;  revolutions  in,  621  ;  French 
garrison  in,  629 ;  annexation  to 
kingdom  of  Italy,  629.  See 
Papacy. 

Paraphrase  of  the  Scriptures,  20. 

Paris,  Peace  of  (1763),  475,  491; 
<}1^Z)^  492;  (1814),  576  n.  28; 
(1815),  578n.  32;   (1856),  657. 

Paris,  siege  of  (1870),  646. 

Parish  Councils  Act,  605  n.  2. 

Parliament,  English,  creation  of 
House  of  Commons,  203-205 ; 
Model  Parliament,  204  n.  5;  ef- 
fects upon,  of  Hundred  Years' 
War,  214,  215;  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, 428-437  ;  the  Little  Parlia- 
ment, 437;  Convention,  448;  union 
of  English  and  Scotch  Parlia- 
ments, 481-483. 

Parma,  Alexander,  Duke  of,  370. 

Parr,  Catherine,  345. 

Par'sees,  the.    See  Fire-  Worshipers. 

Parsifal  (par'se-fal),  poem  of,  241. 

Par''the-n6-pe'an  Republic,  540,  541. 

Pascal,  417  n.  14. 

Patriarch,  Russian,  office  abolished, 
462. 

Patricius  (pa-trish'ius).  See  St. 
Patrick. 

Pavia  (pa-ve'a),  battle  of,  321. 

Pax  Romana^  125. 

Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague, 
701. 

Peace  of  God,  125. 

Peasants'  Revolt,  in  England,  211, 
212. 

Peasants'  War,  306. 

Pedro  I,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  615  n.  2. 

Peking',  siege  of  embassies  at,  690, 
691. 

P^re  Duchesne  (per  du-shan'),  531. 

Perry,  Commodore,  687. 


Persia,  conquest  of,  by  Saracens,  52, 

53 ;  Russian  and  English  interests 

in,  683. 
Peru,  Spanish  conquest  of,  287,  288 ; 

Spanish  oppression  of  natives  in, 

289  n.  14. 
Pestilence,  the  Great.     See  Black 

Death. 
Pestilence,  in  Justinian's  reign,  44. 
Peter  I,  the  Great,  Tsar,  455-466; 

HI.  475- 
Peter  the  Hermit,  legend  of,   129; 

heads  an  expedition,  132. 
Peter  of  Lombard,  Schoolman,  159 

n.  5. 
Petition  of  Right,  425. 
Petrarca     (pa-trar'ka),     Francesco. 

See  Petrarch. 
Petrarch,  as  a  humanist,  256-258; 

his  feeling  for  the  ruins  of  Rome, 

258 ;   his  ascent  of  Mount   Ven- 

toux,  259  n.  4 ;  his  critical  spirit, 

273- 

Philip  I,  the  Handsome,  king  of 
Castile,  318;  II,  king  of  Spain, 
reign,  326-331 ;  III,  expels  Mo- 
riscos,  331,  332;  war  with  Dutch, 
332  ;  IV,  407;  V,  411. 

Philip  II,  Augustus,  king  of  France, 
in  Third  Crusade,  135;  his  quar- 
rel with  Pope  Innocent  III,  150  ; 
seizes  English  possessions  in 
France,  202 ;  IV,  the  Fair,  his 
quarrel  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII, 
153,  154;  summons  the  commons 
to  the  National  Assembly,  222, 
223;  destroys  the  order  of  the 
Templars,  223. 

Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel, 

73- 
Philippines,  discovered,  283;  United 

States  in,  686  n.  26. 
Philosophy,   French,  in  eighteenth 

century,  505-508. 
Piacenza      (pe-a-chen'za),     Church 

Council  at,  130. 
Piedmont.     See  Sardinia. 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  354,  423. 
Pilgrimages,  122. 
Pious  Fund  case,  701. 
Pippin  II,  king  of  the  Franks,  61, 

62. 
Pisa    (pe'za),    181    n.    7;     Church 

Council  of,  156. 


744      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham, 
489,  490. 

Pitt,  William,  opposition  to  Napo- 
leon, 544,  554,  555;  prophecy 
concerning  Napoleon,  570,  571. 

Pi-zar'ro,  Francisco,  288. 

Plan-tag'e-net,  House  of,  199  n.  i. 

Plassey,  battle  of,  490. 

Plato,  quoted,  183  n.  11. 

Plev'na,  siege  of,  659. 

Poitiers  (poi-terz'),  battle  of  (1356), 
210,  211. 

Poland,  Charles  XII  invades,  463 ; 
partitions  of,  467  n.  7,  468  ;  under 
Napoleon,  559;  Russian  kingdom 
of,  583  ;  revolt  in,  655. 

Politian  (p6-lish'i-an),  262, 

Poltava  (pol-ta'vii),  battle  of,  464. 

Pom-e-ra'ni-a,  Western,  ceded  to 
Sweden,  392 ;  Eastern,  ceded  to 
Brandenburg,  392. 

Pompadour  (p6h-pa-door'),  Ma- 
dame de,  418. 

Pondicherry  (pon-di-sher'i),  found- 
ed, 413  n.  13;  captured  by  Eng- 
lish and  restored,  491  n.  15. 

Pope,  Alexander,  483. 

Popes  :  Gregory  1, 16,  30  n.  4 ;  Leo  I, 
the  Great,  28,  29  ;  Nicholas  I,  28  ; 
Stephen  II,  62  ;  Leo  III,  64 ; 
Gregory  VII,  114-119;  Nicholas 
II,  1 13  n.  4 ;  Urban  II,  129,  130  ; 
Innocent  III,  149,  150;  Alexan- 
der III,  148,  149;  Boniface  VIII, 
153,  154;  Urban  VI,  156;  Clem- 
ent VII  (anti-pope),  156;  Greg- 
ory IX,  156;  Alexander  V,  156; 
Martin  V,  157;  Nicholas  V,  261, 
Julius  II,  261 ;  Leo  X,  261 ; 
Alexander  VI,  281  ;  Julius  II, 
336;  Leo  X,  301;  Clement  VII, 
340;  Pius  V,  356;  Gregory  XIII, 
380;  Sixtus  V,  356;  Pius  VI, 
540;  Pius  VII,  at  Napoleon's 
coronation,  551  ;  prisoner,  567  ; 
Pius  IX,  624  ;  death,  630,  n.  7 ; 
Leo  XIII,  630  n.  7  ;  Pius  X,  630 
n.  7.     See  Papacy. 

Popish  Plot,  the,  446. 

Popular  sovereignty,  principle  of, 
581. 

Port  Arthur,  ceded  to  Japan,  689 ; 
leased  to  Russia,  690  ;  fortified  by 
Russia,  693  ;  siege  of,  694. 


Porto  Rico,  686  n.  26. 

Portugal,  kingdom  of,  its  beginnings, 
141;  annexed  to  Spain,  330; 
French  invasion  of,  563 ;  revolu- 
tion of  1820,  615  n.  2. 

Portuguese  colonies,  early  explora- 
tions, 278;  in  India,  281;  in 
Brazil,  281  n.  5. 

Potato  introduced  into  Europe, 
360. 

Pragmatic  Sanction,  472. 

Prague  (prag).  Treaty  of  (1866), 
642. 

Prayer,  Book  of  Common,  348. 

Pressburg  (pres'borc),  555  n.  9. 

Prestonpans,  battle  of,  487. 

Pretender,  the  Young,  487. 

Pride's  Purge,  432. 

Prime  Minister,  origin  of,  in  Eng- 
land, 484,  485. 

Prince,  the,  by  Machiavelli,  247. 

Printing,  invention  of,  263 ;  in  China, 
263. 

Privileges,  abolition  of,  in  France, 
515.  516. 

Protectorate  in  England,  438-440. 

Protestant  Revolution,  defined,  292, 
See  Reformation. 

Protestants,  origin  of  name,  308 ; 
divisions  among,  309,  310, 

Protestation,  the  Great,  423, 

Proven9al  (pro'vah'sar')  speech,  227. 

Provence  (pro'voiis''),  225,  323. 

Prussia,  foundations  of,  laid  by 
Teutonic  Knights,  142 ;  under 
the  Great  Elector,  469 ;  becomes 
a  kingdom,  470;  in  eighteenth 
century,  470-479;  war  with 
French  Revolution,  520;  war 
with  Napoleon,  557,  558;  regen- 
eration of,  571-573  ;  gains  at  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  583 ;  in  Holy 
Alliance,  586 ;  in  Germanic  Con- 
federation, 634-636;  in  Customs 
Union,  637  ;  Revolution  of  1848 
in,  638  ;  war  with  Denmark,  640 ; 
with  Austria,  641,  642;  with 
France,  594-596,  643-645  ;  forms 
North  German  Confederation, 
642,  643 ;  head  of  new  German 
Empire,  645-649. 

Public  Safety,  Committee  of,  first, 
525;  second  or  Great,  527,  531; 
of  Communists,  596. 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     745 


Purgatory,  299,  300. 

Puritans,  under  Elizabeth,  357  ;  rule 

of,  430-443  ;  customs  of,  449. 
Pym,  John,  430. 
Pyramids,  battle  of  the,  539. 
Pyrenees,  Treaty  of  the,  404. 

Quebec,  founded,    383 ;    battle    of, 

490. 
Quesnay  (ka-na'),  508  n.  7. 
Quir'i-nal,  the,  630  n.  6. 
Quito  (ke'to),  288. 

Racine  (ra-sen'),  417. 

Radetzky  (ra-det'ske),  624. 

Raleigh  (ra'li).  Sir  Walter,  360,  424. 

Ramillies  (ra-me-ye'),  battle  of,  412. 

Raphael  (raf'a-el),  268. 

Rastadt,  Treaty  of,  413. 

Ravaillac  (ra-va-yak'),  384. 

Ravenna,  42. 

Raymond  IV,  count  of  Toulouse, 
132;  VI,  142;  VII,  143. 

Reason,  worship  of,  530. 

Reform  Bill,  English,  of  1832,  601, 
602;  of  1867,  604;  of  1884,  604. 

Reformation,  defined,  292 ;  causes 
of,  292-295  ;  precursors  of,  295  ; 
question  of  indulgences,  299-301 ; 
Luther,  301-306;  reaction  from, 
308-314;  results  of,  315,  316;  in 
England,  character  of,  334,  335 ; 
the  revolt  from  Rome,  341-345; 
the  reform  under  Edward  VI,  347- 
349 ;  the  reaction  under  Mary, 
349-351  ;  reform  completed  un- 
der Elizabeth,  353 ;  in  France,  376. 

Regency,  the  P'rench,  418, 

Renaissance  (r<f-na'sans" :  the  italic 
e  here  has  the  obscure  sound  of  e 
in  novel),  the,  defined,  251  ;  causes 
and  antecedents,  251-254;  the 
revival  in  Italy,  255-269;  human- 
ism, 256-266;  the  artistic  revival, 
266-269 ;  general  effects,  269-274; 
relation  to  religious  reform,  273. 
See  Humanism. 

Renaissance  in  France,  323. 

Restoration,  English,  440,  441  ; 
French,  576,  578. 

Reuchlin  (roich-len'  or  roichlln), 
humanist,  265,  298. 

Revenue  of  English  crown  settled, 
45I'  452. 


Revival  of  Learning,  See  Renais- 
sance. 

Revolution,  Protestant,  292;  Puri- 
tan, 430-443;  of  1688,  448;  In- 
dustrial, 493-495;  American,  491, 
492 ;  its  influence,  508 ;  French, 
of  1 789,  500-542 ;  its  principles, 
580,  581  ;  of  July,  1830,  590,  591 ; 
of  February,  1848,  591,  592;  Bel- 
gian, of  1830,  591  ;  German,  of 
1830,  636,  637  ;  of  1848,  630-639 ; 
Italian,  of  1820,  620;  of  1830, 
621  ;  of  1848,  623,  624;  Polish,  of 
1830,  655;  Portuguese,  of  1820, 
615  n.  2;  Spanish,  of  1820,  614, 
615. 

Revolutionary  Tribunal,  French,  es- 
tablished, 525;  work  of,  528,  533. 

Rheims  (remz),  214. 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  676. 

Richard  I,  king  of  England,  135, 
136;  111,215. 

Richard  of  Cornwall,  237. 

Richelieu  (resh-lye').  Cardinal,  384- 
386. 

Ridley,  350. 

Rienzi  (re-en'ze),  tribune  of  Rome, 
244-246. 

Rights,  English  Bill  of,  450,  451. 

Rimini  (re'me-ne),  62. 

River  Epoch,  284, 

Rivoli  (re'vo-le),  battle  of,  538  n.  27. 

Robert  the  Magnificent,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  103. 

Roberts,  Lord,  675. 

Robespierre  (ro-bes-pyer'),  in  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  514;  in  Con- 
vention, 523 ;  in  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  527,  531, 532;  death, 

534. 

Rotsfatniants  (rwa  fa-na-oii'),  10. 

Roland  (ro-loh'),  Madame,  529. 

Ro'land,  paladin,  63  n.  2. 

RoUo,  Scafidinavian  chief,  75. 

Romagna  (ro-man'ya),  the,  united 
with  the  Sardinian  kingdom,  627. 

Roman  Empire,  restored  in  the 
West,  by  Charlemagne,  64,  65; 
renewed  by  Otto  the  Great,  69, 
70.  See  Eastern  Empire  and 
Hoiy  Roman  Empire. 

Roman  law,  revival  of,  40,  41 ;  Jus- 
tinian Code,  43. 

Roman  Republic,  540,  624. 


746      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Romance  languages,  35. 
Romance  nations,  34,  35. 
Ro-ma'nov    or    R6-ma'noff,    House 

of,  455- 

Rome,  relation  of  the  fall  of,  to 
world  history,  3 ;  its  bequest  to 
civilization,  4  ;  sack  of  (1527),  321  ; 
capital  of  Italy,  629. 

Roncesvalles  (ron-se-val'les ;  Sp. 
ron-thes-viiryes).  Pass  of,  63  n.  2. 

Ros'a-mund,  story  of,  10  n.  5. 

Roses,  Wars  of  the,  215,  216. 

Ross'bach,  battle  of,  474. 

Rouen  (roo-oii'),  75. 

Rouget  de  Lisle  (roo-zha'  de  lei), 
522  n.  13. 

Roundheads,  430. 

Rousseau  (roo-so'),  506,  507. 

Roussillon  (roo'seryoiV),  225,  404, 

"Royal  Touch,"  the,  421  n.  2. 

Rumania  or  Roumania  (roo-ma'ni-a), 
660,  663. 

Rumelia  or  Roumelia  (roo-me'li-a), 
Eastern,  660  n.  8. 

Runnymede  (run'i-med),  202. 

Rupert,  Prince,  431. 

Ru'rik,  Scandinavian  chief,  73,  74, 
242. 

Russia,  introduction  of  Christianity 
into,  21 ;  receives  elements  of 
civilization  from  Constantinople, 
45 ;  the  Mongol  invasion,  242 ; 
rise  of  Muscovy,  243 ;  freed  from 
the  Mongols,  243  ;  under  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  454,  455 ;  under  Peter 
the  Great,  455-466 ;  under  Cath- 
erine the  Great,  466-468 ;  in  Seven 
Years' War,  475;  war  with  French 
Republic,  541  ;  with  Napoleon, 
573-575;  gains  at  Congress  of 
Vienna,  583 ;  in  Holy  Alliance,  586; 
since  French  Revolution,  654- 
663';  Asiatic  expansion  of,  682-685. 

Russo-Japanese  War,  693-695. 

Russo-Turkish  War,  of  1828-1829, 
654,  655;  of  1877-1878,658-660. 

Ruy  Diaz  (de'ath),  233. 

RysVick,  Treaty  of,  411. 

Sadowa  (sa'dS-va),  battle  of,  642. 
St.  Albans  (aFbanz),  first  battle  of, 
^  215. 

St.  An'selm,  193. 
St.  Antony,  23. 


St.  Bartholomew's    Day,    massacre 

of,  379,  380. 
St.  Benedict,  24,  25. 
St.  Ber'nard,  preaches  crusade,  134  ; 

controversy  with  Abelard,  193. 
St.  Bernard,  Great  Pass,  545. 
St.  Boniface  (bon'e-fass).    See  IVin- 

frid. 
St.  Co-lum'ba,  17. 
St.  Doml-nic,  151. 
St.  Francis,  151. 
St.  Gall,  monastery  of,  17  n.  3. 
St.  Gallus,  monk,  17  n.  3. 
St.  Germain  (san  zher-man'),  Treaty 

of,  379- 

St.  Helena,  579. 

St,  John,  Knights  of.  See  Hos- 
pitalers. 

St.  Louis,  140  n.  9. 

St.  Patrick,  17. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  445 
n.  15. 

St.  Peter,  28. 

St.  Peter's,  Rome,  301, 

St.  Petersburg,  founded,  463. 

St.  Quentin  (san  koii-tan'),  battle  of, 
328  n.  10. 

St.  Sim'e-on  Sty-li^tes,  23,  24. 

St.  WilTrid,  18. 

Sal'a-din,  135,  136. 

Sa-ler'no,  119. 

Salisbury,  Gemot  of,  106. 

Salisbury  (salz'bu-ri),  Marquis  of, 
611. 

Sam-ar-cand',  162. 

San  Marino  (ma-re'no),  619. 

San  Stef'a-no,  Treaty  of,  660  n.  7. 

Sans  Souci  (son  soo-se'),  478. 

Saracens,  name,  46 ;  their  con- 
quests, 52-54  ;  their  civilization, 
56-59.     See  Arabs  and  Moors. 

Sardinia,  kingdom  of,  defeated  by 
Bonaparte,  538 ;  revolution  of 
1820  in,  621;  of  1848,  623,  624; 
in  Crimean  War,  625;  war  with 
Austria,  626,  627 ;  annexations 
of  territory,  627,  628 ;  becomes 
kingdom  of  Italy,  628. 

Sa-vo-na-ro'la,  Girolamo  (je-rola- 
mo),  248,  249. 

Savoy,  ceded  to  France,  626. 

Saxons,  continental,  subjugated  by 
Charlemagne,  63.  See  Anglo- 
Saxons. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     747 


Saxony,  becomes  a  kingdom,  559 
n.  14;  part  ceded  to  Prussia,  583. 

Scandinavians,  conversion  of,  21  ; 
as  pirates  and  colonizers,  71, 
72;  colonization  of  Iceland  and 
Greenland,  73;  discovery  of 
America  by,  73;  saga  literature 
of  Iceland,  73  n.  i  ;  in  Russia,  73 ; 
Danes  in  England,  74,  75  ;  North- 
men in  Gaul,  75 ;  transformation 
of,  72  ;  Norse  factor  in  French 
history,  75,  76.  See  Calmar, 
Union  of. 

Scham'horst,  573. 

Schleswig  (shlas'vic)  or  Sleswick, 
duchy  of,  640 ;  annexed  to  Prus- 
sia, 642. 

Schleswig-Holstein  War,  640,  641. 

Schmalkaldic  League,  323. 

Scholasticism,  in  conflict  with  hu- 
manism, 297,  298.    See  Schoolmen. 

Schoolmen,  nature  of  their  task, 
192;  controversy  of  the  Nom- 
inalists and  Realists,  193  n.  4; 
the  earlier  Schoolmen,  192,  193; 
Abelard,  193,  194  ;  the  Schoolmen 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  194 ; 
Albert  the  Great,  194  ;  Thomas 
Aquinas,  194,  195 ;  Duns  Scotus, 
195;  Roger  Bacon,  195;  last  of  the 
Schoolmen,  196;  their  services  to 
intellectual  progress,  196. 

Schwyz  (shwits),  238. 

Scone  (skoon).  Stone  of,  207, 

Scotland,  wars  with  England,  206- 
208;  under  James  IV,  337,  y^ 
n.  3  ;  union  of  Scottish  and  Eng- 
lish crowns,  420;  of  their  parlia- 
ments, 481-483  ;  under  Charles  I, 
427,  428;  Cromwell  in,  435,  436. 

Scriptorium,  27. 

Scutage  (sku'tdj),  defined,  203  n.  3. 

Sea  Epoch,  284. 

Secularization  of  Church  property, 
307 ;  in  France,  518. 

Sedan  (sedon'),  battle  of,  595. 

Sedgemoor,  battle  of,  447  n.  16. 

Seeley,  Professor  J.  R.,  quoted,  480, 
697. 

Seine  (san),  river,  75. 

Self-denying  ordinance,  431,  432 
n.  1 1. 

Sempach  (sem'pak),  battle  of,  239 
n.  20. 


Sen-e-gaK,  679. 

Separatists,  354. 

Sepoy  Mutiny,  673. 

Sepoys,  490  n.  13. 

September  Massacre  in  French  Rev- 
olution, 522. 

Serfs,  under  feudal  system,  84-86  ; 
Russia  emancipates,  657,  658. 

Ser-ve'tus,  312. 

Servia,  independence  of,  666  n.  8. 

Settlement,  Act  of,  452  n.  19. 

Se-vas'to-pol,  siege  of,  657. 

Seven  bishops,  trial  of  the,  447, 448. 

Seven  Weeks'  War,  641,  642. 

Seven  Years'  War,  474-476,  488- 
491. 

Sevigne  (sa-ven-ya'),  Madame  de, 
417  n.  14. 

Seville  (sevTl),  54. 

Seymour,  Lord  Henry,  357. 

Seymour,  Jane,  345. 

Sforza  (sfort'sa),  Francesco,  247 
n.  23. 

Shaftes'bu-ry,  third  earl  of,  505  n.  5. 

Shakespeare,  361. 

Shiahs  (she'az),  Moslem  sect,  55  n.  9. 

Ship  money,  427. 

Siberia,  Russia  in,  455,  685. 

Sicilian  Vespers,  235  n.  17. 

Sicily,  kingdom  of.  See  A<jt//«, 
kingdom  of. 

Sieyes(se-a-yas'),  514. 

Si-le'si-a,  seized  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  473. 

Simon  Magus,  1 1 5  n.  5. 

Sim'o-ny,  11 5- 117. 

Siraj-ud-Daula  (se-raj'SCd-dow'la), 
490  n.  14. 

Slave  trade,  African,  beginning  of 
the,  278;  the  Assiento,  481  ;  Eng- 
land alx)]ishes,  493. 

Slavery,  abolished  in  English  col- 
onies, 602  n.  I. 

Slaves,  number  in  Middle  Ages, 
84  n.  6. 

Slavs,  at  opening  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  6.     See  Russia. 

Smith,  Sidney,  540. 

Smolensk'.  574. 

Sobieski  (so'byd-skc),  John,  409. 

Social  Democrats,  German,  707,  708. 

Socialism,  in  French  Revolution  of 
1848,  592  n.  2;  of  to-day,  649  n. 
II;  707,  708. 


748      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Soissons  (swas's6n'0»  battle  of,  lo. 

Solferino  (sol-fe-re'no),  battle  of, 
626. 

Sory-man,  the  Magnificent,  Sultan, 
rival  of  Charles  V,  320. 

Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover,  484. 

So'to,  Ferdinand  de,  286  n.  11. 

South  Sea  Bubble,  485,  486. 

Spain,  conquest  of,  by  Saracens, 
54;  during  the  Crusades,  141; 
early  history,  229,  230;  union  of 
Castile  and  Aragon,  230 ;  con- 
quest of  Granada,  230,  231 ;  influ- 
ence upon  national  character  of 
the  Moorish  domination  and  wars, 
231  ;  the  Inquisition  under  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella,  232  ;  under 
Charles  V,  318-325  ;  under  Philip 
II,  326-331  ;  under  Philip  III, 
33^y  332;  war  with  England,  356- 
359  ;  war  with  Netherlands,  366- 
374  ;  in  the  Napoleonic  Era,  563, 
564,  566;  since  181 5,  614-618. 

Spanish-American  War,  686  n.  26. 

Spanish  colonies,  beginnings,  288 ; 
Spain  loses  her  continental  Ameri- 
can dependencies,  615-617 ;  loses 
her  insular  possessions,  618. 

Spanish  Fury,  the,  369. 

Spanish  March,  63. 

Spanish  Succession,  War  of  the, 
411-413;  England's  gains  in,  481. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  361. 

Spinning  jenny  invented,  494. 

Spires  (Ger.  Speyer),  second  diet 
of,  308. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.,  667,  668. 

Star  Chamber,  court  of,  426  n.  6. 

States-General,  French,  223 ;  of 
1789,  511-513- 

Statute  for  the  Burning  of  Heretics, 
219. 

Statute  of  Laborers,  211. 

Stein,  Baron  vom  (stin),  572  n.  27, 

573- 
Stephen    of   Blois    (blwa),   king  of 

England,  108. 
Stephenson,  George,  705. 
Stirling,  battle  of,  207  n.  6. 
Stoessel  (stes'sel),  Russian  general, 

694  n.  29. 
Strafford     (Thomas      Wentworth), 

Earl  of,  426,  428. 
StraFsund,  siege  of,  388  n.  3. 


Strasburg  (Ger.  Strassburg ;  Fr. 
Strasbourg),  seized  by  Louis  XIV, 
408,  409. 

Strassburg  (stras'boro),  oath  of, 
69  n.  6. 

Streltsi,  disbanded,  461. 

Stuart,  Henry,  Lord  Darnley,  355. 

Stuart,  House  of,  in  England,  420. 

Sty-li'tes,  Simeon,  23,  24. 

Sudan  (soo-dan'),  677,  679. 

Suez  Canal,  597. 

Sully  (sul'i),  Duke  of,  383. 

Sun'na,  the,  52. 

Sun'nites,  Moslem  sect,  55  n.  9. 

Supremacy,  Act  of,  under  Henry 
VIII,  342;  under  Elizabeth,  353. 

Supreme  Being,  worship  of,  532. 

Surat  (soorat'),  English  at,  423; 
French  at,  413  n.  13,  423. 

Sweden,  in  Thirty  Years'  War,  389- 
391  ;  gain  in  Peace  of  West- 
phalia, 392;  under  Charles  XII, 
462,  463,  464 ;  union  with  Norway, 
583  n.  3.  See  Ca/mar,  Union 
of. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  483. 

Swiss  Confederation,  the,  rise  of, 
238,  239 ;  independent  of  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  392 ;  French 
intervention  in,  540 ;  as  a  federal 
state,  646  n.  8,  698. 

Swiss  Guards,  of  Tuileries,  521, 
522  n.  14. 

Switzerland.  See  Swiss  Confeder- 
ation. 

Sy-a'gri-us,  10. 

Sybel  (se'bel),  quoted,  639. 

Syria,    conquest    of,    by    Saracens, 

Taj  Mahal  (tazh  ma-hal'),  the,  162. 

Talleyrand  (taH-rand),  at  the  Res- 
toration, 576. 

Tam-er-lane'.     See  Timur. 

Tancred  (tang'kred),  132. 

Tees  (tez),  river,  105. 

Tell,  William,  legend  of,  239. 

Templars,  order  of  the,  origin,  133 
n.  5 ;  abolition  of,  223,  224. 

Temple  of  Peace,  the,  701. 

Terror,  Reign  of,  527-535. 

Terrorism  in  Russia,  662. 

Test  Act,  445  ;  repealed,  606. 

Tetzel,  John,  301. 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     749 


Teutonic  Knights,  order  of  the, 
origin,  134;  in  Baltic  region,  142; 
property  secularized,  307. 

Teutons,  capacity  for  improvement, 
4;  kingdoms  established  by,  7- 
13;.  their  conversion,  14-22;  fu- 
sion with  the  Latins,  34-4 1  ;  per- 
sonality of  Teutonic  laws,  36,  37  ; 
ordeals  among,  37-39. 

The-od'5-ric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
7.8. 

Thessaly,  655  n.  2. 

Thiers  (tyer),  595,  596. 

Third  Estate,  the,  beginnings  of, 
in  the  towns,  185,  186;  P'rench, 
under  the  Bourbons,  503-505 ;  in 
States-General,  511-513. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  the,  387-394. 

Thomas  Becket,  200,  201  ;  shrine 
destroyed,  343. 

Thomas  a  Kem'pis,  297  n.  i. 

Thor,  German  deity,  16. 

Thorvaldsen  (tor'vald-zen),  522  n,  14. 

Tiberine  Republic,  of  1798,  540, 
541 ;  of  1848,  624. 

Tiers  Etat  (tyar'za'ta" ;  Eng.  pron. 
terz'a-ta").    See  Third  Estate. 

Tilly,  388,  390. 

Tilsit,  Treaty  of,  558-560. 

Tim-buk'tu,  679. 

Timur  (tl-moor'),  Mongol  conqueror, 
162. 

Tintoretto  (tin-to-ret'to),  268  n.   14. 

Titian  (tish'an),  268. 

Tobacco,  introduced  into  Europe, 
360  n.  7. 

Todleben  (tot'la-ben),  657. 

To'go,  Japanese  admiral,  694  n.  29. 

Toleration,  religious,  influence  upon, 
of  the  Protestant  Reformation, 
316,  394- 

Tories.the  party  of  conservatism, 602. 

Toul  (tool),  392. 

Toulon  (too-lon'),  siege  of,  536  n.  25. 

Tournament  (toor'na-ment),  the,  96, 

97-       _ 

Tours  (toor),  battle  of,  54. 

Toussaint  Louverture  (too-sariloo- 
ver-tur'),  546  n.  2. 

Tower  of  London,  106. 

Towns,  effects  upon,  of  Crusades, 
144 ;  suffer  from  barbarian  in- 
vasion, 169 ;  rapid  growth  in  tenth 
and  eleventh  centuries,  169,  170; 


status  of  the  chartered  towns, 
171,  172;  their  industrial  life, 
172  ;  they  enter  the  feudal  system, 
170;  their  revolt,  172;  towns  in 
Germany,  173-175;  in  Italy,  175- 
183  ;  their  services  to  civilization, 
183-186;  their  representatives  in 
national  assemblies,  185, 186  ;  cen- 
ters of  new  intellectual  life,  186. 
See  Hanseatic  League  and  Italian 
city-republics. 

Tow'ton  Field,  battle  of,  215. 

Trafalgar',  naval  battle  of,  557; 
importance  of,  561. 

Trans-Siberian  Railway,  685. 

Transvaal,  the,  674,  675  ;  becomes 
Transvaal  Colony,  675. 

Trek,  The  Great,  674. 

Trent,  Church  Council  of,  310,  311. 

Trieste  (tre-est'),  653. 

Triple  Alliance,  of  1668,  319  n.  i ; 
of  1882,  648. 

Troppau  (trop'pou),  Congress  of, 
615  n.  I. 

Trou'ba-dours,  the,  227,  228. 

Trouveurs  (troo'ver"),  the,  228,  229. 

Troyes  (trwa).  Treaty  of,  213. 

Truce  of  God,  125,  126;  proclaimed 
by  Council  of  Clermont,  131. 

Tsar,  title  assumed,  455. 

Tudor,  House  of,  334  n,  i. 

Tudor,  Owen,  206. 

Tuileries  (twe'le-riz),  524. 

Tunis,  French  protectorate,  678. 

Turanians.  See  Mongols  and  Turks. 

Turgot  (tiir-go'),  508  n.  7,  509. 

Turks,  Ottoman,  beginnings  of  their 
empire,  164  ;  their  conquests,  165- 
167  ;  they  capture  Constantinople, 
166  ;  check  to  their  arms,  167  ; 
wars  with  Philip  II,  329,  330;  with 
Austria,  409;  with  Catherine  the 
Great,  466 ;  with  Bonaparte,  540 ; 
with  Greece,  654  n.  i ;  with  Russia 
(1 828- 1829).  654, 655;  (1853-1 856), 
656,  657:  (1877-1878),  658-660. 

Turks,  Seljuk,  123  ;  power  broken, 
129,  143. 

Tuscany,  union  with  Sardinia,  627. 

Two  Sicilies.  See  Naples^  t^ing- 
(torn  of. 

Tyburn,  443. 

Tyler.  Wat,  212. 

Tyrone  (ti-ron'),  Earl  of,  359. 


750      INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Uitlanders  (oit'land-erz),  675. 

Ukraine  (u'kran),  464. 

Urfi-las,  apostle  of  the  Goths,  14. 

Ulm  (oolm),  555. 

Ulster,  plantation  of,  423,  424. 

Umbria,  union  with  Sardinia,  628. 

Uniformity,  Act  of,  under  Edward 

VI,  349 ;  under  Elizabeth,  353. 
Union  (parliamentary)  of  England, 

with     Scotland,    48 1-483 ;     with 

Ireland,  609. 
Union,  The  Interparliamentary,  701, 

703- 

United  Provinces.  See  Netherlands. 

United  States,  independence  of, 
492;  War  of  181 2,  562;  Monroe 
I3octrine,  616,  617  ;  expansion  of, 
685-687. 

Universities,  rise  of  the,  187,  188; 
faculties,  188  n.  i  ;  "Nations "in, 
189 ;  students  and  student  life, 
189;  studies  and  methods  of 
instruction,  191.     See  Schoolmen. 

Unterwalden  (oon'ter-var'den),  238. 

Ural  (oo'ral)  Mountains,  455. 

Uri  (oo'ri),  238. 

U-to'pi-a,  More's,  346,  347. 

Utrecht  (u'trekt).  Union  of,  370 ; 
Peace  of,  413. 

Varia,  Laurentius,  273. 

Valladolid  (val-ya-tho-leth'),  365. 

Valmy  (val-me'),  battle  of,  523. 

Valois  (val-wa^),  House  of,  224  n. 
13,  376  n.  I  ;  history  of  France 
under  the  mediaeval  Valois  sov- 
ereigns, 224-227  ;  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  376-381. 

Vandals,  kingdom  of  the,  9 ;  de- 
stroyed by  Belisarius,  9. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  434,  436;  death, 

443- 

Vassy  (va-se'),  massacre  of,  377,  378. 

Vatl-can,  relations  to  France,  547, 
548  n.  3._ 

Vauban  (vo-bori^,  407. 

Vaudois  (vo-dwa'),  323. 

Vaux  (v6),  Pierre  de,  323  n.  6. 

Vendee  (voh-da').  La,  526. 

Ve-ne'tia,  ceded  to  Austria,  538, 
539  ;  joined  to  Napoleon's  king- 
dom of  Italy,  555  ;  becomes  part 
of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy 
(1866),  628. 


Venice,  takes  part  in  Fourth  Cru- 
sade, 136,  137  ;  sketch  of  history, 
1 79-1 8 1  ;  ceremony  of  wedding 
the  Adriatic,  180;  her  "Arsenal," 
180,  181. 

Venice,  Peace  of,  149. 

Ventoux  (voii-too').  Mountains,  259 
n.4. 

Ver-diin',  Treaty  of,  68,  69. 

Vergniaud  (vern-yo'),  527  n.  18. 

Verona  (va-ro'na).  Congress  of, 
615  n.  I.    ^ 

Veronese  (va-r5-na^za),  268  n.  14. 

Versailles  (ver-salz' ;  Fr.  pron.  ver- 
say''),  palace  of,  415. 

Vervins(ver-van'),  Treaty  of,  382  n.  5. 

Vespucci,  Amerigo  (ves-poot'che, 
a-ma-re'go),  280. 

Victor  Emmanuel  I,  king  of  Sar- 
dinia, reactionary  policy  of,  620  ; 
abdication  of,  621  ;  II,  624  ;  king 
of  Italy,  627,  628 ;  III,  629  n,  4. 

Vienna  (vi-en'a ;  Ger.  Wien),  siege 
of  (1683),  409;  Congress  of,  577, 
581-585. 

Villafranca  (vel-la-frang^ka).  Peace 
of,  627. 

Villain.     See  Serfs. 

Vincennes  (van-sen'),  France,  550. 

Virginia,  origin  of  name,  360. 

Visconti  (ves-kon'te),  family  of  the, 
247  n.  23. 

Visigoths,  kingdom  of  the,  8,  9. 

Vlad'i-mir  the  Great,  of  Russia,  21. 

Vogelweide  (fo'^'gel-vl'de),  Walther 
von  der,  241. 

Voltaire  (vol-ter'),  478,  505,  506. 

Wager  of  battle.     See  Ordeals. 
Wagram  (va'gram),  battle  of,  566. 
Wal-den'ses,  323. 
Waldo  (val-d6'),  Peter,  323  n.  6. 
Wales,  conquest  of,  205,  206. 
Waliszewski  (va-li-shev'ski),  quoted, 

456. 

Wallace,  Sir  William,  207. 

Wallachia  (w6-la'ki-a),  partial  inde- 
pendence of,  655  ;  in  kingdom  of 
Rumania,  660  n.  8. 

Wallenstein  (woKen-stin  ;  Ger.  pron. 
varien-stln),  388,  389,  391. 

Walpole,  Sir  Robert,  485. 

Walsingham,  Sir  Francis,  353. 

Walter  the  Penniless,  i  -xz. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY     751 


Wardship,  feudal  right  of,  84  n.  4. 

Warsaw,  Grand  Duchy  of,  formed, 
559  ;  given  to  Russia,  583. 

Wartburg  (vart'boorG),  Luther  at, 
305,  306. 

Waterloo,  batile  of,  578. 

Watt,  James,  494. 

Wed'more,  Treaty  of,  74. 

Wei-hai-wei,  690. 

Wellesley,  Sir  Arthur.  See  IVel- 
lington. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke 
of,  in  Portugal,  564;  at  Water- 
loo, 578. 

Wentworth,  Thomas.  See  Straf- 
ford. 

Weser  (va'zer),  river,  392. 

Wesley,  Charles,  487, 

Wesley,  John,  487. 

Western  Empire  (Teutonic).  See 
Charlemagne  and  Holy  Roman 
Empire. 

Westphalia,  kingdom  of,  560; 
Peace  of,  391-393. 

Whigs,  representatives  of  Liberal- 
ism, 602. 

Whitby,  Council  of,  18,  19. 

Whitefield  (hwit'feld),  George,  487. 

Wieland  (ve'lant),  565. 

Wilberforce,  William,  493. 

Wilhelmina,  of  Bayreuth,  on  Peter 
the  Great,  459  n.  3. 

William  I,  the  Conqueror,  king  of 
England,  his  youth,  103  ;  prepares 
to  invade  England,  104 ,  victory 
at  Hastings,  104 ;  his  reign,  105- 
108;  II,  the  Red,  108;  III,  449, 

450-453- 
William  I,  the  Silent,  stadtholder, 
mentioned,  366 ;  his  character, 
367,  368;  his  "Apology,"  371; 
his  death,  372;  II,  434  n.  13; 
III,  448;  king  of  England,  449, 
450-453- 


William    I,    German     Emperor,    as 

king  of    Prussia,  639,    640,  644 ; 

Emperor,   646;   death,   648;    II, 

648,  649. 
Wimpheling,  Jacob,  297  n.  i. 
Windmills,  introduced  into  Europe 

by  Crusades,  144. 
Win'frid,  apostle  of  Germany,  20,  30. 
Wink'el-ried,  Arnold  of,  239  n.  20. 
Wisby  (wiz^T),  174. 
Wit'an,  the,  103  n.  i  ;  becomes  the 

English  Parliament,  109. 
Wit"e-na-ge-m6t',     See  VVitan. 
Wittenberg,  Luther  at,  306. 
Wo'den,  German  god,  16. 
Wolfe,  James,  490. 
Wolsey,     Cardinal,     minister      of 

Henry  VIII,  337, 338 ;  death,  340. 
Worcester,  battle  of,  436. 
Workshops,    national,    in    France, 

592  n.  2. 
Worms  (vorms),  Concordat  of,  119; 

Diet  of,  304,  305. 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  445  n.  15. 
Wiirtemberg  (viirt'tem-berG),  king- 
dom of,  556;  in  German  Empire, 

646. 
Wycliffe  (wTk'lTf),  John,  218,  219. 

Xavier  (zav'i-er),  Francis,  314. 
Xeres  (hires'),  battle  of,  54. 


Yezd,  city,  53  n.  7. 
York,  House  of,  199  n. 

Wars  of  the. 
Yuste  (yoos'ta),  325. 


See  Rosest 


Zaandam  (zan-dam'),  460. 
Zambesi  (zam-be'ze),  river,  676. 
Zend-Avesta,  the,  52. 
Zollverein  (tsoKfer-Tn'Oi  637. 
Zomdorf  (tsom'dorf),  battle  of,  474. 
Zwingli   (zwing'le),  Huldreich,  309. 
Zwinglians,  309. 


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